Mosca - The Ruling Class

The Ruling Class explores the nature of political power and the dynamics of ruling elites in society.
Mosca argued that in every society, regardless of its political system, a ruling class or elite emerges and maintains control over political and social institutions.
He believed that power is a fundamental and universal aspect of human society.

2. THERULINGCLASS

3. Dilexi
justitiam,quaesivi
veritatem

4. THE
RULINGCLASS
(Element!
diScienza
Politico)
by
GAETANOMOSCA
TRANSLATIONBY
HANNAHD.KAHN
EDITEDANDREVISED,'WITHININTRODUCTION,BY
McGRAW-HULBOOKCOMPANY,INC.
NEWYORKANDLONDON
1989

5. COPYRIGHT,1989,BYTHE
MCGRAW-HILLBOOKCOMPANY,INC.
*BINTBDINTHEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA
Att
rights
reserved.Thisbook,or
partsthereof,may
notbe
reproduced
inanyform
withoutpermissionof
thepublishers.

6. CONTENTS
PAGE
INTKODUCTION ix
CHAPTEB
I.POLITICALSCIENCE 1
Politicalscience, 1-2.Theexperimentalmethodanditslimita-
tions, 3.Scienceand
political science, 4.Environmental
theories;climate, 5.NorthandSouththeories, 6-8,Mountain
and
plain,
9.Eacialtheories;thestruggle
forexistence, 10.The
concept
ofrace;superiorandinferiorraces, 11.Raceandsocial
type,
12.Evolutionary theories:thestruggle
forpreeminence
vs.
the
struggle
forexistence, 13.Evolutionand
progress, 14-15.
Thehistoricalmethod, 16-20.
v
ll.THERULINGCLASS 50
Theconceptoftherulingclass, 1.Rulingclassandtheclassifica-
tionof
governments,
2.Theorganizedminorityandtheunorgan-
ized
majority,
3.Politicalforces:Military
valor:serfdomin
Poland, 4.Wealth, 5.Religionand
learning,
6.Hereditary
tendenciesin
rulingclasses, 7.
Stabilityandrejuvenation
of
ruling
classes, 8.
III.FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS
(includingElementi,Chap.
VI, 5-8) 70
The
politicalformula, 1.Social
type,
2.Religionandsocial
type, 3-5,Thefeudaltype
of
politicalorganization, 6.*^The
bureaucratic state, 7-8.~
:-
Comte'sclassification:thethree
stages,
9-11.Spencer's classification: militantandindustrial states,
11-12.
IV.RULINGCLASSANDSOCIALTYPE 108
Socialtypeandexpansion,
1.Rulingclassandmixturesofsocial
types,
2.Unity
ofsocialtypeandclassdifferentiation, 3-4.
Lowerclassesandsocial
type,
5.Classisolationandsocialtype*
6.
V.JURIDICALDEFENSE 120
Themoralsenseandevolution, 1-2.Mechanismsformoraldis-
cipline,
3.Religionandmorals, 4.Lawandmorals:juridical
defenseandtype
of
politicalorganization,
5.Despotismsand
absoluteprinciples,
6.Balanceofsocialforces, 7.Separationof
churchandstate,8.Distributionofwealthandmiddleclass, 9.

7. vi CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
Organizationandrepresentation ofsocialforces, 10.Tendencies
towardself-assertionofsocialforces:theUnitedStates, 11.
VRSUFFRAGEANDSOCIALFORCES....*? 158
Democratictheory:majorityrule, 1.Majorityandminority
in
therepresentative system,
2.Government controlofeconomic
production,
8.Theconcept
ofstate, 4.(ForElementi,Chap.
VI, 5-8,seeChap.Illabove.)
Vll.CHURCHES,PARTIES,ANDSECTS 163
Groupsandthestruggleinstinct, 1.Sectariantendenciesinhuman
groupings,
2.Traitsof
prophetsandfounders, 3.The
growth
of
religionsandsects, 4.Doctrinesandsocialenvironment, 5.
Theappeal
ofdoctrinestosentimentsgoodandbad, 6.
Religion
andrealities:Christianity,Mohammedanism, 7.Choicesoffaiths:
mimetism,
8.TheChurchandworldliness, 9.Persecutionand
masscontrol, 10.Theartsofpropaganda,
11.
Struggleand
socialtype:Ispermanentpeacedesirable? 12.
VIII.REVOLUTION 199
Hellenicandmedievalrevolutions, 1.Roman,feudal,andMoham-
medanrevolutions, 2.RevolutionsinChina, 3.National
upris-
ingsandwarsofindependence,
4.Peasantrebellionsandtheir
leaders, 5.ModernFrenchrevolutionsandover-bureaucratization,
6.Secretsocieties,revolutionary traditions, 7.
C"
IX.STANDINGARMIES 222
Militarypower
inprimitivesocieties, 1.Mercenariesandfeudal
societies, 2.Mercenarytyrannies,
3.Riseofstandingarmies,
4.Citizenmilitias, 5.Socialdistinctions: officersand
privates,
6.Raceandmilitaryvalor, 7.Standingarmiesand
juridical
defense, 8.
X.PARLIAMENTARISM 244
Rulingclassandtheproblems
ofmodern
society,
1.^Thefutureof
religion,
2-4.Thecrisisofdemocracy,
5.Evilsofparliamen-
tarysystemsandtypes
ofcriticism, 6.Reformof
parliamentary
systems:"constitutional" reform, 7.Decentralizationandmiddle
class, 8.
XLCOLLECTIVISM (Elementi,Chap.X, 9-19)
. . 271
Ancientsocialism;RousseauandtheriseofsocialisminEurope,
1.
Collectivismandfaithinsocialbetterment, 2.Ruling
classunder
collectivism, 3.Absolutejusticeandsocial
living,
4.Anarchism,
5.Theclass
struggle,
6.Socialismandtheabolitionof
poverty,
7.Causesofthegrowth
ofsocialism, 8,Prospects
ofsocialism,
9.SocialismandStatecontrol:Christiansocialism, 10.Social-
ismand
equality,
11.

8. CONTENTS vii
CHAPTKB PAGE
XII.THEOBYOPTHERULINGCLASS(Elementi,PartII,Chap.I)....329
History
oftheconcept
ofrulingclass, 1.Hillingclasstheoryand
democratic bias, 2.Theconceptofrulingclassandscientific
method, 3.
XIII.TYPESOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION (Elementi,PartII,Chap.II),
.338
Primitivemonarchies, 1.TheNear-Eastern empire,
2.The
Greekcity-state,
3.Itsweaknessesandlimitations, $4.
XIV.EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION (Elementi,PartII,Chap.
Ill) 860
TheRoman
city-state,andtheconceptof
citizenship,
1.Riseof
Romanbureaucracyandstandingarmy:theEmpire,
2.Declineof
RomanmiddleclassandfalloftheEmpire,
3.Thebarbarian
kingdomsandfeudalism, 4.Riseofthenationalabsolutisms, 5.
Middleclassandrepresentative system,
6.TheEnglish
consti-
tutionasamodelfortheContinent, 7.Therepresentativesystem
andlevelofcivilization:structuralweaknessesoftherepresentative
.
system,
8.
XV.PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIESINRULINGCLASSES(Elementi,Part
II,Chap.IV) 394
Autocraticandliberalprinciples,aristocraticanddemocraticten-
dencies, 1.Autocratic
systems,
2.Ruling
classandautocracy,
3.Liberal
systems,
4.Thedemocratictendencyandreplenish-
mentofrulingclass,5.Thearistocratictendencyandsocialfossili-
zation, 6.Balanceofprinciplesandtendencies, 7.
XVI.RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL(Elementi,PartII,Chap.V)...430
Rulersandrulingclass, 1.Rulingclassandthegoverned;foreign
dominations, 2.Historicalmaterialism,theeconomicinterpreta-
tionof
history,
3.Governmentbythebest, 4.Absolutejustice
andrelativejustice,
5.Scienceandsocialmovement, 6.
XVII.FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT (Elementi,PartII,
Chap.VI) 465
Thenineteenthcenturyasanhistorical period,
1.Liberty,
equality,fraternity,andtheirapplication,
2.Democracyandlevel
ofcivilization, 3.Germsofdecay
intherepresentative system,
4.Alternativestotherepresentativesystem:dictatorshipofthe
proletariat,
bureaucraticabsolutism,syndicalism,
5.Restoration
oftherepresentativesystem
inEurope,
6.
INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY 495

10. INTRODUCTION
I.TaineandMosca:theTeorica.ILTheConcept
of
History. III.Social
ForcesandBalanceofSocialForces. IV.JuridicalDefense:theimportanceof
PoliticalOrganization. V.StandingArmies. VI.SocialTypeandPolitical
Formula. VII.LevelofCivilization. VIII.DemocracyandRepresentative
System. IX.MoscaandPareto.X.On
TranslatingMosca.
I.TAINEANDMOSCA:THETeorica
GaetanoMosca'stheory
ofthe
ruling
classwasevolvedin
itsfirstform
duringthe
years1878-1881,whileMoscawasa*
studentunderAngeloMessedagliaatUieiJiiiversity
ofPalermo.
Itoccurredtohimatthattimetogeneralize
themethodwhich
TainehadusedintheAncien
regime.There,itwillberemem-
bered,Tainesoughtthe
origins
oftheFrenchRevolutioninthe
decadenceofthegroups
ofpeoplethathadruledFranceduring
thegoldenage
oftheold
monarchy,aclasswhichheconsidered
andanalyzedunderthree
headings,thecrown,the
clergyandthe
nobility.
Thefirstthought
ofthestudentMoscawasthatperhapsany
societymight
be
analyzedthewayTainehadanalyzedmonarchi-
calFrance;andhissecondwasthat,inviewofthevoguethat
doctrinesofmajority
rulehadhadinthenineteenth
century,he
hadhitupon
amostfertileand
suggestivehypothesis,
(jit
one
looksclosely
atanycountry,beitcommonlyknownasamon-
archy,
a
tyranny,a
republic
orwhatonewill,oneinevitably
findsthatactualpower
iswieldedneverbyone
person,the
monarchorheadofthestate,noryetby
thewholecommunity
ofcitizens,butbyaparticulargroup
ofpeoplewhichisalways
fairly
smallinnumbersascomparedwiththetotal
population.
Tainehadshown,also,thatthetraitsofthebrilliantFrench
civilizationoftheage
oftheGreatKingwerethetraitsless
oftheFrenchpeople
at
largethanofthesameFrench
aristocracy
and,infact,seemedtobeconnectedwiththe
specialconditions
underwhichthat
aristocracyhadfunctioned
duringtheseven-
teenthandeighteenth
centuries.That
principle,too,couldbf

11. ITU
I
X INTRODUCTION
generalized
intothethesisthatthedominanttraitsofthecivili-
zationofa
givensocietyduringa
givenperiod
willbethetraits
ofthe
group
ofpeoplewhogovern
it
(politicians,rulers).
TodayMoscais
eightyyearsold;butatnotimeinthecourse
ofhis
long
lifehasheeverbeen
quite
ableto
forgetthethrillof
discovery
thatheexperiencedawaybackintheseventiesashe
foundhimselfin
possession
ofwhathethought
tobea
goldenkey
tothearcanaofhuman
history.Totellthetruth,the
originality
ofhisdiscovery
hasnotseldombeena
subject
of
disputeamong
hiscolleaguesandcompetitors;and
during
the
fiftyyearsthat
haveintervenedsincethose
days,many
writershavebusied
themselvescompiling
listsofthinkerswhohave
explicitlynoted
afactwhichhasalwaysbeen
perfectlyapparentto
everybody,
viz.,thatinallhuman
groups
atalltimestherearethefewwho
lieandthemanywhoareruled.
Themaximthatthereis
nothingnewunderthesunisa
very
truemaxim;thatisto
say,
itcoversabouthalfthetruth,whichis
agreat
dealoftruthforamaximtocover. Allhuman
beings
whohavelivedonearthhavelived,byand
large,
onthesame
earth.Theyhaveallbeheld,atleastoutofthecornersoftheir
eyes,
thesamerealities;they
haveall
experiencedthesame
emotions;theyhaveallthought,wemayimagine,thesame
thoughts.Butwhatthe
history
ofhumancivilizationshows
istheunendingvariety
withwhichindividualsevaluatethe
variousthings
that
everybody
sees.Probablynohumanbeing
sinceAdamhasbeenwithoutanapproximateknowledge
ofthe
lawof
gravity;butnoonetillGalileo'sdaythought
of
centering
hiswholeattentionupon
the
fallingobjectandmaking
itthe
pivot
ofascientificrevolution.Nohumanbeingsincetheday
ofCainandAbelhasbeenunawarethat
peoplepreachmoral
principlesandthenusesuchpower
astheyhaveoften,ifnot
always,without
regard
tomoral
principles. Yetnoonebefore
Machiavelliever
thought
of
takingthatfactandfoundingupon
itascientific
politicswhichwouldeliminateethicalconsiderations.
IbelieveCrocehassaiditsomewhere:
^hei>riginality
ofthinkers
liesnot
always
intheir
seeinffoings
thatnobody
else
seen,
but^rften
inthestress
tiiB3^gH
g^TinWfoflu
Indnowtothat. Iconsideritusefultomakethislittle
digres-
sion
r
forthebenefitofan
ever-lengthening
rosterofsource
hunterswhospendtheirtimedrawingliteraryandscientific

12. INTRODUCTION xi
parallelswithout
consideringquestions
ofstressortheusesthat
menof
geniusmakeofcommonplaces.CThe
medievalVenetians
ortheancientRomansweresomuchin
possession
ofthe
concept
ofclassandoftheconcept
of
ruling
classesthattheydevised
meticulous
legislation
tocoverclassrelationsandeventhe
movementofsocialatomsfromclasstoclass. Allthesame,no
VenetianandnoRomaneverformulatedMosca'stheory
ofthe
ruling
class.Classisavisibleexternalfactofeveryday
lifein
Europe,andfewEuropeanwritershavebeenabletodiscuss
social
problems
atanygreatlength
withouteventuallyencoun-
teringthefactofclass,ofclass
struggle,
ofclasscirculation,in
someformorother.Noneofthem,however,notGuicciardini,
notMarx,notTaine,madetheuseofthefactofclassthatMosca
made.And
conversely,onemaysaythesameofthosewhohave
paralleled
orutilizedMosca ofMichels,ofSorel,of
Paretoy
!
Whydoindividualthinkerscometostresscertainrelationsand
factswhich
everybodyobservesandtakesforgranted? Usu-
ally
theseproblems
of
personal
evolutionarebeyondrecoveryby
history.Weshallneverknowwhy
Voltairebecameamocking
skeptic
whilehisbrotherremaineda
pious
"enthusiast.?We
know,indeed,that,in
periods
ofintenseandfreeculturalactiv-
ity,
ifacertainnumberofintellectualsareplaced
inone
general
environmentinthepresence
ofthesame
generalproblems,certain
numbersofthemwillevolvethesamesolutions. Thisfactis
ordinarilytakenaccountofintheremarkthatatcertain
periods
certain
concepts,certainmannersofthinking,seemtobe"inthe
air."Soreldeveloped
the
concept
ofthe
politicalmyth
in
thefirstdecadeofthetwentieth
century.Moscahaddeveloped
his
concept
ofthe
"politicalformula"twentyyears
before.
Sorelwasnotamethodicalscholar.Hekn^wnothing
ofMosca.
Evidently
theconceptwas"intheair."
(\Fortwo
generations
beforeMosca'stime,socialismhadbeenemphasizingthecon-
flictofclasses,andin
Italy
in
particular
theeducatedclasses
hadbecomeexplicitly
awareoftheirdutiesand
responsibilities
as"leading"
or"directing"
classes(dassidirigenti).One
shouldnotbesurprised,therefore,atsuchevident
parallels
as
existbetweenMoscaandmany
otherthinkersbeforehimor
afterhim.
J
Whiletnedetailsofindividualevolutionmostoftenremain
undiscoverable, apartfromindividualmemoirsorconfessions

13. xii INTRODUCTION
whicharethemselvesnottootrustworthy
insuchregards,
onei&
usually
abletonotecertaingeneralenvironmentalcircumstances
thatseemtoinfluenceindividualchoicesofstressincertain
directions.WhenwefindMoscain
possession
ofTainein1878,
weshouldnotforget
thatMoscawasanItalianwhileTainewas
aFrenchman. IfinditveryFrenchinTainethatheshould
neverhavebeeninterestedinthe
generalbearings
ofthemethod
thathewas
using.Sotrueisthisthat,asheproceeds
torear
hisintellectualstructureabouttheold
regime,
heis
continually
ledintothe
fallacy
ofassigningparticularcauses
(associatedwith
thefactoftheexclusionoftheFrencharistocracyfromtheir
feudalfunctions)tophenomenathataregeneralandworld-
wide
preciosity,
forinstance,rationality,politeness,display,
all
ofwhichrecurintimesand
placeswhereruling
classesaresitu-
atedfarotherwisethanwastheFrench
aristocracy
ofthe
golden
age.
IfinditalsoveryFrenchinTainethatheshouldnever
freehimself,inthe
Origines,fromthepreoccupationwithgood
citizenship. Aspiringindeedtoasternand
rigorous
historical
method,Tainecanthinkof
historyonly
asattheserviceof
certainhighmoralideals.
MoscainsteadwasanItalian,towhomthe
analyticalmethod
of
thinkingcame
naturally.He
leapeduponTaine'smethodas
atoolfor
straightthinkingandsought
tobe,and,toa
surprising
extentinonestillsoyoung,succeededin
being"objective."
Ifindthatvery
Italian. Italiansdo
easilyandasamatterof
coursewhatotherhumanbeingsdo
rarely,
ifatall,andthen
onlywithgreat
effortandafterhardandsustained
discipline:
theythinkbyprocesses
ofdistinction. Whiletherestofthe
worldishunting
forways
toshowthatthetrueisgoodandthe
goodtrue,andthatbotharebeautiful,theItaliansarebusy
keepingvirtue,truthand
beautyseparateandintheheartas
wellasinthemind.
Perhapsthatisthe
greatItalian"contribu-
tiontocivilization,"whichItaliannationalistsarealwaystrying
todiscover.
Onemay
aswelladdthatMoscaisaSicilian
(bornatPalermo
in
1858).Thattooisa
determining
factorinhis
individuality
whichAmericans
especiallyshouldbearinmind./Americans
asarulestandatan
oppositepoletotherunofSiciliansintheir
mannerof
approaching
life
throughthought. Americansare
impatient
of
theoryand
suspiciousof
philosophiesand
general

14. INTRODUCTION Xlil
principles.Westudyhistoryandalmostneverthephilosophy
of
history.FewAmerican
lawyers
willhaveanything
todowith
the
philosophy
oflaw.LetanAmericanshowadefinite
pro-
pensity
fortheoretica^genefalizing andhewiITEeTSaSeclJrpm
asanimpracCcarnTenacei
Itisamazing,onthe
other"hand,witE"wKaf&deartTTcfljieoretical disciplinecertain
famousAmericanscangetalongthrough
lifeandgo
far.Tothat
deficiencywe
partlyowethereputation
for
ignoranceandna!vet6
thatwe
enjoy,
asanation,inamoresophisticated
Europe.^
The
leveloftheory
intheUnitedStatesismuchlowerthanthelevel
of
theory
ontheContinent.TheContinentinitsturnis,on
thewhole,intherearof
Italy
inthis
respect,andthe
great
Italiantheoreticianstendtobesoutherners. Inacharming
"confession"withwhichheprefacedthe1884editionofthe
Teorica,Moscatellsofhis
greatinterestasaboy
in
historyand
boastsofhisretentivememory.ButwhatstrikesoneinMosca,
thehistorian, isthefactthat
history
hasnomeaningwhatever
tohimuntilithasbecomegeneralprinciple,uniformity,philos-
ophy.SoitwaswithVicoandBruno,andsoitiswithCroce
allmenoftheItalianSouth.
Twootherdeterminations,one
professional,theother
Sicilian,
haveperhaps
amoredirectbearinguponMosca'sdevelopment
ofthevisionheowedinthefirstinstancetoTaine.VInthe
Teoricaof1884,Moscakeptstrictly
toproblemsof
government,
andthatinterest isparamountevenintheElements. This
narrowing
ofhisfieldisallthemore
strikingasonecontrasts
theusestowhichtheconcept
ofclass,orofthe
rulingclass,has
been
putby
thinkersallthewayfromMarxto
Pareto.)The
reasonundoubtedly
isthatMoscabegan
lifeasastudentof
constitutional lawandof
political
theories.Hebecamean
unsalariedlectureron-JJiQjgfe,subjects,
firstatPalermo
(1881-
1886),thenatRome(1887-1895)
.PromRomehewentontobea
professor
ofconstitutionallawatTurin
(1895-19&3),returning
toRome(1923-1931)
as
professor
of
politicaltheories.Nowit
isclearthatgovernmentproper
is
onlyonephaseofsociallife,
whiletheimplications
ofthe
theory
ofthe
ruling
classasTaine
hadapplied
that
theory
inthesixtiesandasMoscahadcon-
ceiveditin1881,leadoutinto
societyasawholeandbeckon
towarda
generalsociology,Moscawasnevertofollowthem
inthatdirectionbeyondthelimitsreachedinthe
Elements]

15. xiv INTRODUCTION
Perhaps
ina
spirit
ofprofessional specialization, perhaps
for
practicalreasons,healwayskeptturningbackwardandinward
uponthe
strictly
constitutional or
politicalproblem,leaving
someofhisrichestandmostsuggestiveideasintheformofhints,
assertions,orcasualobservations,butatany
rateundeveloped.
Sicilianagainonemay
callthe
politicalbentwhichMosca's
placidbiography
shows.NotallSiciliansare
politicians,but
whenaSicilianisa
politicianheisagood
one.TheSicilian
takesto
politics
asaducktowater.NorthItalians,too,of
course,havebeenseeninItalianpublic
life.Buttheymakea
great
to-doaboutit.Theyshoutandwavetheirarmsfrom
soap-boxes,they
fillthenewspapers
withtheir
publicities,
their
polemics,
theirmarchesonRome,theyfight
libelsuitsand
duels;and
finallytheyget
intothegovernment,onlytobeupset,
aslikely
asnot,atthenextturnofthewheel.TheSicilian,
instead,simply
takesthetrainand
goes
toRome,wherea
coach-in-four iswaiting
todrivehimtowhatCarduccicalled
"thesummitofthe
Capijol." That,moreorless,wasMosca's
experience
in
public
life.Editorofthe
journal
oftheChamberof
Deputies
from1887to1895
(abureaucraticpost
itmaintained
himduring
hisunpaidlectureship
atthe
university),hebecame
a
deputy
himselfin1908,andsatwiththeLiberalConservatives
duringtwolegislatures
till1918(thoseincludedthewar
years),
serving
alsoas
under-secretary
fortheColoniesunderthe
Salandraministry(1914-1916).Andtherehewas,in1918,
senatorforlifeby
theusual
royalappointment,andallwithout
anygreatclamor,any
boisterous
quarrels
or
exposures,without
evenanyparticularpublicfame. PrezzoliniandPapinitried
to
publicizeMoscain1903-1904 "tovalorizehimasa
public
asset/'asthelanguagewentinthose
days. Prezzolinimadea
secondeffortinhisVoceseriesin1912
(see
//nuovo
nazionalwmo).
Oneneedmentionthisaspect
ofMosca'scareer,alwayseminent
yet
neverprominent,simply
as
reinforcingthementalattitudes
thatinclinedhimtoleavehisworkpermanently
inasomewhat
embryonicform,andeventosubordinate it,insomefew
respects,
totheoutlookofa
politicalparty.
TheItalianandSicilianbackground,theprofessionaloutlook,
the
politicaltalent,whicharerevealedby
thisforwardlookfrom
Mosca'sstudent
days,helpustounderstandthedevelopments
thatMoscagave
tohis
theory
ofthe
ruling
classintheyears

16. INTRODUCTION XV
1881-1883. Atthattimehewasin
possession
ofthreeorfour
simpleconceptswhichhethoughthecouldusefortheconstruc-
tionofanoutline
history
oftheriseofthemodernstate.(Con-
trarytotheoriesofmajorityrule,he
perceived,
societiesare
always
ruledbyminorities,byoligarchies.Thecurrentclassifi-
cationof
governments,
therefore Aristotle's(monarchies,
aris-
tocracies, democracies), Montesquieu's (absolutisms, limited
monarchies, republics), Spencer's (militantandindustrial
states) couldbedispensedwithinfavorofaclassification of
oligarchies. Essaying
thisclassification,Mosca
distinguisheda
numberof
types:militaryandpriestlyaristocracies,hereditary
aristocracies, aristocracies oflandowners, aristocracies of
liquid
wealth(money),
aristocracies ofmerit
(allowing,
thatis,free
accesstopower
toallelementsin
societyand
notably
topeople
ofthe
poorerclasses).Nowthevarious
political
theoriesthat
have
prevailed
in
history"chosenpeople"
theoriesbasedon
conceptions
ofraceor
family,divine-right
theoriesortheoriesof
popularsovereignty bynp
meansreflecttherealitiesunderlying
thisclassification. Mosc4,therefore,wentontodevelop
his
theory
ofthe
"political
formula." Thereisalwaysa
ruling
minority,butsuchminoritiesneverstop
atthebrutefactof
holdingpower.Theyjustify
theirruleby
theoriesor
principles
whichareinturnbasedonbeliefsorethicalsystemswhichare
acceptedby
thosewhoareruled.These
"politicalformulas"
containvery
littlethatcouldbedescribedas"truth,"butthey
shouldnotbe
regarded
asdeliberate
deceptions
or
mystifications
onthe
part
ofscheming
rulers.Theyexpress,rather,adeep
needinhumannaturewhereby
thehuman
beingmore
readily
deferstoabstractuniversal
principlesthantothewillofindi-
vidualhuman
beings./
7
Maturein1881,theseideaswereformulatedintheTeorica
deigwerni
e
governoparlamentare,
whichwascomplete
in1883and
published
in1884(2ded.,1925).Inspiteofitsageandthe
writings
ofMoscathathavefollowed it,thisbookstillhasits
interestanditspoints
of
originality. Elevenyearslater,1895,
Moscacompleted
and
published
hisElements
(Elementi
di
scienza
politico,,1896).
Ascompared
withtheTeoriea>theElements
presentsthe
theory
oftheruling
classinmoreroundedform,alongwithaseriesof
newconceptsthatare
exceedinglysuggestive)

17. xvi INTRODUCTION
II.THECONCEPTOFHISTORY
IntheElements,inlinewithan
outstandingpreoccupation
ofEuropeanscholarshipduring
thenineties,Moscaconfronts
theproblem
of
constructing
a
politicalscience(whichhe
prefers
tokeep
distinctfrom
sociology).Thecontentofthatscience
willbethe
discovery
oftheconstanttendenciesorlawsthat
determinethebehaviorofthehumanmasses(page1)and
regulatethe
organization
of
politicalauthority(page3).These
tendenciesorlawscanbediscoveredonlyfroma
study
of"social
facts,"whichinturncanbefoundonly
inthe
history
ofthe
variousnations
(page41):"Itistothehistoricalmethodthat
wemustreturn."
Actually,Mosca's
practice
isbetterthanthisincomplete
statementwouldindicate. /Hewillofcoursetakethefacts
about
societyfromanysourceormethodthatcansupplythem,
only
sothey
arefactsfromeconomics,fromanthropology,from
psychology,
orany
similarscience.Hedoes
explicitlyreject
forthe
politico-social
fieldany
absoluteorexclusiveacceptance
ofclimaticornorth-and-south theories,anthropological
theories
basedontheobservation of
primitive
societies
(thequestion
ofsizeis
important),
theeconomicinterpretation
of
history(it
istoounilateral),doctrinesofracial
superioritiesandinferiorities
(many
differentraceshavehadtheirmomentsof
splendor),and
evolutionary theories(they
failtoaccountfortherhythmical
movement ofhumanprogress biological evolution
would
requirecontinuousimprovement). ,)However,apartfromsome
keenremarks
(as,
forinstance,thoseonthelimitationsofthe
experimentalmethodoronthe
applicability
ofsciencetothe
controlofsocial
living),
themaininterestinthisstatementof
theproblem
ofscientificsociology
liesinthefactthatitundoubt-
edly
influencedthe
penetrating
and
altogethernoveldiscussion
ofthesameproblem
inPareto'sTrattato(chap.I),which,in
turn,isthefinalenlargement
ofanessaybyParetowrittenin
1897.
TheinterestofMosca'sviewcomesoutifweconsideritnot
fromthestandpoint
ofsocialscience,butfromthatofhistorical
science.Nowifoneweretosaythatthisviewisnewand
original,ahostofscholarswouldappear
withnoendofcitations
toshowthatMoscasaysnothing
thathasnotbeenknownto

18. INTRODUCTION xvii
everyone
sincethedays
ofHerodotus. Historianshavealways
feltmoreorlessvaguely
thattheirwork
oughtsomehowto
enrichhuman
experience,
thatonecan,afterall,learnsomething
fromthefactthatbillionsofhuman
beingshavelivedouttheir
livesonearthbeforeus.Historians asmetaphysical and
theological
asBonaldhavealwayscontendedthat
historycon-
firmedtheirarbitrary
creeds.Ontheotherhandaveryrespect-
ablelistofauthoritiescouldbequotedtoshowthat
historycan
teachus
nothing;
thatlifeisalwaysnew;thatwherethereisa
willthereisaway;thatnoimpulse
ofthepresentneedbe
checkedinthe
light
of
analogiesfromthe
past.
Ifoneexamines
thepresentoutlookofhistoricalscienceintheUnitedStates,one
observesaconsiderablevariety
ofattitudesand
practices. Of
theroutineandelementary
taskofthehistorian,theconstruc-
tionofthehistoricalrecord,thereis
generalawareness,andone
notesmanydistinguishedperformances
inthisfield.Asto
themeaning
oftherecord,its
utilitywhy"toknowallabout
Poussin" isanymoreimportantthantoknowhowmanyciga-
rettebuttsarethrowndailyonthesubway
stairsthe
greatest
bewilderment prevails.There istheanecdotic interestin
history,
thesentimental titillationthatcomesfrom
reliving
excitingepisodes
inthe
past
or
retraversingthelivesofunusual
orsuccessfulindividuals (thecommonrulein
literaryorfree-
lanceproductions). Thereisthepropaganda history,where
thewriterismeticulousabouttheaccuracy
oftherecordand
evenmakescontributions toit,butthenfeelsit
necessary
to
givetherecordan
apparentmeaningbysaucing
itwithreflec-
tionswhichamountto
saying,"Iamapacifist";"Iama
socialist";"IamaCatholic";andsoon.Thereisthepseudo-
scientificorsemi-artistic historywheretherecord is
again
accurateand
fairlycomplete,butwherethewriter
gives
itan
arbitrarymeaningbyorganizingthefactsaroundmoreorless
unconscioussentimentalattitudesborrowedfromhisenviron-
ment,nowethical,nowromantic,now
optimistic,now
(ifthe
author isunusually intelligent)
ironicalorcynical. Finally,
thereistheBobinsonian history,themostscientificofthese
varioustypes,
wherethepast
istakenastheexplanationofthe
present,and,toacertainextent,thepresent
istakenasthe
explanation
ofthepast,butwherethematterofchoosingideals
is
regularly
lefthazyanddoubtful.

19. xviii INTRODUCTION
IntothisatmosphereMosca'sconception
of
history
should
comeasa
clarifying
breeze.Therecordofhumanexperience
isnowfromthreetotenthousand
years
old. Itisprobablethat
duringthattimehumannaturehasbeenabletomakea
fairly
complete
revelationofits
generaltraits,itsbasictendenciesand
laws.Whatarethosetendencies,thoselaws? Itisthebusiness
ofthehistoriantotellus,andhistory
isamereamusement,a
purposelessactivity,unlessitsrecordismadetocontributeto
knowledge
oftendenciesandlaws.Tocomplete
this
theory
a
remarkortwomaybe
necessary.Theconstruction ofthe
historicalrecord,thedetermination offactsintheir
sequence,
motivesorcausesisaresearchby
itself.Initselfithasno
purposeandenvisagesno
utility.
Ithasitsownmethods,itsown
technique,which
reignsovereign
overtheresearch.As
regards
whatcanbelearnedfrom
history,
itisclearthatthelatter
can
supplyonly
the
generalformsofhumanbehavior the
specificsituationwillalwaysbenew,withoutexactprecedent
or
analogy
inthe
past.
Moscafeelsthat
history
isprobably
betterabletotelluswhat
nottodothanwhattodointhegiven
case.But,really,
it
alwaysremainsa
question
oftendencies,of
psychological,
social
forceswhichmanmayconceivably
learntomastersome
day,
theway
hehaslearned,and
marvelouslylearned,tomasterand
utilizethematerialforcesofnature.Atanyrate,Mosca's
conception
ofhistorysuggeststheproperattitudetotaketoward
hisvarioustheses."Human societiesarealwaysgoverned
byminorities";"Rapid
classcirculation isessentialto
prog-
ress";"Humansocietiesare
organizedaroundcollective illu-
sions";"Levelofcivilizationcorresponds to
grade
of
juridi-
caldefense";"Humansocietiesshowa
tendencyto
progress
towardhigherand
higher
levelsofcivilization";
"
Over-bureau-
cratization facilitatesrevolution." Theseandtheotherslike
themwouldbesomanytentativestatementsof
generallaws.
They
are
subjecttoobjective
scientificcriticism,emendation,
refutation.
HI.SOCIALFORCESANDBALANCEOFSOCIALFORCES
(Theconcept
ofsocialforceswas
alreadypresent
inMosca's
early
Teorica. IntheElementsitis
amplified,andits
implica-
tionsaremorefullyperceived.

20. INTRODUCTION XIX
A"socialforce"isanyhuman
activity
or
perquisitethathasa
social
significance money,land,militaryprowess, religion,
education,manual labor, science anything.Theconcept
derivesfromthenecessity
ofdefiningand
classifyingruling
classes.Amanrulesoragroup
ofmenruleswhenthemanorthe
group
isabletocontrolthesocialforcesthat,atthegivenmoment
inthegivensociety,
areessentialtothe
possessionandretention
of
power/
/
Implicit
inthetheory
ofthe
ruling
classisthelaw
(I
liketo
callit"Mosca'slaw")that"typeandlevelofcivilizationvary
as
ruling
classesvary."Ruling
classeswillvary
in
respect
tothe
numberand
grade
ofthesocialforceswhichtheycontrol,toler-
ate,stimulateorcreate.Theinternal
stability
ofaregimecan
bemeasuredbytheratiobetweenthenumberand
strength
ofthe
socialforcesthatitcontrolsorconciliates,inaword,represents,
andthenumberandstrength
ofthesocialforcesthatitfailsto
representandhas
against
it.
Progressive,andonemighteven
say"successful," regimesregularly
createsocialforceswhich
they
finditdifficulttoabsorb;governmentsoftenfallbecause
oftheirvirtues,nottheirdefects)
(a
drasticemendationtoTaine
andtoethicalinterpretations
<)f
history
in
general). Struggle
isoneofthecontinuousand
never-failingaspects
ofhumanlife.
Socialforces,therefore,regularlymanifestthemselvesin
aspira-
tionsto
power.
Soldierswanttorule,andthey
areahardgroup
tocontrolsincethey
holdthegunsandknowbesthowtouse
them.Moneywantstoruleanditishardtocontrolmoney
becausemostpeoplesuccumbtotheglamourandinfluenceof
wealth. Priestswanttorule,andtheyhavethe
weight
ofthe
ignorantmassesandthemajesty
ofthemysteries
oflifeintheir
favor. Scientistswanttorule,and,fromPlatotoComteand
fromComtetoScott,theyhavedreamedofdictatorswhowill
establishtheirtechnocraciesandtheir"rulesofthebest."
Laborwantstoruleandwouldrulediditnot
alwaysencounter
thelawofthe
ruling
classandfallintothehandsofitsleaders.
Publicofficeholderswanttorule,andtheymighteasilydoso
for
theyalready
sitintheseatsof
power,
j
WhenwehaveMosca
safelyensconcedamongtheimmortals,a
mystery
willconfrontthehistorian ofsocialtheories:Why,
having
reachedthis
point
inhismeditations,didMoscanot
throwhis
political
researchawayandsetouttowritea
sociology?

21. XX INTRODUCTION
Theanswerwillprobablybefoundinthe
professionalandtem-
peramental
determinations towhichwehavealluded.Mosca
wasthinkingprimarily
ofthe
politicalaspectsofsocietyand
couldneverwholly
divesthimselfofthatinterest.
Montesquieuhad
suppliedhim,already
inhisstudentdays,
withtheconcept
ofbalancewithMontesquieu
itwasabalance
of
powers,
ofwhichtheAmericanconstitutionwas
eventually
to
supplyanimpressiveexample.Moscatransferstheconcept
to
socialforces.
Incertaincasesweseesocialforcesthatdosucceedin
usurping
power,andonesymptom
oftheusurpation
istheirimposition
by
forceofthe
politicalformulathattheyhappentoholdasan
absolute
principle
towhich
everyonemustbowandwhich
every-
onemustbelieveorpretendtobelieve.Thatmeanstyranny,
anditalsomeansareductioninthenumberofactivesocial
forcesand,therefore,a
drop
inlevelofcivilization. Inother
caseswesee,for
example,militarypowercheckedandbalanced
bymoney
orbyreligion;ormoney,perhaps,checkedand
balancedbytaxationimposedbyland;oranobstreperous
reli-
gioushierarchycheckedandbalancednowbysuperstitioussects
whichgrowup
withinitself,nowby
coalitionsofexternalforces
of
enlightenment. Atcertainmoments they
aretheheavenly
interludesin
historywesee
fairly
stablebalancesofforces
where
nearlyeveryonecandoashe
pleasesandhavehis
say
so
thatthewholeinfinite
potentialities
ofhumannatureburst
intobloom.
IV.JURIDICALDEFENSE:THEIMPORTANCEOFPOLITICAL
ORGANIZATION
Thisbeneficentbalanceisattained,Moscadecides,attimes
andinpeopleswhereithasbecomelaw,where,thatis,the
aggressiveness
ofsocialforces,oroftheindividualswhoembody
them,ischecked,notby
thesheermanifestation offorce
applied
casebycase,butbyhabit,custom,acquiescence,morals,insti-
tutionandconstitution inaword
(hisword),juridical
defense
(governmentby
lawwithdue
process). ContrarytoMarxist,
evolutionaryandothermaterialisticorsociologicalinterpreta-
tionsof
history,Moscaholdsthattheproblem
of
politicalorgan-
ization isparamount.
If
ruling
classescanbe
appraisedby
notingthenumberandgrade
ofsocialforceswhich
theyrecognize,

22. INTRODUCTION xxi
thegovernmentswhichvarious
ruling
classesmanagecanbe
appraisedbythegrade
of
juridicaldefensewhichtheyprovide.
ThisMoscaseemssometimestoregard
asverylargelyatechnical
problemof
government.AblossomingMohammedan civiliza-
tionfirstbecame
stationaryandthendeclinedbecausethe
caliphsfailedtosolvetheproblemofthearmy.Thearmies
intheprovinces
followedtheir
generals,thegeneralsbecame
independentandarbitrarydespots;
socialforcescontractedin
numbersandthenlanguished. Thereisnoreasontoassume
thattheevolutionoftheMohammedan peopleswasanymore
predeterminedthanthatoftheChristian
peoples.Thefact
isthatatcertainmomentsintheirhistorythey,
orrathertheir
rulingclasses,musthavemadewrongpoliticaldecisionsthat
headedthemtowarddeclineinsteadoftowardhigher
levels
ofcivilization. InthecaseoftheMohammedanworldone
mistake,accordingtoMosca's
system,wouldhavebeenthe
failuretoseparatechurchandstate,sincethatseparationhe
regards
asoneofthebasicessentialsforaproperbalanceof
socialforces.
Ahighgrade
of
juridical
defensedependsalso,Moscacon-
tends,uponasufficientdivisionofwealthtoallowoftheexistence
in
fairlylargenumbersof
people
ofmoderatemeans;infact,the
numbersofsuchpeople
willprobablysupplythegauge
for
measuringtheeffectivenessand
stability
ofthebalanceofsocial
forces.Thepresence
ofastrongmiddleclassina
societymeans
thateducationisdiscoveringand
utilizingtheresourcesoftalent
which,quiteindependently
ofraceand
heredity,
areforever
developing
inthehumanmassesat
large(resourceswhich
backwardsocietiessomehowfailtouse;thatiswhytheyareback-
ward).
Italsomeansthattheruling
classesalwayshaveavail-
ablematerialswithwhichtorestockandreplenishthemselves
astheirownpersonnels
deteriorateunder
pressure
ofthemultiple
forcesthatarealwaysedging
aristocraciestowarddecline.
Middleclassesrepresentthe
varietyandthe
intensity
ofa
society's
activitiesandthemaximumvariety
intypes
ofwealth
andindistribution ofwealth.Standingapartfromthe
daily
clashofthemorepowerfulinterests,theyarethe
greatrepositor-
iesofindependentopinionanddisinterestedpublicspirit.One
hardly
needsay
it;In
developing
these
postulatesandtheir
manycorollaries,MoscahaswrittentheclassicofItaliancon-

23. xxii INTRODUCTION
servatism,whichfunctionedasaninfluentialminority
in
Italy's
political
life
just
beforethewar.
Butsupposingwebring
theseargumentsbacktothe
strictly
objectiveplane.Wehavespoken
of"mistakes"andofchoices
asthough
thelawgivers
ofMosca,likethoseofRousseauorof
themany
writerswhoantedatedtheriseofdeterministictheories,
werefreeagentswhocoulddowith
societyjust
astheypleased.
Suppose
itbeconcededthattheseparation
ofchurchandstate
andadistributionofwealththatallowstheexistenceofa
strong
middleclassareessentialina
society
ifitistoattaina
high
level
ofcivilization.Howissciencetoobtainthe
recognitionand
application
ofthose"laws"inthefaceofthereligious
interests
whichwillinall
piousenthusiasmcontinuetostriveforuniform-
ity
ofdogmaandforcontrolofeducationandthestate,andinthe
faceofthegreed
ofhuman
beings,whowillgomadlyonamassing
great
fortunesandthen
usingthemto
acquirepoweranddomin-
ion?Moscaleavesusnohopeexcept
intheenlightened
states-
manship
ofthosewhowieldpower
overthenations. Instructive
inthisconnection isthedistinctionhedrawsbetweenthe
politicianandthestatesman,theformer
being
themanwhois
skilledinthemereartofobtainingpowerandholdingit,whereas
thelatteristhemanwhoknowshowtomanipulatetheblind
instinctsofthehumanmassesinthedirectionof
conformity
withthelawsofman'ssocialnature,muchasthe
navigator
manipulates
thebruteforcesoftideandwindtotheadvantage
ofhisshipanditspassengers.Moscahaslittleconfidencein
theinborngoodsenseofthemassesand
despairs
ofever
bringing
anygreatnumberofpeopletoarationalandscientificviewof
publicproblems. \Historyshowsnotafew
rulingclasses,
ontheotherhand,theVenetianand
Englisharistocracies, for
instance,whichhavebeenableto
lay
interestsandsentiments
asidetoa
veryconsiderableextentandto
governscientifically
and
objectively
.\
V.STANDINGARMIES
.Ampler
consideration oftheproblem
of
juridical
defenseleads
Moscatooneofthemostbrilliantand
originalinvestigations
intheElements.Promthe
standpoint
ofstruggle,military
power
isthebest
equipped
ofallsocialforcestoassertitself
andclaimdominion.Whythenisthemilitarydictatorship

24. INTRODUCTION xxiii
notthenormalformofhumangovernment? Thepeoples
of
thewesternworldhaveforsomegenerationsnowbeenfamiliar
withsystemswherearmiesandnaviesare
rigidlysubject
to
civilauthorities,andthey
arewonttoregardthe
military
rebellionassomethingexceptionaland
monstrous. Actually
thehumanbeingswhohavelivedonthisearthin
securityfrom
thebrutalruleofthesoldieraresofewinnumber,ontheback-
ground
ofthewholeofhuman
history,ashardly
tocount.
Themilitarytyranny
insomeformorotherisinfactthecommon
ruleinhuman
society;andeveninthebest-ordered societies,as
weare
onlytooeasily
abletoobserveaftertheexperience
ofthe
nineteenthandtwentiethcenturiesinEurope,any
seriousdis-
turbanceofanestablishedorderofa
nonmilitarytype
is
likely
toresultinareversiontothe
militarydictatorship. Theprocess
bywhichthemoderncivilizednationshaveescapedfromthis
grievouslawofman'ssocialnatureMosca
rightlyregards
as
oneofthemostinteresting
in
history. Paradoxicallyenough,
andcontrarilytothemodesofthinking
ofthoseliberalswho
dreamoftotaldisarmaments,Moscafindsthesolutionofthe
secretinthegrowth
ofthe
standingarmy.
Croce,somewhereintheEthics,classifieshuman
beings
into
four
types,corresponding
tothestressesofthefour"formsofthe
spirit"whichhemakesbasicinhissystem:theartist,the
scientist,thestatesman,thesaint.Thatclassificationoverlooks
theadventurer,thewarrior,themanwho
instinctively
resorts
toviolenceinhisrelationswithhisfellowmenand
prefers
dangerousliving
toanyothermodeofexistence.Theanticsof
thisindividualonthestage
of
historyareso
conspicuousand
withalsofascinatingthatavirtualrevolution inhistorical
methodhasbeenrequired
inordertowinsomeattentionfrom
thethoughtful
forthetypeswhomCroce
recognizes. Givethe
adventureragoodbrain,agoodeducation,a
supply
of
genius
andanhistoricalopportunity,andhebecomesaNapoleonoran
Alexander. Givehima
great
idealandhebecomesaGaribaldi.
GivehimachanceandhebecomesaMussolini. Givehima
job
andhebecomesasoldieranda
general. Ignorehimandhe
becomesthe
gangster
andtheoutlaw.Abelieverinfinalcauses
mightsoundly
assertthatthemanofviolencewasinventedbya
wiseCreatorasasortof
catalyzer
forhuman
progress.The
adventurer isneverinthe
majority.The
majority
ofhuman

25. xxiv INTEODUCTION
beingspreferpeacefulorderlyexistences,and,whentheydream,
theydreamofheavenswherethereisonlylightandmusicand
nosorrowortoil,wherethelionliesdownwiththelamb,where
mannafallsnowfromtheskyandnowfromthegovernment,
where,inshort,wearefreefromthecompetitionofourneighbors
andfromthewearyingstruggle
oflife.Erasof
prosperity
are
continually recurring
inhuman
historywhenthedreamof
securityandidlenessseemsalmostrealizable;then,just
as
regularly,
themanofviolencecomes
alongandsetsthewheels
togrindingagain.Soinourday,thecitizensoftheprosperous
democracieshadreferredthemovementof
historytothesocial
workersandthelawyers
atGenevainordertosettlebackinthe
night
clubsto
enjoy
the
nobility
oftheirpeacefulsentiments
andthedividends ofscience.ButaHitler,aMussolini,a
Japanesegeneral
risesandtellsthemthattowinorretainthe
right
todrinkanddanceandbeself-complacenttheyhaveto
get
outand
fight.
Ontheotherhand,themanofviolenceisnotmuchmorethan
that.Theworldthathecreatesisaprettywretched affair.
Givehimthepowerandhe
regularlyenslavestherestofmen,
leavingthemonlythebaremeansofsubsistence. Quiteregu-
larlyhestultifiesthought
into
hypocrisyand
flattery,andthe
stimulating
liftof
organizedpublicspirithe
replaceswithsome
formofmobfanaticism.
Moscaconceivesofthestandingarmy
asadevice
automatically
arrivedatbythemodernworldfor
disciplining,canalizingand
makingsociallyproductive
thecombativeelements inthe
peoples.
In
looselyorganizedsocieties^olence oncentrates
aroundalargenumberofdifferentfocusesand
differing
inter-
ests,andtheanarchy
oftheMiddleAgesandoffeudalsocieties
at
large
results.Inourownday,
inRussia,Italy,Germany,
Spain,wehaveseenthatassoonasthe
stability
ofa
society
waverspower
recreatesitselfinsmallcenter,andperiods
of
ruleby
local
gangs
ensuefor
greaterorlesserlengths
oftime.
Thestandingarmy,instead,tapersup
toconti
jby
thestate
andthereforebecomespartand
parcel
ofthesocialorder.
Strongenough
toenablethestatetomasterlocalor
sporadic
manifestations ofviolence, itisitselfunderthedirectcontrol
ofallthosemighty
socialforceswhichcreateandmaintain
thestateitself.Recent
historyagain
confirmsthis
conception

26. INTRODUCTION XXV
ofthestatusand
objective
roleofthestandingarmy.The
nationalarmy
ofourtimeisanorganism
ofincalculable
might.
Thehumanforceswhichitembraces,theweaponsandother
materialagencies
ofwhichitdisposes,areincrediblypowerful.
Yetwehaveseentworevolutionstake
place
in
greatand
highly
civilizedcountriesinthefaceofthearmyand
against
the
army.
CertainobserversoftheriseofFascismandNationalSocialism
in
ItalyandinGermany
lookedtothe
loyallymonarchicalor
republicanarmiestocrushthosemovements,andundoubtedly
they
couldhavewithamereshowofforce.Butthesubmersion
oftheGermanandItalianarmiesintheestablishedorderwas
complete,and,lackingtheimpulsefromtheapex
ofcivilauthor-
ity,they
didnotmove.Notonlythat:Oncenewrulerswere
establishedintheseatsofpower,
thearmiesrespondedobediently
totheirneworders.
Whatisthesecretoftheamazingsubordination ofthearmies
oftheWest?Moscafindstheanswerinthearistocraticchar-
acter,soto
say,
ofthearmy,
firstinthefactthatthereisawide
andabsolutesocialdistinctionbetween
privateandofficer,and
secondthatthecorps
ofofficers,whichcomesfromthe
ruling
class,reflectsthebalanceof
multipleandvariedsocialforces
whicharerecognizedbyandwithinthatclass.The
logical
implications
ofthistheoryarewellworthpondering.
Ifthe
theoryberegarded
assound,stepstowardthedemocratization
ofarmiesthe
policy
ofMr.Hore-Belisha, forinstance are
mistakenstepswhichintheendleadtoward
militarydictator-
ships;
forany
considerabledemocratization ofarmieswould
makethemactivesocialforces
reflecting
allthevicissitudesof
socialconflictand,therefore,preponderant
socialforces.Onthe
otherhand,army
officershavetobecompletelyeliminatedfrom
political
life
proper.Whenarmy
officers
figureactivelyand
exofficioin
politicalcouncils,they
arecertain
eventually
to
dominatethosecouncilsand
replacethecivil
authority the
seemingly
incurablecanceroftheSpanishworld,foranexample.
VI.SOCIALTYPEANDPOLITICALFORMULA
The
concept
ofsocialtype
isbasicinMosca'sthought,and,
sincethephenomenon
ofthesocial
grouping
isoneofthefacts
thatthehistorianencountersatthemost
superficialglance
at
society,
thereisnothingremarkable inthat.Anelementary

27. xxvi INTRODUCTION
discussionofwhatMoscacallssocialtype
is
alreadypresent
in
Machiavelli. Mosca'sanalysis
oftheelementsthatconstitute
the
greater
socialgroupingswascomplete
inthenineties. Itis
interestingthatatthatearlydatehewas
discounting
raceasa
factorinthesenseof
nationalityand
emphasizingthegreater
importance
ofthemyth
ofrace.Buthewasalso,withremark-
able
insight,foreseeinganintensification ofnationalismsinthe
twentieth
century
asasortof
compensation
forthedeclineof
faithintheworld
religionswhich,underthe
pressure
of
experi-
mentalscience,were
losing
their
utility
ascohesiveforcesin
society.Quiteoriginalandtoomuch
neglected,
Ibelieve,
is
Mosca'sconception
ofthemodernsenseof
nationality
asa
product
oftheworld
religions,
totheextentthatthose
religions,
withtheirdoctrinesthattranscendraceand
nationality,cameto
embracethemostdiversegroupswithinthesamesocial
type
andsoinclinedthosegroups
tocoalesceindividuallyaround
politicalformulasofanonreligious
character.Thatdoctrine
throws
lightupon
theconflictofchurchandstateintheMiddle
Ages
intheWest,aconflictthatwasessentialtothegrowth
of
secularcivilizationwhichrescuedEuropefromthefossilization
thatsettledupontheMohammedanandeasternworlds.In
this
regardMosca,onemaysay,hasformulatedratherthan
prosecuted
theresearchintothe
complicatedinterplay
of
group
instinctswithineachseparatesociety.Hisconclusions,atany
rate,are
susceptible
ofalmostindefiniteelaboration.
Themethodologicaladvantages
ofMosca's
concept
ofsocial
type
are
very
considerable. Inthefirst
place
it
points
theway
tosoundscientificsolutionsofconflictsthatcannotbesolvedby
ethicalmethods.Forinstance,theUnitedStatesprohibits
theimmigration
ofAsiatics.Wheneverour
diplomatsgo
prattlingaboutdemocraticprinciples
orevenChristian
principles
theyexpose
themselvesto
devastatingrejoinderfromthe
Japa-
nesediplomats,whocanquiteproperly
observethatdemocratic
orChristian
principleswould
require
unlimitedAsiaticimmigra-
tion. Itiswelltonote,therefore,thatthe
questions
atissue
arenotquestions
ofdemocratictheory
orChristianethics,but
questions
ofsocial
type,
whichlatterarealways
settledeither
by
forceorbyaccommodationandreconciliation of
apparent
interests.

28. INTRODUCTION xxvii
To
complete
ourexaminationofconsciencewe
mightgo
onand
askwhat,then,wearetodowithourdemocratic
principlesand
ourChristianethics?Theansweristhattheselatterarefor-
mulaswhichhavea
very
limitedscientific
validityandfunction
asguides
ofconductwithin
strictly
limitedfields.Whatthose
limitsshallbe,justhowandwherethey
shallbedrawn,are
problems
forstatesmen,notfor
pastors
orfor
professors
of
ethics.Ourcivilizationsubsistsonlysolong
asoursocial
type
subsists.Whetherornotcertainsocialtypes"ought"
tovanish
intheinterestsofcivilization isacosmic
question
thatcouldbe
answered
onlybysomeneutral
divinitylooking
atourplanet
fromafaroff.Whatweknowisthatsocial
typesgoodandbad
insiston
existingandthatthemeasureofthatinsistence isa
measureofforce
(or
ofaccommodation asasubstitutefor
force).
Soitiswithany
conflictbetweenauniversalethicalidealandthe
instinctsandtheinterestsofsocial
type.
Theextenttowhich
politicalformulasofuniversalpretension
areserviceablefor
specificgroups
isan
interestingandimportant
onewhichtheeventsofourtimehaveraisedtoacriticalprom-
inence. Hitler'sGermanyseemstohaveconcludedthata
nationalmyth
inwhich
onlyGermanscanbelieveisof
stronger
cohesivepotency
thanuniversalmythssuchas
Christianity,
democracy
orsocialism. Apparent
tothe
eye
isthe
advantage
ofeaseofenforcement,inthatsuchamythmakesadirect
appeal
togroup
instinctswithout
mitigations
orattenuationsfrom
rationality. Butequallyapparent
arethe
disadvantages.
Strictly
nationalmyths,
likethe"chosenpeople"myths
ofthe
JewsorGreeks,tendtosharpen
international
antagonisms
unduly.
Hitleris
buildingupthesameuniversaldetestation
thatthepan-Germanism
ofthefirstdecadeofthe
century
aroused.Suchmyths,besides,haveinthepastbeeneffective
onlyonverylowplanes
ofcivilizationwheretheyhavehad
very
fewsocialforcestofuseorcoordinate.Onemaywonder
whetherGermancivilizationwillnotintheendbe
oversimplified
bythelong
inculcationofan
exclusively
nationalmyth.
FascistItaly
isworkingonthe
theorythattheuniversal
mythcanbesubordinatedtothenationalmyth(subjugation
of
churchtostate)andthenusedasachannelofinfluenceuponthe,
countriesthataccept
ortolerate it.SaysMussolini
(toPro-

29. xxviii INTRODUCTION
fessorStarkie,TheWavelessPlain,page397):"TheLatin
traditionof
ImperialRomeisrepresentedby
Catholicism. . . .
Thereareintheworldover400,000,000men
[i.e.,humanbeings]
wholooktowardsRomefromall
parts
oftheearth.Thatisa
sourceof
pride
forusItalians." SovietRussiais
using
auni-
versal
politicalformula,communism, and
explicitlyclaims
leadershipovertheminoritieswhichacceptthemyth
inother
countries.Themythintrinsicallyhasconsiderablepotency,as
restingon
powerfulcombativesentiments(hatredofthepoor
forthe
rich),reinforcedbyhumanitariansentimentsofaversion
to
suffering(povertycanbeabolished).
Inthissenseithasits
analogieswith
earlydemocratic
theory,whichrestedonthose
samesentiments. Itislessfortunatethandemocratic
theory
in
respect
ofthesentimentsof
property. Theseit
openlyflouts,
whereasdemocratictheorytakesfulladvantage
ofthem. Itis
curiousthatRussiannationalismhasgrown
in
intensityunder
thecommunist
politicalformulamuchasthewesternnational-
ismsgrewup
insidetheChristiananddemocraticformulas.
However, allsuchformulasareabsoluteandstrivetoachieve
uniformity
ofacceptance.Whentheiruniversalcharacter is
takentoo
seriously,believed,thatis,withtoogreatardor,they
suckthelifebloodfromthesocial
type,
eitherbyabsorbing
too
muchofthe
type'scombativeenergy
orbyoversimplifying
its
structureandso
lowering
itscivilization
levely
Mosca'sconcept
ofsocialtype
hasanother
methodological
advantage
inthatitsupplies
thegeneralformand,therefore,
emphasizes
thecommonnatureofmanyvariedphenomena.
TwomenseeeachotheratadistanceinHongKong.They
meetinCairo,andthefactthattheyhadseeneachotherata
distanceinHongKong
constitutesabondbetweenthemthat
justifies
closercontacts.Theyformtherebyanembryonic
socialtype,whichrestsupon
a
single,inconsequential
fact.
Atanotherextremewefindmillionsofpeopleboundtogether
by
millionsofties,memories, interests,commonexperiences.
Itisthesamephenomenonbutwitha
differing
innerstructure.
Mosca'sconcept
ofthesocialtypesupplies
atoolfor
severing
thecommonfromthe
differingelements. Itstops,however,one
step
shortofPareto'sconcept
of
group-persistence persistence
ofrelationsbetweenpersons
and
things,whichwouldbean
hypothesis
for
investigating
thebasicpsychologicalphenomena

30. INTRODUCTION XXIX
involvedinhumanassociations ofwhatevertype. Parties,
sects,religions,movements, nations, states,arestilloften
regarded
asseparatephenomena.
"Nationalismbeganwith
theFrenchRevolution,"writesanAmericanhistorian. Actually
nationalismbeganwithAdam,inthesensethatitrestsupona
fundamentallawofhumannature,whichcanbeseenatwork
inthousandsofothermanifestations.
Moscarepeatedlyemphasizes
thehistorical
utility
ofthesocial
type
ascoordinatingamultiplicity
ofwillsandeffortsforthe
achievementofcommonends.^Onthatbasisitcanbeseenthat
history
willbea
play
oftwocontraryforces,atrendtoward
unityand
expansion,
andatrendtowarddiversityandconcen-
tration.TheAbyssinians,
theArmeniansandtheCalifornians
areChristians,andhumanitysurelyprofits
inmanywaysfrom
thatadvancetowardworldsolidarity groupandevenclass
isolationseemregularly
tobeelementsinsocialfossilizationand
decline.Ontheotherhand/theworldhasprofitedevenmore
fromparticularity
ofsocial
type
theexistenceofseparateand
powerfulgroups,
allontheoffensiveandonthedefensive,each
struggling
firstforindependenceandthenfordomination,each
living
inafeverheatoflifeanddeath
struggle
inwhichthe
talentsandmoraltraitsofitsindividualmembersarestimulated
andutilizedtotheutmost.Evenwithin
particulartypesa
very
considerableplay
ofsubtypes
isan
advantage,as
implying
multiplicity
ofsocialforces.Thisis
justthereverseofthe
doctrineof'Bossuetwhoviewed
multiplicity
ofsocial
types
(orratherof
politicalformulas)asdisastrous. Bossuetwanted
EuropetofossilizeattheleveloftheCouncilofTrent.The
prosperity,rising
civilizationlevelandworlddominionoftheProt-
estantcountriesafterBossuet'stimerefutehisthesis.Obviously
questions
ofproportion
areinvolvedrThesocialtypemustbe
largeenoughandcompactenough
instructuretosurviveinthe
struggle
of
types;
itmustbediversifiedenough,thatis,tolerant
enough,
toutilizeallitssocialforcesandincreasetheirnumber.
Thewesternworldtodaythreatensto
flytopiecesfromthevio-
lenceofitsantagonisms. Itwouldgainbyalittlemoreunity
whichahackneyeddemocraticformula,withitsdisastrousdoc-
trineofminoritydeterminations,seemsunableto
supply.The
easternworldwouldsurelygain,
asitisinfact
gaining,frommore
diversity.
vThe
greatcivilizingforceinAsiaatpresent
is
nationalism.

31. XXX INTRODUCTION
In
dealingwiththerelationsbetweensocialtypeand
political
formula,Moscahaltsonthebrinkofa
greatresearch.The
externalmanifestation oftheexistenceofa
type,
atleastofthe
largertypes,
willbetheacceptance
ofagivenformula.
,Does
the
type
createtheformulaortheformulathetype?Mosca
answersquitesoundlywithatheory
of
interdependence:The
typepartly
createstheformulainthatthelatterisusuallya
dogmaputforwardbysomeseerorprophetnowMahomet,now
Rousseau,nowMarx inresponsetocertain"demands" of
the
given
era.Oncetheformulaexistsandisaccepted,
it
helpspowerfully
in
molding
the
typebyformulatingmaxims
and
precepts
towhichindividualsmoreorlessnecessarilyand
successfullyconform.Theformulanormally
containsalarge
amountofnonsensemixedinwithacertainsmallamountof
verifiabletruth.ObservingthesamefactsBenthamconsidered
insomedetailthe
specificcasewhere
politicianstalkthenon-
senseinvolvedintheformulaforthepurpose
ofswayingmobs
(scientifically,oneshould
say,
forthepurpose
of
utilizing
the
socialtype
fora
givenpurpose).Making
this
difficulty
the
centerofaresearchand
centering
allhisinterestuponit,Pareto
evolvedhisepoch-makingtheory
ofresiduesandderivations.
VII.LEVELOFCIVILIZATION
Moscaisoneofthefew
(ifany)political
theoriststotakelevel
ofcivilizationfranklyand
squarely
asacriterionofevaluation
Innotafew
passages
intheElementsheseemstoassumethat
the
desirability
of
high
levelsofcivilization isself-evident,and
thatwouldbea
very
venialdeparturefromthe
objective
stand-
pointthathestrivestomaintaininhiswork.Asamatterof
fact
relativelyfew
people
careverymuchaboutlevelofciviliza-
tionthe
greatmajority
areinterestedinachievingsomeideal
communism, democracy, peace,"happiness," "spirituality,"
"the
salutarycaptivity
ofthefaith,"to
quoteMonsignorMoreau
regardless
ofthelevelatwhichcivilization willfinditself
whenthoseidealsareachievedorasaresultoftheeffortto
achievethem.The
"nostalgicdelaboue"isanorganized
humansentimentthat
snipes
attheoutposts
of
every
freesociety
whenitisnot
slinking
intotheinnerfortressunderthe
guise
of
idealismandloveof"higherthings/'

32. INTRODUCTION xxxi
Butsubjective
or
metaphysical
asthis
preference
onMosca's
partmaybe,theconcept
oflevelofcivilizationnevertheless
contributes,almostmorethananythingelse,to
maintaining
the
objective
attitudeintheElements, Itisacriterionthatis
definabletoa
highgrade
of
approximation
as
multiplicity
of
activities;grade
or
quality
ofachievement ineach;sizeand
stability
ofsocialcohesionand,therefore,offensiveanddefensive
power;standardof
livinganddistribution ofwealth;controlof
natureandutilizationofthatcontrol;andsoonsooneven
tothe"higherthings"themselves.(Whybesodisheartened
overthenumberofour
airplanes,telephones
orbathtubs,when
inadditiontothemweareproducinghumanists,neo-Thomists
andevensaintsinfairabundance?)
Themethodologicaladvantages
oftheconcept
areenormous:
andprimeamongthemistheneedwhichthe
conceptcreates,
andthe
analyticalmethodwhichit
supplies,
forviewingthe
given
historicalphenomenon
or
appraising
thegivenproposal
in
the
light
ofthetotalsocial
picture.Theliteratureofscience
andtheliteratureofopinionsuffer
continuallyfromtheirvery
virtuesof
specialization.
In
restricting
thefieldoffactwith
whichthey
dealthey
often
develop
unilateral
methodologies
whichendbyestablishing arbitrary
relationsbetweenfacts.
IfweconsidertheChristianunity,socalled,oftheMiddleAges
and
lingeronthemetaphysical
or
logicalimplications
ofmedieval
politicalformulas,wemaygetavery
distortedviewoftheimpor-
*anceofChristianunity
orevenof
unity
itself.Anyconsidera-
tionofthe
general
levelofcivilizationintheMiddleAgeswould
certainlycorrectthatview. So,forthatschoolofwriterswhich
magnifiesGreekthoughtandartasthoughthoseweremanifesta-
tionsofaheavenly
statewhichmankindhaslostforever. ISo,
forthoseorientalistswhopropoundthesublimitiesofthewisdom
oftheEastwithoutrememberingthattheeasternpeopleshave
for
ages
beenasortof
herringonwhichthesharksoftheworld,
domesticand
foreign,
havefeastedattheirwillandleisured
So,also,forthosewhoregardliterature,thearts,andphilosophy
asthedistinctive
representatives
oflevelofculture. Itiscertain
thatarts,lettersandmetaphysicalthinkingcanflourishamong
limitednumbersofindividualsincivilizations ofverylowlevel.
Itisalsocertainthatwhenanygreatproportion
ofanation's
energies
aredevotedtoarts,lettersa
1
"
1^mAtfiiVhvQina. itnnlf-nral

33. xxxii INTRODUCTION
levelwilldecline.Tobesure,itis
just
ascertainthatno
highly
diversifiedandintensely
cultivatedcivilizationwillfailtoshow
eminenceinthoseactivities*
Levelofcivilization isadynamic,notastatic,level,andinno
civilizationareallactivitiesatthesameTlevel,orevenatalevel
wheretheycanautomaticallymeetalltheneedsofthegiven
historicalmoment.Theancientworldneededmore
physical
sciencethanit
possessed,
ifitwasto
perpetuate
itsachievements
inthe
politicalandsocialfields.AsMoscapointsbut,the
great
politicalupheavalattheendoftheeighteenthcenturybecame
moredrasticthrougha
lag
inhistoricalscience. Napoleon's
empirecollapsed
forthereason,amongothers,thattransporta-
tionwasinarrearsbothof
industryandof
military
sciencethe
steamboatandtherailroadcamea
generationtoolateforthe
unitedEurope
ofwhichNapoleondreamed. Inourowntime
onemaywonderwhethertheeconomicandsocialscienceswill
haveattainedaleveltomeetthe
great
criseswhichour
highly
geared
civilizationperiodicallyproduces.One
clingsthemore
willingly
toMosca*sconcept
oflevelofcivilizationinthat,ona
subjectiveplane,
itis
optimistic
astoman'sfutureonearth.
In
spite
ofthetremendousforcesofinnerexpansionanddis-
gregationthatarecontinuallyrockingthesocietiesofourday,
Moscaverysoundly
feelsthat,inviewofthescientificandmoral
resourcesthatourtimehasatits
disposal,
themanofthe
present
isfarbetterplacedthanany
ofhishistorical
predecessorshave
beentodealwiththedestructivematerial,socialand
psycho-
logical
influencesthathavewreckedcivilizationsomany
times
inthepastandarethreateningtowreckourown.
VHLDEMOCRACYANDREPRESENTATIVESYSTEM
Mosca'stheory
ofthe
ruling
classentersathird
stage
of
developmentwiththe198editionoftheElementi,whichwas
enlargedbya"secondpart"(chaps.XIItoXVIIofthe
present
translation). Thissecondpartcontainsatentative
history
of
thetheory
ofthe
ruling
class.
1
Itcontainsanoutlineofthe
1
ThefirstclearformulationofthetheoryMoscarecognizes
inSaint-Simon.
However,consideration ofstress,asproposedabove(1),would
probably
minimizeSaint-Simon'simportance
inthisregard;whereastheroleofTaine,
especially
initsdirectbearingonMosca'sown
theory,mighthavebeenenlarged
upon.

34. INTRODUCTION xxxiii
riseofthemodernstatefromthestandpoint
of
types
of
riding
classesandtypes
of
politicalorganization. Interestinghere
especially
istheessay
ontheriseofthe
bourgeoisieandthe
origins
oftheFrenchRevolution. Asfortheclassification of
governments,
whichinMosca'searlierworkshadbeenreduced
totwo
types,
thefeudalandthebureaucratic,Moscanowtries
outanotherorderofdistinctions autocraticandliberalprin-
ciples,democraticandaristocratictendencies. Thisdiscussion
giveshimoccasiontoaddsome
interestinglyobjective
reflections
onclassorsocialcirculationinitsbearingonthe
prosperityand
decadenceofnations.
Butthemost
significantportions
ofthe"secondpart"area
clarification,andfirstofallinMosca'sownmind,oftheimport
ofthecriticismofdemocracythathehadmadeinthepastand
his
impassionedappeal
forarestorationofthe
representative
systeminEurope.
Moscawasonsafeground
in
assertingthat
greathumanmasses
canbeorganizedandutilizedfortheattainmentof
specificpur-
posesonlybyunitingthemaroundsomeformulathatwill
containa
largemeasureofillusion.Hewasalso
right
in
asserting
thatoneelementinthatfactisthefurtherfactthathuman
beings
more
readily
defertoabstract
principlesthatseemtohavean
abidingvaliditythantothewillofindividual
persons,whichnot
seldomfunctionscapriciously,maybevalid
only
casebycase,
and,inanyevent,mayshockthe
self-respect
oftheplainman
whohasa
right
tofeelthatheisbeingoverriddenbybruteforce.
Butinthis
regard
allsystems
of
politicalmetaphysic
areinthe
sameboat:The"willofGod,"the"willofthe
people,""the
sovereign
willoftheState,"the"dictatorship
oftheproletariat,"
areoneas
mythical
astheother.Perhaps
ofthelot,theleast
mythical
isthewillofthepeople,
ifby
itoneagreetomeanthat
resultantofsentimental pressures, beliefs,habits,prejudices,
temperaments (thegeneral
willofRousseauor
Maclver),on
whichcommonactioncanbebased,andalmostalways
isbased,
in
tyrannies
aswellasin
republics.
In
refutinga
metaphysical
thesis,onemaybeleftinametaphysicalposition
oneselfifone
attachesanygreatimportance
totherefutation,ontheassump-
tionthat
politicalactionmustbebasedonformulasthatare
"
true."Moscaiswellawareofthat.He
repeatedlyemphasizes
thefactthatthehistoricroleof

35. xxxiv INTRODUCTION
thescientificsoundnessofitsdogmas.More
directly
tothe
point
(heurgesthatstatesmenshouldbewareof
trying
toenforceall
theapparent implications
of
metaphysical
formulas.The
Churchwouldnotlastaweekifittriedtoliveuptoitsdoctrine
of
poverty)Nodemocracywouldendure ifitfollowedthe
"will"oftheignorantpeace-loving massesinstead ofthe
aggressiveleadership
ofthe
enlightened
few.So,heargues
in
theTeoricaand
again
intheElements,themerefactthatuni-
versal
suffragefollowsfromthepremise
ofmajority
ruleorthe
willofthepeople
isinitselfnorecommendation foruniversal
suffrage
asa
practicalmeasure. Otherconsiderations ofa
utilitarian characterhavetobeintroduced. Democratic
metaphysicswould
requirethatthe
voting
ofbudgetaryexpendi-
turebeinthehandsofthepeople'srepresentatives,
ofCongress,
letus
say.
In
practice,
itmighteasilybemore
satisfactory
tohavethebudget
inthehandsofa
responsibleministeror
presidentthaninthehandsofan
irresponsibleCongress.At
leastthesenseof
responsibility
willbemoreactiveandeffective
inoneconspicuous
individualthaninsixhundredlesscon-
spicuous
individuals.
Butin
spite
ofthisveryconsiderable
consistencyand
objec-
tivity,Mosca,intheTeoricaandinPartIoftheElements,was
undoubtedlyswayedby
certain
prejudices
of
nationality,region
andpartyandsolapsed
into
metaphysical
errors. Itisanerror
to
arguethatalimited
suffrage
isanysounder,theoretically,than,
universalsuffrage(anerror
arising
insentimentsofliberalcon-
servatism).
Itisanerrorto
argue
thatthe
history
ofasocial
systemwhich isbasedonuniversal
suffrage
will
necessarily
followtheapparentlogicalimplications
ofthe
theory
of
majority
rule.Betweenthe
publication
ofthesecondandthethird
editionsoftheElementsthe
politicalequilibriumwasupset
in
Europe
inRussia,in
Italy,inGermanyandAustria. Innone
ofthosecasesdidtheupsetoccurbecauseofthe
application
of
universal
suffrageandthegrowth
ofthedemagogueryrequired
forgoverningby
universal
suffrage.TheFascistandjjom-
munistregimeshavecomeintobeingandhavegoverned
in
joyous
indifferencetouniversal
suffrage.The
upset
in
Italy
in
particulardidnotcomeeitherfromsocialismorfromthe
church. Itcamefromthose
public-spiritedyoungmenwhom
Moscawasinclinedtolaudfortheirattacksonsocialism,and

36. INTRODUCTION XXXV
thoseyoungmenwereworkingonamyth,notofdemocracy,
butofnationalism. FarmorefortunatewereMosca'sprophecies
whenhestuckclosetohis
theory
ofsocialforcesandforesaw,
inRussia,alltheanarchyandhorrorthatwouldfollowfromthe
attempttoestablishcommunismbyforce,andin
Italy
allthe
consequences
oftheestablishmentofa
single
absoluteformulato
whichabsoluteadherencewouldbe
forciblyrequired -andthe
endisnot
yet.
OnthebasisoftheTeoricaandthefirstformoftheElements
itwas
easy
to
classifyMoscaamongthosemany
Italianwriters
whohavecombattedthetheoryofdemocracy.Thedemocratic
systemalwayshada
stronger
holdontheItalianheadthanon
theItalianheart.Strong
inallclassesin
Italywasthesenseof
socialsubordination
(thesenseof
equality
ismorecharacteristic
ofFranceandtheProtestant
countries). Especially
inrural
ItalyandontheItalianlatifundiaonestillencountersmany
of
thephenomena
ofclassdependencethatwentwiththeolder
feudalworldand,asStendhalinhisdayperceivedwithahome-
sick
yearning
foroldtimes,werenotwithouttheir
charm.(
The
Italianintellectualandupper
classesneverembraceddemocracy
wholeheartedly,
jThey
never
applied
the
theory
ofmasseduca-
tionwithany
pealconviction.Onemay
thereforeexplainthe
antidemocratic intonation ofMosca'searlierworksas
partly
amatteroffashionand
partly
amatterof
youth.Democratic
theorywas
generallyaccepted
itwas
original,therefore,to
attackit.Democracywasunpopular,especially
insouth
Italy.
Onewasthereforeswimmingwiththecurrentin
overstressing
thecorruptionand
inefficiency
ofparliamentarypoliticiansandin
wavingthemenaceofsocialisminthefaceofthosewhowere
eager
tostrengthenpopular
educationandextendthe
suffrage.
Allthesame,thedefenseoftherepresentativesystem
inthe
secondpart
oftheElementsisnotamerecaseofthe
"jitters
of
',"norisit
exactly
a
palinode.
Itisabonafidereturntothe
implications
ofMosca'stheory
ofsocialforces,freedofmeta-
physicaldivagations.vAmaturercontemplation
of
history"
lasconvincedMoscathat,ofallformsof
politicalorganization,
,he
representativesystem
hasshownitselfcapable
of
embracing
:he
largest
socialunitsatincrediblyhigh
levelsofcivilization;and
:hat,ascomparedwithcompetingsystemstoday,
it
givespromise
>fallowing
freestplay
toincreasingnumbersofsocialforcesand

37. xxxvi INTRODUCTION
of
providingmorereadily
forthatrapid
socialcirculationwhichis
essentialtothe
stability
of
ruling
classesandtoreinforcing
culture
withtradition.
/
IX.MOSCAANDPABBTO
ThistranslationeditionoftheElementsofMoscawasplanned
in198aspart
ofan
enterprise
formaking
themonuments of
ItalianMachiavellian thought
availableto
English-speaking
scholars.Normally
itshouldhaveappeared,andbutfordiffi-
cultiesassociatedwiththecrisisof*29wouldhaveappeared,
in
advanceofmyAmericaneditionofPareto'sTrattato.That
orderof
publicationwouldhavepreserved
thechronological
sequence
ofthetwoworksintheirnativelanguageandgiven
a
more
satisfactoryinceptiontotheproblems
ofrelationship
that
veryevidently
arisebetweenthem.Asitis,wefindourselves
confrontedtodaywithpolemicswhichareechoesof
polemics
of
thirtyyearsago;andthereisalready
alineofItalianorItalo-
Americanwriterswho,somewhat
tardily
totellthetruth,dis-
coverMoscainordertodiminishPareto,whilethereare
again
a
fewwho
disparageMoscaforthe
greaterglory
ofPareto.Asa
matteroffact,aquestion
ofindebtedness
firstraisedbyMosca
(1902,1907)hasbeenattenuatedtoaquestion
of
"unrecognized
priority"(LuigiEinaudi,1934,Sereno,Megaro,Salvemini,1988);
butboththosequestions,fromany
scientific
standpoint,can
be
regardedonlyasirrelevant.
1
ThereisnodialecticalorhistoricalconnectionbetweenPareto's
theory
oftheIliteandMosca'stheory
ofthe
ruling
class.Onthe
dialecticalside,Mosca'stheory
ofthe
ruling
classderivesfroma
criticismofthedoctrineof
majority
ruleandis,aswehaveseen,
a
generalization
ofthemethodofTaine. Pareto'stheory
of
the61itederivesfroma,study
oftherelationsofdistributionof
wealthtoclassdifferentiations insocietyandaims
specifically
atacorrectionofAmmon.Onthehistoricalside,Paretohad
notseenMosca'sTeoricaaslateas1906
(seeManuale> 97,8).
The
publication
ofhisCours(1896,1897)wascontemporaneous
withthatofMosca'sElementitoamatterofdaysandthework
1
Fortheliteratureofthis
quarrel
seeRenzoSereno,"TheAnti-Aristotelianism
ofGaetnoMoscaandItsFate,"JournalofEthics,July10S8,towhichadd
GaudenceMegaro,MussoliniintheMaking,Boston-NewYork,1938,p.116,
andGaetanoSalvemini,reviewofMegaro,Nation,July,1938.

38. INTRODUCTION xxxvii
mustthereforehavebeenwrittensomemonthsbeforethe
EUmenti
appeared.
1
NowtheGOUTScontainsthe
concept
of
the61itein
virtually
theformthatitwastohaveinChaps.XII
andXIIIofPareto'sTraUato
(1916,1923).AsParetodeveloped
his
theory
inthecourseofthe
years(Application^ 1900,Sys-
times,1902),he
began
tocross
positions
ofMosca,without
mentionofMosca'sworks.WhenhequotesMoscaitisin
regard
toothermatterthanthe
theory
ofthe
ruling
classorthe
politicalformula.Thereasonforthissilenceisnotcertain it
wascertainlynotmalice.Inhisarcasticrejoinder
toMosca
intheManualeParetoimpliesthatMosca'sviewswereeither
obviousorelseaccountedforinearlierliterature.Thatisan
unhappycontention ifoneconsidersthepoint
ofstressalluded
toabove(1).Moscawastheonewritertohave
giventhe
concept
ofthe
ruling
classtheimportance
thatthe
concept
of
elitehasinPareto's
Systdmes.Ontheotherhand,the
specific
points
ofcontactbetweenMosca'stheoriesandPareto'sareofa
minor
significanceandhaveno
bearingonthe
originality
or
intrinsicinterestofPareto'suseoftheconcept
ofthe61ite.The
"moral"question,therefore,can
easilybeoverworked,andhas
infactbeenoverworked;foranyharmthatmayhavebeendone
toMoscabyPareto'ssilencehas
long
sincebeenundoneby
historicalcriticism.
Withthe
questions
ofindebtednessand
prioritythus
disposed
of,weareina
position
toconsidertherelationsbetweenthe
theoriesofMoscaandParetofromanother
standpoint.
Itisa
caseoftwoauthorswhostartwithonesamemethod,thehistori-
cal,andinthesameobjectivespirit
toprosecutetworesearches
thatrun
parallel
toeachotherinmanyrespectsandpassmany
of
thesamelandmarks. Butsimilarasthey
areinmethodand
spiritthetworesearchesarevastly
differentin
rangeandmagni-
tude.Pareto'sresearch,basedonananalysis
ofthesocial
equilibrium,
leadsouttoacomprehensiveviewofall
societyand
resultsinamonumentof
gigantic
architecturalproportions the
1
TheEtertmtii*dated
1806,appeared
"
latein1895.
"
Depositofthecopyright
volumeisnotedinthefiollettinoofFeb.$9,1896.The
preface
ofVol.Iof
Pareto'sCoursisdatedJanuary,1896;Vol.II,dated1897,isannouncedas
receivedbytheJournaldes6conomistesinitsNovembernumber,1896.There
wasthereforenointervalofconsequencebetweenthewriting
ofVol.Iandthat
ofVol.II.

39. xxxviii INTRODUCTION
Trattato,whichisacultureandamannerof
living
ratherthana
book.Insucharesearchtheproblems
of
politicalorganization
thatMoscasetsouttosolvearemeredetails,yet
insolvingthem
Moscahastotakeaccountofmany
ofthefactsthatarebasicin
Pareto's
largerstructure;andhedoestakeaccountoftheminthe
formofobservations,asides,intuitions,remarksthatdelightand
astoundfortheirshrewdnessandprofoundness.
Mosca,forafewexamples,perceives
thattheconcept
ofcause,
asitwasusedbytheolderhistoriansandisstillusedbymany
moderns,isinadequate
thatthehistoricalcauseisoften
partly
effectandthehistorical effectalsopartlycause.Butwith
Moscathisperception
remainsa
literary
finesse.WithPareto
itbecomesaproblem
thatrequiresandinameasureattains
scientificformulation.Andlettherebenotalkof
priorities
or
plagiarisms,
forParetocouldhavederivedtheconceptofinter-
dependencefromSpencer
aswellasfromMosca. Itis
very
likely
tooccurtoanyonewhopondershistory
atall
deeplyandso
iscalledupon
todecidetowhatextentRousseau,forinstance,
wasaproduct
orexpression
ofhistimesandtowhatextenthe
influencedandshaped
histimes.SoagainMoscaseesthat
political
formulasareinvalidas"truth"butyetsomehowdeter-
minetheexterioraspects,
atleast,ofwholecivilizations, of
socialtypes
thatareimmenselypopulous.Butthat
perception
remainsasacoloring
ofgood-naturedscepticism
intheElements.
Paretowrestleswithit,instead,asascientificproblem,andthe
solutionofitgivesrise,ontheonehand,tohistheory
oftherole
ofthenonlogical
inhumansocietyandhuman
history,and,onthe
other,tohisepoch-making
classification of"derivations."
And
again
lettherebenotalkof
priorities
or
plagiarisms,
for
Paretocould
just
aswelldescendfromBentham, ifhewerenot,
inthisasinevery
other
respect,
thechildofhisown
genius.
Moscaperceives
thatmembership
inthe
ruling
classhasarelation
tohumantraitsandhe
lingers,again
inamoodofhalf-mirthful
skepticism,
onthetraitsthatbringone"successinlife."He
failstoperceive,meantime,thatthatproblemhasanintimate
bearingontheproblem
ofthescientificclassification of
ruling
classestowardwhichhewasworking.
InParetothesame
perception
leadstoamasterlystudy
ofthebeliefthatvirtue
hasitsrewards,and,further,tohisnowcelebratedclassification
ofruling
classesas"combinatienist" or"abstractionist"
(pro-

40. INTRODUCTION xxxix
moters-believers). Moscaperceivesthatthemannerinwhich
ruling
classesrenewtheir
membershiphasavital
significancefor
the
prosperity
ofnations.That
again
isashrewdintuition.
InParetoitbecomesscientific
hypothesis
ina
theory
ofsocial
cycles,wheresocialcirculationisconsideredasone,merely,
ofthe
factorsthatdeterminesocialmovementandwheretheproblem
ofitsrelationtothoseotherfactorsisformulated.
Allofthisleadsoneto
suspectthattherealinfluenceofMosca
onParetowasofthetypethatone
normallynotesinthe
history
ofthesciences.By1898,orthereabouts,Mosca'smasterpiece
wasknowntoPareto,andhecould
only
be
responsive
toits
variousstresses. AftertheElements,withits
ruling
class
theory,
Paretowas
unlikely
tooverlookthefactthatinthesocial
equilibrium ruling-class
traitsfaroutweighmajority
traits.
AfterMosca'sstressonthehumanitariandecadence ofaris-
tocraciesitwas
unlikelythatParetowouldoverlookthatsame
type
ofdecadence. Soforthedoctrineofsocial
crystallization
orforthediscussionof
types
of
history,
oftheroleoffactsin
scientificmethod,oftherolesofforceandpropaganda
in
society,
oftheoriesofrevolutionandrevolt.Theanti-Paretans, in
general,makeamistakein
limitingthequestion
ofPareto's
indebtednesstoMoscatoconsideration ofthe
concept
ofthe
ruling
class.
Really,andintheTrattato
especially,
Pareto
holdsinviewallthemajorpositions
ofMosca,just
asheholdsin
viewthe
positions
ofdozensofotherwriters.TheElementsare
oneofthefoilsthatheusestogiveapolemicaldevelopmentto
someofhisdiscussions. CharacteristicherewouldbePareto's
criticism
(Trattato, 566,note
3)
ofTaine'stheory
that
ruling
classessuccumbbecauseof
neglecting
their"duties"
(atheory
thatTainemayhavetakenoverfrom
Tocqueville). Oneele-
mentinthat
painstaking
refutationmayeasilyhavebeenthefact
thatMoscatakesoverTaine's
theory,
ethicalfallaciesincluded,
andmakesitbasicinhis
theory
ofthedeclineof
ruling
classes.
Inthesameway
onemightcompareMosca'sutilization of
SalvianofMarseilles(onRomanmorals)
orMartindelRio
withtheusethatParetomakesofthosesameauthors.
X.ONTRANSLATINGMOSCA
ThistranslationeditionofMosca'sElementshasaimedata
readable,organicpresentation
ofMosca'sthought,quiteapart

41. xl INTRODUCTION
fromsystematic
literalismoranymechanicalreproduction
ofthe
variousdevicesbywhichMoscaadaptedatextwrittenin1895
tothemovementofscienceand
historyandtohisownintellectual
evolution.TheItalianeditionof1928showstwobooksmoving
sidebyside,oneastext,theotherasnotes,withathirdbook
addedasatailthatissometimesinclinedtowag
the
dog.
This
irregularity
ofcomposition
hasbeensmoothedoutby
incor-
porating
thenotesinthetextat
pointswherethey
fit
organically,
bybreakingup
theonceponderousChapterXintotwo,by
numberingthechaptersconsecutively andbysome
slight
rearrangement
ofmaterial.Forinstance,thecriticism of
ComteandSpencerhasbeenmovedfromChapterVI,whereit
hung
loosein
space,
toChapter
IIIwhereit
logicallybelonged.
Thatdiscussion,moreover,seemedtobeanindependent
article
writtenduringSpencer's
lifetimeundertheshadowofthemaster's
overpowering prestige.
Ithasbeenrewrittentoconformwith
the
spirit
ofthebookasawholeand,itis
hoped,withsomelittle
gain
in
clarity.
Ahalf-century'stimehasofcourseborneheavilyupon
the
criticalapparatus
oftheoldElementsof1895anduponcertain
discussionswhichMoscaretainedaslateas1923.Moscahim-
selfhasinsistedon
deletingthestudy
oftheRomanquestion
fromtheAmericanedition.Inthe
spirit
ofthatrevisionthe
editorhasfurtherdeletedfromthenotesanumberofantiquated
bibliographies, severaldebatesdealingwithsocialistmetaphysics
as
propounded
intheninetiesby
Labriolaandothers,andin
general
allnotesthatseemedforonereasonoranothertohave
lostinterest.Thatsuch
suppressionshavebeen
relativelyfew
bespeaks,
intheeditor'sopinion,theclassicsoundnessofMosca's
textasitfirstappeared
in1895orasheleftitin1928.
InMosca's
earlydaysparliamentaryeloquence
in
Italy
still
remembered itsCiceronian
origins
ina
slow-moving periodic
sentencethat
piled
modifiersonmodifiers,dependentclauseson
dependent
clause.Moscawasstillcloseenough
tothat
style
towielditwithforce,clarityand
elegance.NooneinAmerica
hasbeenabletomakeitseemprobable
sinceHenryJamesor
W.C.Brownell onemightalmost
say,
sinceMelville.Miss
Kahndidwonders,intheeditor's
opinion,
in
transferringMosca's
periodinto
English;buttheeditor
finallydecidedto
replace
it
withamore
analyticalparagraph,takingtherisksof
mistaking

42. INTRODUCTION xli
"slants"thatsuchamethodoftranslationofteninvolves.As
againsttheliteralists,theeditorwillconfessthathehasalways
triedtoliveuptothethree
requisites
inthetranslatorthatwere
onceproclaimedby
JoelSpingarn,thefirstbeingcourage,the
secondcourage,andthethirdcourage.
Inthistranslationedition,Mosca'sterm"politicalclass"is
regularlyrenderedbythemoreusualEnglishexpression"ruling
class/'onthebasisofthepermissionextendedintheElements
(chap.II, 1).Itshouldneverbfcforgotten,
ofcourse,that
thesetwoterms,whichareinterchangable
inMosca,function,
subject
tohisdefinitionofthe
politicalor
rulingclass,asthegroup
of
peoplewho
actuallyand
directlyparticipate
ingovernment
or
influenceit.Mosca's"rulingclass,"therefore,coversanarrower
fieldthanPareto's61ite(thesumofoutstandingtalents)orthe
Marxian"rulingclass"
(theemployer
or
property-holding
class
andits
appendages, political
or
social).Onemight
illustrate
withthecaseoftheAmerican
professor.Undersomeadminis-
trationsheisinMosca's
rulingclass,asonecanestablishby
givinganeartothe
generalclamorof
disapproval. Underother
administrationsheisnotinMosca's
ruling
classandtheclamor
is
just
as
greatbutelsewheredirected. InMarxian
theoryhe
wouldalwaysbeamemberoftherulingclass,evenifignored
in
townandhenpecked
athome,andforParetoalwaysamember
ofthe61ite.
TheeditorisindebtedtoSenatorMoscafor
readingproof
of
this
English
editionandtomany
friendsforassistanceatone
timeoranotherinthefurtheranceofthisenterprise
:toGiuseppe
Prezzolini,forafirst
personalcontactwithSenatorMoscain
19;toIrenediRobilantandGaudenceMegaro,
fortheper-
formanceofanumberofpersonalerrandstoSenatorMoscain
Italy;finallytoMarioEinaudi,whofirstinterestedthepresent
publishersintheMoscaenterpriseandwhoalsomadeanumber
ofmuch-appreciated suggestionsontheproofs.
ARTHTJBLIVINGSTON.
NBWYORK,
December,1938.

44. THERULINGCLASS
CHAPTER I
POLITICALSCIENCE
1.During
centuriespast
ithasmanytimesoccurredtoinmKers
toconsiderthehypothesis
thatthesocialphenomenaunwinding
beforetheir
gazemightnotbemereproducts
ofchance,noryet
expressions
ofsomesupernatural,omnipotent will,butrather
effectsofconstant
psychological
tendenciesdetermining the
behaviorofthehumanmasses.EveninAristotle'searlyday
aneffortwasmadetodiscoverthelawsthatgoverntheoperation
ofsuchtendenciesandtheirmannerof
functioning,andthe
sciencedevotedtothatpurposewascalled
"politics."
Duringthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesmanywriters,
particularly
in
Italy,appliedthemselvesto"politics."
1
Yet
theybeginningwithMachiavelli,themostfamousofthemall
werelessconcernedwithdeterminingconstanttrendsinhuman
societiesthanwiththeartsbywhichanindividual,oraclassof
individuals,mightsucceedinachievingsupremepower
ina
givensocietyandinthwartingtheeffortsofotherindividualsor
groupstosupplantthem.
Thosearetwodifferentthings,substantially,thoughtheremay
bepointsofcontactbetweenthem,asananalogy
willserveto
show. Politicaleconomystudiestheconstantlawsortendencies
thatgoverntheproductionanddistributionofwealthinhuman
societies;butthatscienceisbynomeansthesameastheartof
amassingwealthandkeeping
it.Averycompetenteconomist
maybeincapable
ofmakingafortune;andabankerorabusiness-
manmayacquiresomeunderstanding fromknowledge
of
economiclawsbutdoesnotneedtomasterthem,and
may,
in
fact,getalongvery
wellinhisbusinesseveninutter
ignorance
ofthem.
2
1
Ferrari,Corso
sugliscnttytipolitici
italiani.
2
Onthedistinctionbetweenpoliticsastheartof
governing(Staatskunsf)and
politicsasthescienceofgovernment (Staatstoitienschaft), seeHoltzendorff,
1

45. POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
2.Inourdaythesciencefoundedby
Aristotlehasbeensub-
dividedand
specialized,sothatwehavenotsomuchascienceof
politicsasagroup
of
political
sciences.Thatisnotall.Efforts
havebeenmadetosynthesizeandcoordinatetheresultsofsuch
sciences,andthishas
given
risetothescienceof
sociology. In
interpreting legislation,
orotherwisecommentinguponpublic
enactments,juristsandwriterson
publiclawarealmostalways
carriedoninto
investigations
ofthe
general
tendenciesthathave
inspiredlegislation. Historians,too,in
tellingthe
story
ofhuman
vicissitudes,havefrequentlysought
todeducefromastudy
of
historicaleventsthelawsthatregulateanddeterminethem.
ThatwasthecasewithPolybiusandTacitus,among
theancients,
withGuicciardiniinthesixteenth
century,
withMacaulayand
Taineinthecenturyjustpast.Philosophers, theologians,
jurists
allthinkers,inshort,who,directly
or
indirectly,have
writtenwithaviewtoimprovinghuman
societyandhave,
therefore,examinedthelawsthatregulate
its
organization
may
beconsidered,underoneaspect
oranother,tohavebeen
dealing
withproblems
of
political
science. Itturnsoutthata
good
halfofthefieldofhumanthought,animmense
portion
of
theintellectualeffortthatmanhasdevotedto
delvingintohis
past,probing
hisfuture,analyzing
hisownmoralandsocial
nature,maybelookedupon
asdevotedto
politicalscience.
Among
the
political
orsocialsciencesonebranch,sofar,has
attainedsuchscientificmaturitythatthroughtheabundanceand
theaccuracy
ofitsresultsithasleftalltheothersfarbehind.
Wearethinking
of
politicaleconomy.
Towardtheendoftheeighteenthcenturyanumberofmenof
greatabilitysegregated
thephenomenainvolvedintheproduc-
tionanddistribution ofwealthfromthemassofothersocial
phenomenaand,consideringthemapartfromotherdata,suc-
ceededindeterminingmany
oftheconstant
psychological
laws
ortendenciesthattheyobey.
Thismethod of
separating
economicphenomena
fromotheraspects
ofsocial
activity,along
withthehabitthathasgrownup
of
consideringthemasinde-
pendent
oftheotherphenomena
thataffectthe
organizationof
politicalinstitutions,undoubtedlyaccountsfortherapidprogress
that
politicaleconomyhasmade;butatthesametimeitmaybe
Prinmpien
derPolitik,chaps.I-ILWetouchonthismatteragainbelow,
chap.VIII, 1.

46. 3] POLITICALSCIENCE 3
held
chieflyresponsible
forthefactthatcertain
postulatesofthe
scienceofeconomicsarestillopen
to
controversy. If,therefore,
politicaleconomycouldmanage
tocoordinate itsownobser-
vationswithwhathasbeenlearnedofotherphases
ofhuman
psychology,
itmightbeabletomakefurtherandperhapsdecisive
progress.
Duringthelastthirty
orfortyyearstherehasbeenatendency
to
explain
all
politicaleventsinhuman
historyonthebasisof
economicconsiderations. Inour
opinion,
this
point
ofviewistoo
one-sidedandtooexclusive. Therearesocialand
political
phenomena (forexample,theriseandspread
ofthe
great
reli-
gions,
therenascenceofcertainancientnationalities,theestab-
lishmentofcertainpowerfulmilitarymonarchies)whichcannot
beexplainedsolelyby
variationsinthedistributionofwealth,or
bytheconflictbetweencapitalandlabororbetweenfixedand
circulatingcapital.
However,thetendenciesthatregulatethe
organization
of
politicalauthoritycannotbestudiedwithouttakingintoaccount
theresultsthat
politicaleconomy,asisterscienceofmore
pre-
cocious
growth,
hasalready
obtained.Tostudythetendencies
mentioned istheaimofthepresentwork.Wecallthisstudy
"political
science."Wehavechosenthat
designationbecause
itwasthefirsttobeusedinthe
history
ofhuman
thought,
becauseithasnotyet
fallenintodisuseandbecausetheterm
"sociology,"whichmany
writershaveadopted
sincetheday
ofAugusteComte, stillhasno
preciseand
sharply
defined
meaning(incommonusage
itcoversallthesocialsciences,among
themeconomicsand
criminology, ratherthanthescience
directlyconcernedwiththestudy
ofthephenomenathatare
more
speciallyand
properlydesignated
as
"political").
1
3.Ascienceisalwaysbuiltuponasystem
ofobservations
whichhavebeenmadewithparticularcareandbyappropriate
methodsonagiven
orderofphenomenaandwhichhavebeenso
coordinatedastodiscloseincontrovertible truthswhichwould
nothavebeendiscoveredbytheordinaryobservationofthe
plainman.
1
Theterm"politicalscience"hasbeenused,amongotherwriters,byHoltzen-
dorff,Bluntschli,Donnat,Scolari,Brougham,SheldonAmos,DeParieuand
Pollock.

47. 4 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.
I
Themathematical sciencesfurnishthe
simplestandreadiest
illustrationofthedevelopment
ofthe
truly
scientificprocedure.
Inmathematicstheaxiomisthefruitofanobservationthatis
accessibletoeverybody,anditstruthisapparenteventothe
eyes
ofthe
plainman.
Statinganumberofaxiomsandcoordinating
them,we
getproofs
forthesimplertheorems. Then, still
furthercoordinatingthetruthsderivedfromsuchtheoremswith
thetruthsoftheaxioms,we
getproofs
fornewandmoredifficult
theorems,thetruthofwhichcouldbeneitherguessednorproved
byanyoneuntrainedinthemathematical sciences.The
pro-
cedurein
physicsandtheothernaturalsciences is
quite
the
same,butinthemthemethod
begins
tobecomplicatedbynew
elements.Tocoordinateanumberofsimpleobservationsoften
willnotsufficetoprovideademonstration ofatruththatwemay
call"composite"
inotherwords,notapparent
atfirst
glance.
Inthemajority
ofcasessomethingcorresponding
totheaxiom
inmathematics isobtainedonlythroughexperiment orpro-
longedobservation,bothofwhichhavetheirvaluewhenthey
areconductedbyspecialandaccuratemethodsandby
individ-
ualswhohavebeen
properly
trainedinsuchmethods. Inthe
earlydays
ofthevarioussciencesthesoundprocedurewasalmost
alwaysfoundastheresultofluckyhypotheses,whichwere
eventually
substantiatedbyexperimentsandobservations of
factandwhichintheirturn
explainedmany
otherobservations,
many
otherfacts.A
longperiod
of
empiricism,
ofimperfect
or
erroneousmethodsofobservation,ofmistakentheoriesthathave
hamperedtheusefulcoordinationofdataonindividualphenom-
ena,hasalmostalwayspreceded
the
strictly
scientific
period
in
the
given
science.Soformany
centuriesastronomyand
chemistry
flounderedaboutintheerrorsandfolliesof
astrology
andalchemy.Only
afterhumanmindshad
longlaboredover
given
ordersofphenomena
didawealthofaccumulateddata,
bettermethods,bettermaterialinstrumentsofobservation,and
the
insightand
unflaggingpatience
ofmightyintellects
finally
succeedinproducing
thosefortunatehypothesesthathavemade
realscience
possible.
Themereuseofobservationand
experiencewithinagiven
orderofphenomena
doesnotofitselfassure
truly
scientific
results. FrancisBaconwasmistakenastotheabsolute
capacity
oftheexperimentalmethodfordiscovering scientifictruth,

48. 8] POLITICALSCIENCE 5
andmany
thinkersandwritersinourdayareharooqpgro$same
illusion.Asiswellknown,Baconcompared
the
j^kperittiental
method,whichforthatmatterhadbeeninuse
longbefore
his
day,
toacompass,whichwillallowthehandunpractised
in
drawingtotrace
perfect
circles inotherwords,toobtainaccu-
ratescientificresults.
1
Asamatteroffact,ifobservationand
experienceareto
yieldsoundresultstheconditionthatwehave
specifiedaboveareessential. Ill-used,and?ivithmistaken
scientificprocedures,they
leadtofalsediscoveries,ormayeven
lendasemblanceof
plausibilitytodownright
nonsense. After
all,astrologyand
alchemy
wei*ebasedonobservationand
experience,
realorpresumed;
butthemethodofobservation,or
ratherthe
point
ofviewfromwhichobservationswereconducted
andcoordinated,wasprofoundly
mistaken. Inhis
Disqui-
sitionesmagicaethenotoriousMartinDelRiothoughtthathe
wasrelying
onobservations offactin
drawing
hisdistinctions
betweenlovemagic,
hatemagicand
sleep-inducingmagicandin
revealing
thewilesandways
ofwitchesandsorcerers. Indeed
heintendedthathisobservationsshould
helppeople
todetect
witchesandsorcerersandguardagainstthem.Soeconomists
beforethedayofAdamSmiththoughtthattheywere
restingon
observations offactwhentheyheldthatthewealthofanation
laysolely
initsmoneyandintheproducts
ofitssoil;andDon
Ferrante,the
typical
scientistoftheseventeenth
century,
so
effectively
sketchedbyManzoni,
2
was
arguingfromfactsand
experiences
thatwereuniversallyaccepted
inhistimewhenhe
showed,by
areasoningwhichwas
faultlesslylogicaland
positive
asfarasappearancewent,thatthebubonic
plague
couldnot
possiblybecontagious.Hereasoned asfollows:Inrerum
naturathereis
nothingbutsubstanceandaccident. Contagion
cannotbeanaccidentbecauseanaccidentcannotpassfromone
body
toanother. Itcannotbeasubstancebecausesubstances
areterreous,igneous,aqueousandaeriform. If
contagionwere
aterreoussubstance, itwouldbevisible;if
aqueous,
itwouldbe
1
Macaulay,"LordBacon*'inCriticalandHistorical
Essays,
vol.II,p.254
[Thepassagereads:"Hisphilosophyresembledacompassorarulewhich
equalizes
allhands,andenablesthemostunpractisedpersontodrawamore
correctcircleorlinethanthebestdraftsmencanproducewithoutsuchaid."
AndseeNovum
organon,PrefaceandI,122.]
2
/
promessisposi,chap.XXXVII.

49. 6 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
wet;ifigneous,
itwouldburn;ifaeriform, itwouldsoaraloft
toits
propefsphere.
4,Eventodaypolitical
sciencehasnot
yet
enteredupon
its
truly
scientificperiod.Thoughascholarmay
learnfromit
manythingsthatescapetheperception
ofthe
plainman,itdoes
notseemtoofferanybody
ofincontrovertible truthsthatare
acceptedby
allwhoareversedinits
discipline,andmuchlessto
haveacquired,
sofar,atrustworthyanduniversallyaccepted
methodofresearch.Thecausesofthissituationaremultiple,
andforthepresentwecannotgo
intothem.Wemaysay
simplythatsuchcausesaretobesought
notsomuchinalackof
talentinthemenwhohavepondered
thesubject
of
politics
asin
the
greatcomplexity
ofthephenomena
involvedinthatsubject
and,especially,
inthecircumstancethat,downtoafewdecades
ago,
itwas
virtuallyimpossible
to
get
accurateandcomplete
informationaboutthefactsonwhichweareobliged
todepend
in
trying
todiscovertheconstantlawsortendenciesthatdetermine
the
politicalorganization
ofhumansocieties.
Howeverfragmentary
ordefectivewemayconsiderthevarious
methodsorsystems
ofideasthathavesofarbeenbrought
tobear
upon
thefieldof
politicalscience,itisnonethelessourdutyto
makea
rapidsurvey
ofthem.Someofthemhavebeen,as
they
arestill,littlemorethan
philosophical, theological
or
rationaljustifications
ofcertain
types
of
politicalorganization
whichhaveforcenturies
played,andinsomecasesarestill
playing,
a
significant
roleinhuman
history.Asweshall
presentlysee,oneofthemostconstantofhumantendenciesisthe
tendency
to
justifyan
existingformofgovernmentbysome
rationaltheory
orsomesupernatural
belief.Wehaveaccord-
inglyhadaso-called
politicalscienceattheserviceofsocietiesin
whichbeliefinthesupernatural
stillholdsswayoverthemindsof
menandinwhich,therefore,theexerciseof
politicalpowerfinds
itsexplanation
inthewillofGod(orofthegods);andwehave
had,aswestillhave,another
political
sciencewhich
justifies
thatpowerbyrepresenting
ittobeafreeandspontaneous
expression
ofthewillofthepeople,
orofthe
majority
ofthe
individualscomposing
thegivensociety.
Among
allthevarioussystemsandmethodsof
politicalobser-
vation,wemustconcernourselvesmore
especiallywithtwo,

50. JS] ENVIRONMENTALTHEORIES 7
whicharemore
objectiveanduniversalincharacterthanthe
othersandwhichhave
designedly
setouttodiscoverthelaws
thatexplaintheexistenceofallthevariousformsofgovernment
thatappear
intheworld.Thefirstofthesetwomethodsmakes
the
political
differentiation ofthevarioussocietiesdependent
upon
variationsinexternalenvironment,andmore
particularly
inclimate;theothercorrelates it
primarilywiththe
physical,
andthereforepsychological,
differencesbetweenthevarious
racesofmen.Thefirstmethod
laysprimary
stressonthe
criterionof
physicalenvironment; theother,upontheeth-
nological
orsomaticcriterion.Thetwomethodsoccupysuch
importantplaces
inthe
history
ofscienceandincontemporary
scienceandare,asfaras
appearancesgo,
so
positiveand
experi-
mentalincharacter,thatwecannotbeexcusedfrom
going
into
thematteroftheiractualscientificvalue,
5.Fromthedays
ofHerodotusandHippocratesdownto
thepresentcenturyanenormousnumberofwritershaveassumed
thatclimatehasaninfluenceonsocialphenomena
in
generaland
on
politicalphenomena
in
particular.Manyhavetriedto
demonstrate thatinfluenceandhavebasedwholescientific
systemsupon
it.Intheforefrontamong
thesestandsMontes-
quieu,whoinsistsmostemphaticallyuponthepreponderant
influenceofclimateonthemoraland
politicalsystems
ofnations.
"Thecloserone
gets
tothecountriesofthesouth,"hewrites,
1
"thefartheroneseemsto
getfrommoralityitself";andhe
declares
2
that
liberty
is
incompatible
withwarmcountriesand
neverflourisheswheretheorangegrows.Otherwritersconcede
thatcivilizationmayhavebeenborninthewarmcountries
butneverthelessmaintainthatitscenterof
gravityhascontinu-
ouslycrept
northwardandthatthecountriesthatarebest
organizedpoliticallytoday
arelocatedinthenorth.
8
Nowtobeginwith,theclimateofacountry
isnot
entirelya
matteroflatitudebutdepends
alsoonsuchfactorsaselevation
abovesealevel,exposure,prevailingwinds,andsoon.Notall
ofthe
physicalenvironment,moreover, isdependentonclimate,
1
Esprit
deslots,bookXIV,chap.
2.
*
Ibid.,bookXVII
8
Mougeolle, Statique
descivilisationsandLes
probtemes
deI'histoire;andsee
Bluntschli,Pditik(da
Wissenschqft.

51. 8 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.
I
inotherwords,onvariations intemperatureandrainfall.
Othercircumstances figure
initfor
example,
thegreater
or
lesser
population
thata
regionmayhave,andconsequently
the
degree
ofdevelopment
its
agriculturehasattainedandthekind
of
crops
thataremostcommonly
inuse.Theinhabitantsofa
sparselypopulatedandtherefore
pastoral
orwoodedterritory
liveina
physicalenvironmentthatiswholly
differentfromthat
of
peoplewhoinhabita
denselypopulated
andthereforeinten-
sivelycultivated
territory.
Itisundeniable,furthermore,thattheinfluencethatclimate
mayhaveonthelifeofapeople
asawholeandonits
political
organization
in
particularmust
steadily
diminishwiththe
growth
ofitscivilization.Thevegetablekingdom
isundoubtedly
mostatthemercy
ofatomosphericandtelluricconditionsin
that
plants,
unlessthey
areraisedinhothouses,arealmost
wholly
destituteofmeansofreactionordefense
against
external
influences. Animalsaresomewhatbetteroff,sinceself-defense
andreactionarenotaltogetherimpossible
forthem.Primitiveor
evensavagemanisstillbettersituated,forhismeansofdefenseare
atleastsuperiortothoseoftheanimals. Bestsituatedofallis
civilizedman.Heissorichinresourcesthathefeelsbutscant
effectsfromchanges
inclimateandheis
perfecting
hisresources
and
increasing
theirnumberfromdaytoday.
Granting
that
premise,
the
followingconceptionseemstous
obviousandacceptable:thatthefirst
great
civilizationsarosein
spotswherenatureofferedthe
greatestandmostnumerous
facilities,orthefewestandleastseriousobstacles;that,therefore,
they
flourishedinbroad
valleysthatwere
fairlymildinclimate
andwellenoughwateredtopermiteasycultivationofsomesort
of
grain.Afair
density
ofpopulation
isaconditionthatis
almost
indispensabletotheriseofacivilization. Civilization is
not
possiblewhereahundredhuman
beings
arescatteredovera
thousandsquare
milesofland.Butifhumanbeingsaretolive
in
largenumbersina
relatively
smallarea(sayatleasttenor
twentyinhabitantspersquaremile),agrain
cultureisessential.
Infact,wefindthattheriseofChinesecivilizationwascon-
temporaneous with,orsubsequent to,thecultivation ofrice.
TheEgyptianandMesopotamian
civilizationswerebasedon
wheat,barleyandmillet,andthe
aboriginalAmerican civili-
zationsonmaize.Inafew
tropical
countriescertainfruits,such

52. 6] NORDICSANDSOUTHERNERS 9
asthebanana,orfarinaceousrootssuchasmanioc,mayhave
takentheplace
ofcereals.
Thisinduction iscorroboratedbyhistory,whichshows
earlycivilizationsinthevalleys
oftheNile,the
Euphrates,
the
Ganges,andtheYellowRiver,andontheAnahuacplateau lands
whichpresent
allthe
physical
conditionsthatwehavementioned.
Butoncemanhassucceededinso
marshaling
hisforcesasto
tamenatureinsomeexceptionallyfavorable
spot,hecangoonto
masterherinother
places
wheresheismorerecalcitrant. In
ourdaywiththeexception
"ofthepolarregions,afew
spots,
possibly,aboutthe
equator,andcertainareaswhereexcessive
aridnessorthepresence
ofmalariacreatespeculiarlyunfavorable
conditions allthelandsoftheearthare,orcanbemade,capable
ofharboring
civilizedpopulations.
6.Theprinciplethatcivilizationalwaysspreadsfromsouth
tonorth,orratherfromwarmtocoldareas,weregard
asoneof
thoseoversimpleformulaswhichattempttoexplainextremely
complicatedphenomenabya
single
cause. Itisbasedonamere
fragment
ofhistoryonthehistory
ofa
singleperiod
inEuropean
civilization,anda
historysuperficiallystudiedatthat. Ifone
weretousethismethodin
examiningamapamap
ofnorthern
Germany,
orofSiberia,letussay;onemightdeducealawthat
allriversflowfromsouthtonorth,becausethatistrueofthose
countries,whichhavehighlands
inthesouthandseastothe
north.Therulemightbereversedifonewere
studyingsouthern
Russia,whileSouthAmericamight
furnish stillathirdlaw,
namely,thatriversflowfromwesttoeast.Thetruthisthat,
withnoreferencewhatevertolatitudeor
longitude,
rivers
flowfrom
high
tolow,frommountainsorplateaustoseasor
lakes. Ifoneweretocalllands
offeringthelesserresistance
"lower"lands,onemightsaythatthelawthat
governs
the
expansion
ofcivilization istheverysame.The
civilizingcurrent
flowsindifferentlyfromsouthtonorthandfromnorthtosouth,
butitflowsbypreference
inthedirectioninwhichitencounters
theleastnaturalandsocialresistanceandby
socialresistance
wemeantheimpact
ofother
originalcivilizationsdeveloping
in
inversedirections.
Chinesecivilization aroseinthecentralprovinces ofthe
empire.
Itwasshutinonthenorthbythebarrenand
frigid

53. 10 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
plateaus
ofcentralAsia,whileonthesouthitcouldflownot
only
intothesouthernprovinces
ofChinaproper
butintoIndo-
Chinaaswell.Hinducivilization,encountering thealmost
insurmountable chainoftheHimalayasonthenorth,pressed
fromnorthtosouth,fromnorthernIndiaintotheDeccan,and
thenceontoCeylonandJava.Egyptian
civilizationcrept
northwarduntilitmetthepowerfulconfederationoftheHittites,
inotherwordstheimpact
ofanothercivilization,innorthern
Syria.Ontheotherhand,itwasina
position
toexpandmore
extensively
tothesouth,anditinfactascendedtheNilefrom
MemphistoThebesandfromThebestoMero, Itnowseems
certainthattheearliestdynasties
flourishedatTanisand
Memphis,thatThebescameintoprominenceonly
afterthe
invasionoftheShepherdkingsandthatEthiopiawascivilized
by
theEgyptiansanddidnotbecomeanindependentrealmuntil
avery
latedate.
HeirtotheancientculturesofMesopotamia, Persiancivili-
zationspreadfromeasttowestinthedirectioninwhichit
encountered fewestnaturalobstacles untilitcollidedwith
Greekcivilization. Greco-Roman civilizationembraced the
wholebasinoftheMediterranean. Arrestedtothesouthby
impassable
desertsandtowardtheeastbyOrientalcivilization
intheformoftheParthianempireandthenofthePersian,it
spreadnorthwarduntilitcametotheswampsandforests,at
thetimealmostimpassable,
ofnorthernGermanyandScotland.
Mohammedan civilizationwasbarredonthesouthby
seaand
desertandsowasimpelledtowardsthenorthwest. During
the
MiddleAges,European
civilizationwascheckedonthesouthby
Arabcivilization,whichwrestedtheentiresouthernportion
of
theMediterraneanbasinfromit.Itmovednorthward,accord-
ingly,absorbingScotland,northernGermany,Scandinaviaand
Poland.TodaythecivilizationofEurope
is
stretchingoutinall
directions,whereverthereare
sparselypopulated
landsthatare
easy
tocolonize,ordecadentnationsthatare
waiting
fora
conqueror.
Thecenterofacivilization,asthelatterflowsinonedirection
oranother,seemstomoveinConformitywiththelawwehave
juststated.Thecountriesthatlieonthefrontiersofatype
of
humancivilizationarenotasaruletheonesthataremost
advanced init.WhenEuropean
civilizationembracedthe

54. 7] NOEDICSANDSOUTHERNERS 11
wholeMediterranean basin,Greece
properandsouthern
Italy
werethehubofthecivilizedworld,andtheywerethemost
vigorous,
themostcultured,themost
prosperous
countriesinit.
Whentheybecamethemostadvancedoutposts
ofcivilization
facing
theMohammedan world,theydeclined. Ina
given
country,conditionsbeingequal,
themostcivilizedand
prosperous
districtseemsalmostalways
tobetheonethathasthereadiest
meansofcommunicationwiththelandsthatconstitutethehearth,
orradiationcenter,ofthecivilizationtowhichthecountry
itself
belongs.As
long
asSicilywaspartoftheHellenicworld,which
haditscentertotheeastof
Sicily,themost
prosperous
and
highly
civilizedsectionoftheislandwastheeastcoast.
1
Duringthe
Arab
period
western
Sicilywasthemostcultured,prosperousand
thicklypopulated,being
closesttoAfrica,whenceMohammedan
civilizationwas
radiating.
2
Todaythe
greatestpopulationand
wealthareconcentratedonthenorthcoastoftheisland,facing
northernEurope.
7.Itisalso,inouropinion,averyrashhypothesis
toascribe
.a
superiormoralitytothe
peoples
ofthenorthascomparedwith
thepeoples
ofthesouth.Morality
resultsfromsuchcomplex
qualities
ofmindand
spirit,andtheexternalcircumstances
withinwhichhumanlifeunfoldsplaysucha
largepart
in
positive
ornegativeexpressions
of
morality,thattodeterminewhethera
single
individual is
potentiallymoremoralthananother isin
itselfnotalittledifficult. Difficultindeedisthatsamejudgment
withrespect
totwosocieties,twohumanmassescomposed
of
many
individuals. Statisticaldataonthis
subjectcannottell
everything
oftenthey
faileventotellenough. Personal
impressions
arealmostalwaystoo
subjective onthewholethey
arelesstrustworthythanstatistics. Generallyspeaking,
itis
theunfamiliarformofimmoralitythatmakesthe
greater
impression,andsoweareproneto
judgepeople
ofanother
country
asworsethanpeople
ofourown.Moreover,wearecom-
monlygiven
to
considering
aslessmoralthanothersthecountry
inwhichwecamefirstormostthoroughly
toknowand
appraise
certainvicesandfrailtieswhich,really,arecommontoallmen.
1
Beloch,"Lapopolazione
dellaSiciliaantica"andsee:DieBevdlkerung
derGriechisch-Romischcn Welt,chap.VII,pp.
261-305.
1
Amari,StoriadelMusulmaniinSicilia.

55. 12 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
Thevicemostcommonly
attributedtosoutherners islust,
whereasnorthernersaremore
generallycharged
withdrunken-
ness.And
yet
itmaybeobservedthatCongonegroesbecome
more
disgracefully
drunkthanRussianpeasants
orSwedish
laborers;andasforlust,itappearsthatfolkwaysandthetype
ofsocialorganizationthateach
people
createsforitselfasthe
resultofasequence
ofhistoricalcircumstancesexertaprofounder
influenceupon
itthandoesclimate. Beforehisconversionto
Christianity,
St.Vladimir(theczarwhowascanonizedand
becamethepatron
saintofalltheRussias)hadmorewomenin
hisharemthanthecaliphHarun-al-Rashid everdid.Ivanthe
Terribleemulatedand
outstripped
incrueltyandlustNero,
HeliogabalusandthebloodiestsultansoftheEast.Inourday
thereisperhapsmore
prostitution
inLondon,ParisandVienna
thanthereeverwasinancientBabylonandDelhi.In
present-
dayEurope,Germany
leadsinthenumberofsexcrimes,and
thenfollow,indescendingorder,Belgium,France,Austriaand
Hungary. Italystandsnearthebottomofthelist,andSpain
comeslastofall.
1
Manycriminologistsassumeapredominance
ofcrimesof
violence,oroffenses
against
the
person,
inthesouth,whereasthey
creditthenorthwitha
largerquota
ofoffenses
againstproperty.
2
ButTardeandColajannihaveshown
conclusivelythatsuchrela-
tionsashavebeensoughtbetweenclimateandtype
ofcrimeare
rathertobeascribedtodifferencesinsocialconditionssuchas
maybeencounteredinvariousdistrictsinagivencountry.
3
Itis
truethatintheUnitedStates,Pranceand
Italycrimesofviolence
regularlyprevail
inthesouth,whilethenorthernDartsofthose
countriesshowa
relativelyhigherfrequency
ofcrimes
against
property.ButasTardehimselfwell
pointsout,inallthose
countriesthesoutherndistrictsarepoorer
infacilitiesofcom-
munication,arefartherremovedfromthe
great
industrialcities
andfromthecentersofpresent-day civilization,thanarethe
northern
regions;anditistobeexpectedthatviolentformsof
crimeshouldpredominate, irrespective
ofclimate, inless
advanced
regions,andthatcrimesrequiring
skillandshrewdness
shouldbemorecommoninbettereducatedones.This,infact,
*
Colajanni,Laswmlogiacriminate,vol.II,chap,
7.
1
Maury,Lombroso,Fern,Puglia.
8
Tarde,LaCriminalittcomparSe,chap.IV.

56. 8] NORDICSANDSOUTHERNERS 13
wouldseemtobethemostadequateexplanation
ofthephenome-
non.TheFrench
departmentsthatshowthehighestfigures
for
crimesofviolence(ArdecheandLozere,intheeastern
Pyrenees)
lie,tobesure,inthesouthofPrance,buttheyare
relativelycold
regionsbecauseofthemountainousnatureofthecountry. In
ItalytheBasilicatafurnishesoneofthe
highestpercentages
of
crimesofviolence,butitisamountainousdistrictand
relatively
coldthepeaks
oftheMatese,theGarganoandtheSilaaresnow-
coveredformostofthe
year
asarethehighlandsthatbearcertain
Siciliantownsnotoriousfor
enterprisesinvolving
bloodand
brigandage.
1
8.Goingontothe
strictlypoliticalaspect
ofthe
question,we
may
notethatbeforewecandecidewhethersouthernersare
unfittedfor
libertywemustcometoan
understanding
asto
theexactmeaning
oftheterm
"liberty."
Ifweassumethat
thefreestcountry
isthecountrywherethe
rights
ofthegoverned
arebestprotectedagainstarbitrarycapriceandtyrannyonthe
part
ofrulers,wemust
agree
that
politicalinstitutionsthatare
regarded
as
superiorfromthat
point
ofviewhaveflourishedboth
incoldcountriesandinverytemperatecountries,suchasGreece
andRome.Viceversa,systems
ofgovernmentbasedonthe
arbitrary
willofrulersmaybefoundinsuchvery
coldcountries
asRussia.Theconstitutionalformofgovernmenthadnomore
vigorousbeginnings
infoggyEnglandthanithadin
Aragon,
Castileand
Sicily.
IfMontesquieuhadextendedhistravelsa
littlefarthersouthhewouldhavefound,in
Sicily,a
political
orderunderwhich,eveninhisday,the
royalauthoritywasmuch
morelimitedthanitwasinFrance.
2
Grantingthatinourtime
thevariousrepresentativesystemsmayberegarded
astheleast
imperfectformsofgovernment,wefindtheminforceinnorthern
andsouthernEuropeequally,and,outsideofEurope,they
probably
functionaswellin
chillyCanadaastheydoattheCape
ofGoodHope,
wheretheclimate,ifnot
actuallyhot,is
certainly
very
mild.
Thereasonwhysouthernersshouldbelesswellfittedforfree
and
enlightenedformsofgovernmentcanonlybethis:thatthey
1
Forotherexamples,
seeColajanni,La
sodologiacriminale,vol.II,chap.
7.
2
Ontheimportanceandextensivedevelopment
oftheoldSicilianconstitution
seethetwoclassictreatisesbyGregorio,
Introduzione allostudiodeldiritto

57. 14 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
arepossessed
ofless
physical,and
especially
lessmoraland
intellectual, vitality.
Itis,infact,verycommonlybelieved
thatinviewofasuperiorenergy,whichexpresses
itselfinindus-
triousness,inwar,inlearning,northernersaredestinedalways
to
beconquerors
oftheineffectualsoutherners. Butthatviewis
evenmore
superficialand
contrary
tofactthantheoneswehave
just
refuted. Actually,civilizationswhicharoseanddeveloped
inhotorverymildclimateshaveleftbehindthemmonuments
thatattestanadvancedcultureandanuntoldcapacity
forlabor
whichareallthemore
astonishing
inthatthepeoples
in
question
didnothaveattheir
disposalthemachinesthattpdaymultiply
man'sresourcesahundredfold. Thecapacity
ofapeople
for
hardworkseemstodependnotsomuchonclimateasonhabits
thatarein
largepartdeterminedbythevicissitudesofitshistory.
In
general,
habitsof
applicationandindustryareshownby
peoples
ofveryancientcivilizationwhohave
long
sinceattained
the
agricultural
levelandhave,moreover,longenjoyed
tolerable
politicalsystems
thatassuretheworkingmanofatleastsome
fractionofthefruitsofhistoil.Ontheotherhand,peoplesthat
have
relapsed
intoa
partialbarbarism,orbarbarousandsemi-
barbarouspeoples
thatareaccustomedtolivetosomeextentby
warand
thieving,
areusuallyindolentand
sluggishapartfrom
activities
relating
to
fighting
or
hunting. In
justsuchtermsdid
TacitusdescribetheancientGermans. InourtimetheNorth
AmericanIndiansandtheKalmuksofAsiaare
exceedinglylazy,
thoughtheformeroncelived,asthelatterstilllive,invery
cold
countries.TheChineseofthesouthern
provincesareahard-
workingpeople,andtheEgyptian
fellahcantoilwiththeutmost
endurance.Theabsenceof
large-scaleindustry
inthesouthern-
most
partsofEuropehascreatedandcontinuestosustainthe
impressionthattheirinhabitantsareindolentworkers,butany-
onewhoknowsthesepeoples
wellknowshowlittle,onthewhole,
thatreputation
isdeserved.
Sicilymaybetakenasan
example.
Thatisland,withanareaofabout20,000squaremiles,supportsa
population
ofoverfourmillion inotherwords,about180
peoplepersquare
mile.Thereareno
largeindustriesandno
greatabundanceof
capital.Thesoil,largelymountainous, is
richinsunshinebutpoor
inwater. Ifa
population
istolive
withanydegree
ofcomfortatallundersuchconditions,thesoil
mustbetilledwith
untiring
effortandwithacertainamountof
technicalproficiency.

58. 9] HIGHLANDERS VS.LOWLANDERS 15
Ifweassumethatmilitarysuperiority
isatestof
greater
energy,
itishardindeedtodecidewhethernorthernershave
defeatedandconqueredsouthernersmoreoftenthansoutherners
havedefeatedandconquered
northerners. TheEgyptianswere
southerners,andintheirheydaytheyswept
intriumphover
AsiaasfarasthemountainsofArmenia.TheAssyrianwarriors
livedinthemildestofclimates,yet,howevermuchwemay
deplore
their
brutality,wecannotbutmarvelattheirindomi-
tableenergy
inwar.TheGreeksweresoutherners,butthey
managed
toconquer
allwesternAsia,andbyforceofarms,
colonization,commerceandintellectual
superioritytheyHellen-
izedtheentireeastern
portion
oftheMediterranean basinand
aconsiderablepart
ofthebasinoftheBlackSea.TheRomans,
too,weresoutherners,andtheirlegions
overranthe
plains
of
Dacia,penetratedtheinaccessible forestsofGermany,and
pursuedthePictsandCaledoniansintothedeepestrecessesof
theirbleak,wildmountains.TheItaliansoftheMiddleAges
weresoutherners,andtheywrought
miraclesinwar,industryand
commerce. Southerners, too,werethe
Spaniards
ofthesix-
teenthcentury,thoseglamorousconquistadoreswhoinlessthan
halfacenturyexplored,
overranandconqueredmostofthe
Americas.TheFranco-Norman followers ofWilliam the
Conquerorweresoutherners,ascomparedwiththe
English,yet
inafew
years'timetheywereablealmost
entirely
to
dispossess
theinhabitants ofsouthernGreatBritainandtodrivethe
Angles,
atthepoint
ofthesword,backtotheoldRoman
wall.TheArabsweresouthernersinanabsolutesense,yet
inlessthanacenturytheyimposed
their
conquest,andwith
theirconquest
their
language,
their
religionandtheirciviliza-
tion,uponasgenerousaportion
oftheworldasthemodern
Anglo-Saxonshaveconqueredandcolonizedinthecourseof
many
centuries.
0.Differences insocialorganization dependingonland
configuration
ortopographymaybeconsideredas
secondary
to
thoseduetovariationsinclimate,thoughtheymayperhapsbe
moreimportant. Whetheracountry
ismoreorlesslevelormore
orlessmountainous,whetheritissituatedonthe
greathighways
ofcommunication orremotefromthem,arefactorsthatexerta
far
greater
influenceonits
historythanafewdegreesmoreorless
ofmeantemperature. Theimportance
"ofsuchfactorsmustnot

59. 16 POLITICALSCIENCE
[CHAP.
I
be
exaggerated,however,tothe
point
ofmakinganinexorable
lawofthem.Topographical
featuresthatarefavorableunder
certainhistoricalconditionsmaybecomeveryunfavorableunder
others,andviceversa.WhenallEuropewasstillintheBronze
andthe
earlyIronAge,Greecefoundherselfinan
amazingly
favorablesituationfor
achievingleadership
inhercornerofthe
world,sinceshewasbetterplacedthanany
othercountry
for
absorbing
infiltrationsfrom
EgyptianandAsiaticcivilizations.
Butinmoderntimes,downtothecutting
oftheisthmusofSuez,
Greecewasoneoftheleastfavorably
situatedofthecountriesof
Europe,
sinceshe
layremotefromthecenterofEuropean
culture
andfromthe
greathighways
oftransatlanticandEastIndian
commerce.
Anotherwidespreadopinion
insuchmattersisthatmountain-
eersare
usuallysuperior
tolowlandersandaredestinedalmost
always
toconquerthem.
Certainlymorecanbesaidforthat
theorythanforthe
ascription
ofmarked
superiority
to
peoples
ofthenorth. Itmaybequestionablewhetheracoldclimateis
moresalubriousthanatemperate
orwarmclimate,butitseems
tobeestablishedthathighlandsarealmostalwaysmorehealthful
thanlowlandsandbetterhealth
impliesstrongerphysical
constitutionandtherefore
greaterenergy.But
greatenergy
is
notalwayscombinedwith
strength
ofsocialstructure,upon
which,afterall,decisionastowhethera
people
istoruleortobe
ruleddepends.Nowasound
politicalorganism
thatunitesand
directstheenergies
of
greatmassesof
people
arisesandmaintains
itselfmore
readily
on
plainsthaninmountainouscountries. In
factwesee,inTurkeyandtheNearEast,thatthoughthe
Circassian,KurdishandAlbanianmountaineershavefrequently
attainedimportance
asindividuals,andthoughbandsofthem
intheserviceof
bordering
countrieshaveoftenbecomeforcesto
bereckonedwithandfeared,yetAlbania,CircassiaandKurdi-
stanhavenever,inhistorictimes,becomenucleiof
great
inde-
pendentempires.Onthe
contrary,theyhave
alwaysbeendrawn
intotheorbitsofthe
greatpoliticalorganismsthattouched
theirborders.
1
TheSwiss,too,havehad
greatimportance
as
individualsandas
corps
ofmercenaries,butSwitzerland as
1
SaladinwasaKurd.Mehemet Ali,thefirstkhediveofEgypt,wasan
Albanian.ThefamousMamelukebeys*whoruledinEgyptformanycenturies,
wereCircassians.

60. 10] RACIALTHEORIES 17
anationhasneverweighedperceptibly
inthe
politicalscalesof
Europe.
Historyshows,in
general,thatif
intrepidbandsofmountain-
eershaveoftendevastated,ratherthanconquered,lowlands,still
moreoftenhavethe
organizedarmiesoflowlanderscrushedthe
disconnected effortsofhighlandersandreducedthemto
per-
manentsubmission. TheRomansconqueredtheSamnites,
whiletheSamniteswereabletodefeattheRomansonlyinan
occasionalbattle.BandsoftheScottishhighlandersdidnow
andthenoverrunnorthernEnglandand
ravageit,butthelow-
land
EnglishmoreoftendefeatedmountainousScotlandand
endedbyconquering it,taming
itswarlike
impulsesandassimilat-
ing
itcompletely. Forthatmatter,lowland
peoples
arenot
necessarily
destituteof
energy,
oreven
poorlyendowedwithit.
Onehas
only
tothinkoftheDutch,theNorthGermans,the
Russians,theEnglish,whoarein
largepart
inhabitantsofvery
lowcountries.
10.Themethodthatascribesthe
degree
of
progressand
civilizationthatanationhasattainedandthetype
of
political
organization
thatithasadoptedtotheracetowhichitbelongs
ismuchlessancientthanthemethodwhichviewsclimateasthe
arbiterof
everything. Thatcouldhardlybeotherwise. Anthro-
pology
andcomparative philology,uponwhichthescientific
classification oftheracesofmankind isbased,arevery
recent
sciences(BrocaandGrimmlivedinthenineteenth
century),
whereasapproximative
informationastoclimaticdifferenceswas
availableinthe
earlyday
ofHerodotus. However,newcomeras
itmayhavebeen,the
ethnologicaltrendinthesocialsciences
hasbeencorrespondingly aggressive;andthelastdecadesofthe
nineteenthcenturywitnessedan
attempt
to
interpret
allhuman
historyonthebasisofracialdifferencesandracialinfluences.
1
Adistinctionwasdrawnbetween
superior
racesandinferior
races,theformerbeing
creditedwithcivilization,moralityanda
capacity
fororganizing
themselvesinto
greatpoliticalunits,
whileforthelatterwasreservedtheharshbutinevitablelot
eitherof
vanishing
beforetheencroachment ofthe
higherraces
orofbeingconqueredandcivilizedbythem.Atthemostitwas
1
See,amongothers,Quatrefages,Gumplowicz,LapougeandHellwald.
Gobineau'sEssaisurI'MgalitS
desraceshumainesappearedin

61. 18 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
granted
thattheymightgo
on
living
inindependence, but
withouteverattaining
the
degree
ofcultureandtheflawless
socialand
politicalorganizationthatwereproper
topeoples
ofthe
privileged
stocks.
Renanwrotethat
spiritualpoetry,faith,liberty,honor,self-
sacrificeappeared
intheworld
only
withtheadventofthetwo
great
raceswhich,inasense,hadfashionedhumanity,
the
AryanandtheSemitic.
1
ForGobineauthecentralpointqf
history
isalways
locatedwherethepurest,strongest,most
intelligentwhitegroup
abides.Lapougepushes
thesame
doctrinetoitsextremestconsequences.
Inhisopinionnotonly
istheracethatis
trulymoral,trulysuperior
inall
things,
the
Aryan,butwithintheAryan
raceitselfthoseindividualsexcel
whohavekepttheAryantype
inpuleanduncontaminated
formsthosewhoaretall,blondanddolichocephalic. Yeteven
amongthenationsthatpass
as
Ipdo-Germanic,
individualsofthis
type
constituteonlyasmallminorityscatteredaboutamong
a
short,dark,brachycephalic majority.ThetrueAryans,
there-
fore,are
fairlynumerousinEnglandandNorthAmerica.They
begin
todwindleinnumbersinGermany,beingencountered
there
only
intheupper
classes.They
arevery
rareinFranceand
becomeavirtuallyunknowncommodity inthecountriesof
southernEurope.
MorselliespousesLapouge's thesis,main-
taining
thesuperiority
ofblondstrainsoverdark,becausethe
most
highly
civilizednationsarethoseinwhichblonds
prevail
in
numbersandwithinanygivencountrythemosthighly
civilized
region
orprovince
isalwaystheonewhereblondsaremost
numerous.
2
Along
withthisschoolwhichmaintainstheinnateandinevita-
ble
superiority
ofcertainracesthereisanother,which,without
being
inabsoluteopposition
toit,ismore
directlylinkedwith
Darwin'stheories,sowidelyapplied
tothesocialsciences
during
thesecondhalfofthepastcentury. Spencer
isthebest-known
writerofthissecondschool,whichhasmany
followers. Without
1
ViedeJfous,chap.
1.InotherworksRenanspeaksoftheSemitesinfar
fromflattering
terms.
*
Granting
allthisforthesakeofargument,
itwouldstillbenecessaryto
showthatinthepast
thedarkraceshadneverbeenmore
highly
civilizedormore
powerful
thanthefair. Ifatanytimetheywere,thepresentsuperiority
of
nationsandprovinceswherefairhairisthecommonercouldwellbeduetoother
causes.

62. 11] RACIALTHEORIES 19
maintainingtheinevitableandunbrokensuperiority
ofanyone
raceoverothers,thesescholarsbelievethatallsocial
progress
hascomeabout,andisstillbeingmade,bya
process
of
organic,
or
superorganic, evolution,so-called.Acontinuous
struggle,
the
struggle
forexistence,isalwaysgoingonwithin
everysociety.As
aresult,the
strongerandbetterindividuals,thosewhoarebest
adapted
totheirenvironment,survivetheweakerandlesswell
adaptedandpropagate
theirkindin
preference
tothelatter,
passingontotheirdescendantsasaninborn
heritage
the
qualities,
acquiredby
aslow
process
ofeducation,whichwonthemtheir
victory.Thesame
strugglegoesonbetweensocietiesthemselves,
andby
itthemoresoundlyconstitutedsocieties,thosecomposed
ofthe
strongerindividuals,conquer
societiesthatareless
advantageouslyendowed;thelatter,driventoterritories less
favorabletohuman
progress,
arecondemnedtoremaininastate
of
everlastinginferiority.
Itisnothardtofindafundamentaldifferencebetweenthese
twotheories.Evenifthemonogenistictheory,thatalltheraces
ofmankindderivefromacommonstock,be
granted,
thefactstill
remainsthat
differentiating
traitsare
certainlyvery
ancientand
musthavebeenfixedin
agesextremelyremote,whenmanhad
not
yetemergedfromhissavagestageandwasthereforemore
pronetofeeltheinfluenceofthenatural
agencieswithwhichhe
cameintocontact.The
aboriginalAmericanracehadthe
physical
traitsitnowhasina
fairlyremote
prehistoricepoch.
In
very
ancientEgyptianbas-reliefs,whichgobacksometwenty
centuriesbeforeourera,figures
of
Negroes,Semitesandnative
Egyptiansshowthephysical
characteristicsthatstill
distinguish
them.Keeping
tothe
strictlyethnologicaltheory,therefore,the
higherracesmustalreadyhavepossessed
theirtraitsof
superior-
ityatthedawnofhistoryandhaveretainedthem
practically
unaltered;whereastheevolutionarytheoryproperimplicitly
or
explicitlyassumesthatthe
struggle
forexistencehashad
its
practical
effectsmore
recently.Tothat
struggle
itascribes
theriseandfallofthevariousnationsandcivilizationsduring
thehistoric
period.
11.Beforethequestion
ofracial
superiorityor
inferioritycan
beconsideredthevalueoftheword"race"hastobedetermined,
foritisusedsometimesinaverybroad,sometimesina
very

63. 20 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
narrow,sense.Wespeak
ofwhite,yellowandblackracesto
designate
varietiesofthehuman
speciesthatnotonly
differin
languagebut
present fairlyimportantand
fairlypalpable
anatomicaldifferences.Wespeak
oftheAryanandtheSemitic
racestoindicatetwosubdivisionsofthewhiterace,whichdiffer,
tobesure,in
language,butwhichpresentverystrikingphysical
resemblances.Wealso
saytheLatin,theGermanic,theSlavic
races,designatingbythesametermthreesubdivisions ofthe
Aryanbranchofthewhiterace.Thoughthese"races"speak
different
languages,
itcanneverthelessbeproved,philologically,
thatthey
arebound
togetherbyacommon
origin,
whiletheir
physical
differencesareso
slight
thatamemberofonegroupcan
bemistakenforamemberofanother.Nowinthiscase,asinall
others,confusionin
terminology
leadstoconfusioninideas.
Thefactofracialdifference is
pressed
intoserviceasmuchto
explaincertaindiversitiesincivilizationand
politicalorganization
betweenwhitesandNegroes
astoaccountforsimilardiversities
betweenLatins,GermansandSlavs,whereasinthefirstcase
the
ethnological
coefficientmayhaveareal
significance
andin
thesecond,hardlyany
atall.
Wemustalsobearinmindthatinhistoricand
prehistoric
timesrace
crossingsandmixtures,particularlybetween
closely
relatedraces,were
frequent. Inthelattercase,sincethe
physicaldifferencesbetweenthecrossedracesareofscant
importance,andnotreadilyperceptible
inanyevent,classifica-
tionhasbeenbaseduponphilological
affinitiesratherthanupon
anatomical traits.Butthelanguage
criterion isanythingbut
trustworthyandinfallible. Itmayhappen,andfrequently
does
happen,thattwo
groups
whichare
closelyrelatedbybloodspeak
languages
thathave
onlyremote
philological kinship,
while
peoplesofdifferentracesmayspeaklanguagesanddialects
thatare
closely
affiliatedastowordrootsandgrammatical
structure.Howeverdubiousthatstatementmayseematfirst
glance,
therearemanyexamplesthatprove
itandmany
historical
situationsthat
explain
it.In
general,conqueredpeopleswho
arelesscivilizedthantheirconquerorsadoptthelaws,arts,
cultureand
religion
ofthelatterandoftenendbyadopting
their
language.
Thelanguagesandcivilizations oftheGreeksandRomans
enjoyed
amarvelousexpansionthrough
their
adoptionby

64. 11] SUPERIORANDINFERIORRACES 21
barbarouspeoples. InFrancethesubstratumofthe
population
isstillCimbro-Celtic, butFrench isessentiallyaNeo-Latin
language. InSpainBasque
blood
probablypredominates
inthe
north.InthesouththeadmixtureofArabo-Berberbloodmust
be
verystrong.
In
Italy
thereare
appreciable
ethnicdifferences
betweenItaliansofthenorthandItaliansofthesouthandthe
islands,butthevariousdialectsareall
essentiallyNeo-Latin.
Leaving
thesphere
ofLatin,wefindthatthefellahs,whoare
descendantsoftheancientEgyptians,have
forgotten
theancient
tongue
ofMizraimandadoptedArabic,which,moreover,has
become
generalthroughout
'Irak-'Arabiand
Syria,andisbecom-
ingmoreandmorethespokenlanguage
oftheAfricanBerbers.
AsforIndia,dialectsofSanskritorigin
are
spokenbypopulations
whichinskincolorandfacialfeaturesshowa
strongadmixture,
and
perhapsevenapredominance,
ofDravidicblood.In
Silesia,Brandenburg,PomeraniaandoldPrussia,Germanisthe
language
of
populations
thatwere
partly
Slavicor
partly
Lettish
in
origin.
Inourown
day,finally,
theCeltsofIrelandand
northernScotlandare
adoptingEnglishmoreandmore.
Theseconsiderations areself-evident;yetpeoplecontinueto
makeethnographic classifications, especially
ofEuropean
peoples,
withsolereferenceto
philological
criteria.Totellthe
truth,itmaybesaidindefenseofthissystemthat
similarity
of
language,engendering
asitdoesafreer
interchange
ofideas
and
feelings
betweencertain
peoples,
tendsto
givethemafar
strongerresemblance inintellectualandmoral
typethancus-
tomarily
resultsfrommereblood
relationship.
Bearing
allthisinmind,itseemstousanestablishedfactthat
themost
primitive races,thosewhich
anthropologists call
"lower" theFuegians,
theAustralians,theBushmen,andso
onare
physicallyandintellectually
inferiortotheothers.
Whetherthatinferiority
isinnate,whetherithasalwaysexisted,
orwhether itistobeattributedtothebarrenness oftheir
habitats,tothemeagerness
oftheresourcesthattheirsur-
roundings
offerandtothe
abjectpovertyresulting,
isaquestion
thatitisneithereasy
noressentialforustoanswer. After
all,
theseraces
representonlyaveryminutefractionofmankind,and
thatfraction israpidlydwindling
beforethe
expansion
ofthe
whiterace,whichis
being
followedinitsturn,inmanyplaces,by
aninfiltrationfromtheyellowrace.Instrictjusticeweare

65. 22 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
obliged
to
recognize
thatthe
prosperity
ofthewhiteand
yellow
racesinlocalitieswherethe
aboriginesbarelymanaged
tosubsist
hasnotbeenwhollyduetothe
organicsuperioritywhichthe
former
boastfully
claim.Thenewcomers
bringwiththem
knowledgeandmaterialmeanswhichenablethemtoreapan
ample
livelihoodfromsoilsthatofthemselveswould
yieldprac-
ticallynothing.TheAustraliannativeforcenturiesuponcen-
turieswascontenttotrackthe
kangaroo,bringdownbirdswithhis
boomerangor,ifworsecametoworst,eatalizard.Butwemust
rememberthathehadnomeansof
securing
theseedstogrow
grainsorotheredible
plants,
orthebreedersforflocksof
sheep,
whichtheEnglish
colonistshadattheir
disposal.
Itisstillhardertocometoany
decisionastothe
inferiority
ofthenativeAmericanandtheblackraces.Thoseraceshave
fromtimeimmemorialheld
possession
of
far-flung
territoriesin
which
powerful
civilizationsmighthavedeveloped. InAmerica,
populousempiresaroseinMexico,Peruandafewother
regions.
Wecannotdeterminethedegree
oftheirculturewithanyexact-
ness,sinceitwastheirmisfortunetocrumblebeforethe
onslaught
ofafewhundredSpanishadventurers. InAfrica,theblacks
havemanaged
toorganizefairly
extensive
political
unitsatone
timeoranother,forexample,
inUganda;butnotoneamong
suchstateseverattainedby
itselfadegree
ofculturethatcould
becomparedwiththatofthemostancient
empires
foundedby
thewhiteraces,oroftheChinese,Babylonianandancient
Egyptianempires,wherethe
civilizing
raceswerenotblack. It
wouldseem,accordingly,
thatacertain
inferioritymightalsobe
attributedprima
facietoboththeAmericanIndiansandthe
Negroes,
Butwhenthingshavegone
inacertainway,
itisnotalways
legitimate
toassumethattheynecessarilyand
unfailinglyhadto
gothatway.
Itisdoubtfulwhethermanexistedinthe
Tertiary
period,butithasbeen
scientificallyproved
thathis
antiquity
goesbacktothebeginnings
oftheQuaternaryperiodandthat
theage
ofmanthereforehastobecomputed
notinthousands
ofyearsbutinhundredsandperhaps
thousandsofcenturies.
Nowtheracesofman,aswenotedabove,musthavebeenformed
ataveryremoteepoch,andsincesuchlongperiodsareinvolved
thefactthataracehasattainedanotabledegreeofculture
thirty,forty,even
fifty
centuriesbeforeanotherisnotaninfallible

66. 11] SUPERIORANDINFERIORRACES 23
proof
ofitsorganicsuperiority.
Externalcircumstances, often
fortuitous thediscoveryandutilizationofametal,whichmay
happenmoreorless
easilyaccording
tothe
region,theavailability
orabsenceofdomesticable
plants
oranimalsmayaccelerateor
retardtheprogress
ofacivilization,orevenalterits
history.
If
theAmericanIndianshadknowntheuseofirona
hypothesis
thatisnotintheleastfar-fetched,sincetheydidknowother
metals,suchas
goldandcopper oriftheEuropeanshad
inventedgunpowdertwocenturieslaterthantheydid,the
Europeanswouldnotso
swiftly
orgocompletelyhave
destroyed
the
politicalorganizations
oftheIndians.Norshouldwe
forget
thatifaracethathasattaineda
ripecivilization,oncoming
into
contactwithanotherracethatisstillinastateofbarbarism,
contributestothelatterastoreofusefultoolsandknowledge,
it
neverthelessprofoundlydisturbs,
ifitdoesnot
altogetherarrest,
thespontaneousand
originaldevelopment
ofthe
primitive
society.
Not
only,
infact,havethewhitesalmosteverywherewiped
outor
subjugatedtheAmericanIndians.Forcenturiesand
centuries,nowwithalcohol,nowwiththeslavetrade,theyhave
brutalizedandimpoverished
theNegro
race.Weare
obliged
to
agree,therefore,thatEuropean
civilizationhasnotonly
hinderedbutactuallythwartedany
efforttoward
progressthat
NegroesandIndiansmighthavemadeoftheirownaccord.
AtvariousbranchesoftheAmericanIndianrace,aswellas
atthe
Polynesians,
theAustraliansandothersofthelessfortunate
racesofhuman
beings,the
charge
hasbeenleveledthatthey
cannotsurvivecontactwiththewhitemanbutvanish
rapidly
beforehisadvance.Thetruthisthatthewhitesdeprivethe
coloredracesoftheirmeansoflivelihoodbeforethoseraceshave
timetoaccustomthemselvesto
utilizing
thenewmeansofsub-
sistencethatareintroducedbythewhites.Asarulethe
hunting
territoriesoftheprimitivetribesareinvadedandthe
biggamedestroyedbeforethenativecanadapt
himselftoagri-
culture.Moreoverthecivilizedracescommunicate theirdis-
easestothelesscivilized,whilethelatterareunabletotake
advantage
ofthepreventiveorcurativemeasuresthatscientific
progressandlongexperiencehavetaughttothewhites.Tuber-
culosis,syphilisandsmallpoxwouldprobablywreakasgreat
havocamong
usastheyhavewrought
incertain
primitivetribes

67. 24 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
ifwetriedtoforestallandcurethem
exclusivelywiththemeans
thatthe
savageshaveattheir
disposalnomeansatall,inother
words.
AreIndiansandNegroesonthewholeinferiortowhitesas
individuals? Whilemostpeoplewouldanswerwithareadyand
emphaticyes,somefewwithequalpromptnessandresolvesay
no.Asforus,wefinditashardto
agree
asto
disagree
interms
atall
positive. Observers
rarely
failto
report,
in
strictlyprimi-
tive
groups
oftheseraces,individualswhoareoutstanding
for
qualities,nowofmind,nowofheart.WheretheAmerican
aborigineshave
mingledwiththewhitesandadopted
theircivili-
zation,theyhavenotfailedtoproducedistinguishedmenin
nearly
allbranchesofhumanactivity,andunderidenticalcondi-
tionstheNegroescanboastofalistofnamesalmostas
long.
Nevertheless,onehastoadmit,as
regardsboththeseraces,that
therosterof
conspicuous
individuals isvery
briefascompared
withthenumberofindividualswhohavebeen,andare,ina
positiontoenjoytheadvantages
offeredby
civilizedlife.Some
weight,however,hastobegiven
toaremarkthatwasmadeto
HenryGeorgebya
scholarlyNegrobishop,
1
thatNegro
school
childrendoaswellaswhitechildrenandshowthemselves
just
aswide-awakeand
intelligentup
tothe
age
oftenortwelve;but
assoonastheybegin
torealizethattheybelong
toaracethat
is
adjudgedinferior,andthattheycanlookforwardtonobetter
lotthanthatofcooksand
porters,they
loseinterestin
studying
andlapse
intoapathy. Ina
greatpart
ofAmericacoloredpeople
aregenerallyregarded
asinferiorcreatures,whomust
inevitably
be
relegatedtothelowestsocialstrata.Nowifthedisinherited
classesamongthewhitesboreontheirfacestheindeliblestamp
ofsocial
inferiority,
itiscertainthatfewindividualsindeed
amongthemwouldhavetheenergy
toraisethemselvestoa
social
positionverymuchhigherthantheonetowhichthey
wereborn.
Ifsomedoubtmayberaisedastotheaptitude
ofNegroesand
AmericanIndiansforthehigherformsofcivilizationand
political
organization,
all
perplexity
vanishesas
regards
theAryansand
theSemites,theMongolian,
oryellow,
raceandthatdarkAsiatic
racewhichlivesmixedwiththeAryanstockinIndiaandhas
fusedwiththeyellow
insouthernChina,inIndo-Chinaand
1
Progressand
Poverty,bookX,chap.II,p.
2.

68. 12] RACIALTHEORIES 25
perhaps
in
Japan.Theseracestaken
togethermakeupmore
thanthree-fourths,andperhaps
asmuchasfour-fifths, ofall
mankind.Wesaynothing
ofthePolynesian
race. Itmaywell
have
superiorcapacities,butbeing
scantinnumbersanddis-
persedoversmallislands,ithasnotbeenabletocreateany
great
civilization.
TheChinesesucceededinfounding
a
highlyoriginal
civiliza-
tionwhichhasshownwondrouspowers
ofsurvivalandeven
morewondrouspowers
of
expansion*
Offshootsin
largepart
of
Chinesecivilizationaretheculturesof
Japan
andIndo-China,
andtheSumerianpeoplewhichfoundedtheearliestcivilization
in
Babyloniaseemstohavebelonged
toaTuranianstock.The
darkAsiaticraceseemstohave
developeda
veryancientcivili-
zationinElam,orSusiana,andanautochthonous culture
apparently
existedinIndiabeforethecoming
oftheAryans.
Egyptoweshercivilizationtoaso-calledsub-SemiticorBerber
race,andNineveh,Sidon,Jerusalem,Damascusand
perhapseven
SardisbelongedtotheSemites. Referencetothemorerecent
civilizationoftheMohammedanArabsseemstoussuperfluous.
12.Whilenotholding
totheabsolute
superiority
or
inferiority
of
anyhumanrace,manypeople
believethateachracehas
special
intellectualandmoral
qualitiesandthatthese
necessarily
corre-
spond
tocertaintypes
ofsocialand
politicalorganization,from
whichthe
spirit,or,better,the
peculiar"genius"
oftherace,
willnot
permit
itto
depart.
Now,making
alldueallowancesforthe
exaggerations that
gainreadyadmissiontodiscussionsofthis
subject,and
taking
accountatalltimesofthe
greatfundofhumantraitsthatis
present
inall
peoples
inall
ages,
itcannotbedeniedthatnot
to
sayevery
raceeverynation,everyregion,everycitypresents
acertain
specialtype
thatisnotuniformly
definiteandclear-cut
everywherebutwhichconsistsinabody
ofideas,beliefs,opinions,
sentiments,customsand
prejudices,whicharetoeachgroup
of
human
beingswhatthelineaments ofthefacearetoeach
individual.
Thisvariationintype
couldsafelybe
regarded
asdueto
physicaldiversities,toracialvariations,tothedifferentblood
thatflowsintheveinsofeachdifferent
nationality,
diditnot
findits
explanation
inanotherfact,wfrichisoneofthebest

69. 26 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
authenticatedandmostconstantthatobservation ofhuman
natureaffords.Werefertomimetism,tothat
greatpsycho-
logical
forcewherebyevery
individualiswontto
adopttheideas,
thebeliefs,thesentimentsthataremostcurrentintheenviron-
mentinwhichhehasgrownup.Saveforrareand
rarely
completeexceptions,a
personthinks,judgesandbelievesthe
waythesociety
inwhichhelivesthinks,judgesandbelieves.We
observethat
aspect
of
thingswhichiscommonly
notedby
the
personsaboutus,andtheindividual
preferablydevelops
those
moralandintellectualattitudeswhicharemost
prevalentand
most
highlyesteemedinthehumanenvironment inwhichhe
hasbeenformed.
Infact,unity
ofmoralandintellectualtype
isfoundtobevery
strong
in
groups
ofpersonshavingnothingspecial
incommonas
regards
bloodorrace.TheCatholic
clergy
willserveasan
example. Scatteredtheworldover,italwayspreservesa
singular
uniformity
initsbeliefs,itsintellectualandmoralattitudesand
itscustoms.Thephenomenon
ismost
striking
inthevarious
religious
orders.Wellknownistheremarkableresemblance of
anItalianJesuittoaFrench,Germanor
English
Jesuit.A
strongresemblance exists,too,inthe
militarytypethatis
commontoalmostallthe
greatEuropeanarmies,anda
fairly
constantintellectual ormoral
typemayfurtherexistwithin
separateregiments,
inmilitaryacademiesandeveninsecular
schoolsanywhere,
inshort,wherea
specialenvironmenthas
somehowbeenestablished,asortof
psychologicalmoldthat
shapes
toitsowncontouranyindividualwhohappens
tobe
castintoit.
Wearenotforthemoment
inquiring
astohowthe
great
nationalenvironments,andbetterstillthose
greatpsychological
currentsthatsometimesembraceawholecivilizationorallthe
followersofa
religion,havecomeinto
being,
livedtheirlivesand,
often,vanishedfromtheworldscene.Tolaunchoutonsucha
studywouldinvolve
retraversing thehistory
ofthewhole
civilizedportion
ofmankind.Butthismuchwecan
safelysay:
thathistoricalcircumstancespeculiartoeachofthe
greatgroups
ofmankindhaveinthemainfashionedthe
specialenvironments
mentioned,andthatnewhistoricalcircumstancesslowlymodify,
oreven
destroy,thoseenvironments. Therolethatblood
relationship,thatrace,plays
intheformationofthevarious

70. 12] RACIALTHEORIES 97
moralandmentalenvironmentsmay,
incertaincasesatleast,be
slightandofdifficult
appraisalevenwhenthe
ethnological
factor
seemsatfirstglancetobe
preponderant.
Apt
tothispointwouldbetheexample
oftheJews,whohave
been
dispersedamong
otherpeoplesyet
forcenturiesupon
cen-
turieshavewondrouslypreserved
theirnational
type.Butwe
mustnot
forget,either,thatthechildrenofIsraelhaveAlways
lived
spirituallyapartfromthe
peoplesamongwhomtheydwelt,
andthereforehavealwaysbeenina
specialenvironment. As
Leroy-Beaulieu
well
says,
1
themodernJewisaproduct
ofthe
isolationinwhichhehasforcenturiesbeenkeptbytheTorah,
theTalmudandthe
ghetto.Theprogeny
ofJewishfamilies
thatareconvertedtoChristianity
ortoIslamism
rarelyretain
thecharacteristics oftheirancestorsforanylength
oftime for
manygenerations,thatis;andtheunconvertedJewbestpre-
serveshis
specialtype
incountrieswherehe
keepsmosttohimself.
AJewfromLittleRussiaor
Constantinople
ismuchmoreJewish
thanhis
coreligionistswhohavebeenbornandbredin
Italy
or
France,wherethe
ghetto
isnow
justamemory. Chinese
immigrants
inAmericatakeoverwhitecivilization inmany
respects,buttheirmentaltyperemainsunchanged,whilethe
ChineseinCaliforniaandsomeotherstatesalwayskeep
to
themselvesinaChineseenvironment. InEuropeanandAsiatic
Turkey,Turks,Greeks,Armenians,JewsandLevantines live
together
inthesamecities.Theydonotfusenoraretheirraces
modified,forin
spite
ofthefactthatthey
liveinmaterialcon-
tact,theyare
spirituallyseparated,eachgrouphaving
itsown
specialenvironment. The
greattenacitywithwhichtheEnglish
nationaltype
maintains itself,ascomparedwithothernation-
alitiesofEurope,maybetheresultofthescant
sociabilitythat
English
settlersin
foreign
countriesmanifesttowardnatives,
whichinclinesthemtoclustertogether
inaminiatureBritish
environment.Many
casesmightbementionedwhereethnic
affinitybetweentwopeoples
isa
virtuallynegligiblebondas
comparedwiththetiesthatresultfromsimilaritiesin
religion
orfromthefactofcommonhistoriesandcivilizations. Ethnolo-
gistshavediscoveredthataMagyar
ismore
closely
relatedtoa
ChineseoraTurkthantoaFrenchmanoraGerman.Butwho
wouldclaimthatheismorallyand
intellectually
closertothe
1
"LesJuifsetI'anti-a&nitisme."

71. 28 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
twoformerthantothetwolatter?TheMohammedanAryans
ofPersiaandHindustan
certainlyhaveclosermoralaffinities
withtheArabsandTurksthanwiththeirEuropeankinsmen;
andJewslong
settledinwesternEuropecertainly
feel
spiritu-
ally
closertothenationsamongwhomtheylivethantothe
Arabs,whoarebloodrelativesbutwhohaveadopted
Oriental
civilization.
Theso-called
genius
ofarace,therefore,hasnothingpre-
destinedorinevitableaboutit,assome
people
arepleasedto
imagine.Even
granting
thatthevarious
"
higher
"
races in
otherwordsracesthatare
capable
of
creatingoriginal
civiliza-
tionsoftheirown differ
organicallyfromeachother,itisnot
thesumoftheir
organic
differencesthathas
exclusively
oreven
principallydeterminedthedifferencesinthesocialtype
that
theyhaveadopted,butratherthedifferencesinsocialcontacts
andinthehistoricalcircumstancestowhicheverynation,every
socialorganism
letaloneeveryrace isfatedtobe
subject.
13.Thequestion
ofracewouldatthis
pointbesettled if
everyonewereinagreementthattheorganicand
psychological
changesbywhichahumanracemaybemodifiedoveranexten-
siveperiod
of
history
forexample,twenty
or
thirty
centuries
are
hardlyappreciable
and
virtuallynegligible. Butthisisfar
from
being
a
generallyaccepted
belief.Thereis,infact,awhole
schoolofhistoricalthinking
thatisfoundedon
quite
different
postulates. Applying
Darwin'sdoctrinesabouttheevolution
of
species
tothesocialsciences,thisschoolholdsthatevery
humangroup
canmakeconsiderable
organicimprovements
in
relatively
brief
periods
oftime,whencethe
possibility
of
political
andsocialbetterment.
Now,withoutdiscussing
ordenying
Darwin'stheoriesabout
thetransformation of
species,andeven
granting
man'sdescent
froma
hypotheticalAnthropopithecus, onefactseemstouscer-
tain,undebatableandobviousatfirstglance:
thatthefamous
struggle
forexistence,alongwiththenaturalselectionthat
followsfromit,asdescribedfor
plants,
animalsand
savageman,
doesnotappear
inhumansocietiesthathaveattained
anything
higherthanaveryelementarystage
ofcivilization. The
eager-
nesstofindsucha
struggle
inhumansocietiesisin
partdueto
theextraordinary
successoftheDarwinianhypothesiswhen

72. 18] EVOLUTIONARYTHEORIES 29
appliedtothenaturalsciences.Thatsuccesswasboundto
offerastrongtemptation
to
systematic
mindstoextendthe
application
ofthehypothesis
tootherfields.Butitisalsodue
toamisapprehension,
toafailuretodistinguishbetweentwo
factsthatarebasicallydifferentthoughapparentlytheyhave
points
ofcontactandthisconfusion, too,is
readilyunder-
standableinmindsthatare
stronglypredisposed
infavorofthe
evolutionarytheory.To
put
thesituationinafewwords,the
struggle
forexistencehasbeenconfusedwiththestruggle
for
preeminence,whichis
really
aconstantphenomenon
thatarises
inallhumansocieties,fromthemosthighly
civilizeddowntosuch
ashavebarely
issuedfromsavagery.
Ina
strugglebetweentwohumansocieties,thevictorious
society
asarulefailstoannihilatethevanquishedsociety,
but
subjects it,assimilates it,imposes
itsowntype
ofcivilization
upon
it.Inourday
inEuropeandAmericawarhasnoother
resultthan
politicalhegemony
forthenationthatprovessuperior
inamilitarysense,orperhaps
theseizureofsomebitof
territory.
Buteveninancienttimes,whenGreecewas
fightingPersiaand
RomeCarthage,the
politicalorganization,thenationalexistence,
ofthevanquishedpeopleswassometimes
destroyed,butindi-
vidually,evenintheworstcases,theywere
usuallyreducedto
servituderatherthanput
tothesword. Caseslikethatof
Saguntum
andofNumantia,orlikethetaking
ofTyrebyAlex-
andertheGreat,orofCarthagebyScipio,havebeenatall
periods
ofhistoryaltogetherexceptional. TheAssyrians
inthe
ancientEastandtheMongols
intheMiddleAgeswerethe
peoplesmostgiven
tothe
practice
of
systematicallybutchering
thepeoplestheyconquered. Buteventheyusedthe
practice
ratherasameansof
frighteningenemiesintosurrenderthanas
anendinitself;anditcannotbesaidthata
singlepeoplewas
everexterminatedrootandbranchbytheir
frightfulslaughters.
Asinstancesofcomplete
destruction ofpeoplesbyconquerors
thecasesoftheTasmanians,theAustraliansandtheAmerican
Indiansarecommonlymentioned. But
actuallythosewere
primitive
tribeswithsmallpopulations
scatteredover
large
territories.Theyperished,
orare
perishing,chieflybecause,as
wehaveseen,agriculture
andan
encroaching
civilizationhave
reducedthesupply
of
biggamewhichwastheir
principalmeans
ofsubsistence. Inafew
regionswheretheIndianshavebeen

73. SO POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
abletoadapt
themselvestoacrudesortof
agriculture,theyhave
escaped
destruction. InMexicoandPeruthenativeswere
numerousatthetimeoftheSpanishconquestbecausetheyhad
reachedthe
agriculturalstage.In
spite
oftheslaughters
com-
mittedby
theirSpanishconquerorstheytodayformthegreat
majority
inSpanishAmerican
populations. In
Algeria,too,a
hardandbloodyconquestbytheFrenchhasnotreducedthe
numericalstrength
ofthenatives.
Ifweconsider,rather,theinnerfermentthat
goes
onwithin
thebody
of
everysociety,weseeatoncethatthe
struggle
for
preeminence
isfarmoreconspicuous
therethanthestruggle
forexistence. Competitionbetweenindividualsofevery
social
unitisfocuseduponhigherposition,wealth,authority,
control
ofthemeansandinstrumentsthatenableaperson
todirect
manyhuman activities,manyhuman wills,ashesees
fit.Thelosers,whoareofcoursethemajority
inthat
sortof
struggle,
arenotdevoured, destroyed
oreven
keptfromreproducing
theirkind,asis
basicallycharac-
teristicofthe
struggle
forlife.Theymerelyenjoyfewermaterial
satisfactions and,especially,
lessfreedomandindependence.
Onthewhole,indeed,incivilizedsocieties,farfrom
beinggradu-
allyeliminatedbya
process
ofnaturalselectionsocalled,the
lowerclassesaremore
prolific
thanthe
higher,andeveninthe
lowerclassesevery
individualinthelongrun
getsaloafofbread
andamate,thoughthebreadbemoreorlessdarkandhard-
earnedandthematemoreorlessunattractiveorundesirable.
Thepolygamy
thatiscommoninupper
classesistheonlypoint
thatmightbecitedin
support
ofthe
principle
ofnaturalselection
asapplied
toprimitiveandcivilizedsocieties.Buteventhat
argument
isweak.Amonghuman
beingspolygamydoesnot
necessarilyimplygreater fertility. Infact,the
preferably
polygamoushumansocietieshavebeentheonesthathavemade
leastsocial
progress.
Itwouldseemtofollow,therefore,that
naturalselectionhasproved
tobeleasteffectiveinthecases
whereithashadfreest
play.
14.Thenagain,
iftheprogress
ofaraceoranation
depends
primarily
on
organicimprovement
intheindividualswhocom-
poseit,theworld'sstory
should
present
afardifferent
plotfrom
theone,weknow*Themoralandintellectual,andthereforethe

74. 14] EVOLUTIONARYTHEORIES 31
social,progress
ofeverypeople
shouldbeslowerandmorecon-
tinuous.Thelawofnaturalselectioncombinedwiththelawof
heredityshouldcarryeachgenerationa
step,but
onlya
step,
aheadoftheprecedinggeneration;andweshouldnot,asis
frequently
thecasein
history,
seea
peopletakea
greatmany
stepsforward,orsometimesa
greatmanystepsbackward,in
thecourseoftwoorthree
generations.
Examples
ofsuchrapidadvancesand
giddy
declinesareso
commonas
scarcely
to
requiremention.Amerehundredand
twentyyearsintervenedbetweentheday
ofPisistratusandthe
day
ofSocrates;butduringthoseyearsHellenicart,Hellenic
thought,
Helleniccivilizationmadesuchmeasureless
progress
as
totransformanationofmediocrethoughancientcivilizationinto
theGreecewhichtracedthemost
glamorous,themostprofound,
themostunforgettablepages
inthe
story
ofhuman
progress.
WedonotmentionthecaseofRomebecause,totellthetruth,
Hellenicinfluenceplayeda
largepart
inhermeteoric
passage
frombarbarismtocivilization.The
Italy
oftheRenaissance is
chronologically onlyalittleovera
centuryremovedfromthe
Italy
ofDante;butinthatintervaltheartistic,moraland
scientificidealistransformedbyaninnercreativefermentofthe
nationandthemanoftheMiddleAgeschangesandis
gone.
Compare,
foramoment,theFranceof1650andtheFranceof
1750. StillaliveintheformeraremenwhocanrememberSt.
Bartholomew'sEve.The
religiouswars,theHolyLeague,the
falling
oftwo
kingsundertheassassin's
dagger,
arefactswhich
havenotyetacquiredthemystery
ofancientness eyewitnesses
ofthemcannotberare.Anyonewhohas
passedearlyyouth
mayeasilyhavebeenpresent
atthe
taking
ofLaRochelle,the
closihg
sceneinthehistoric
period
referredto.Almostnoone
daresvoiceadoubtastotheexistenceof
goblinsandwitches.A
scant
thirty-sevenyearshave
passed
sincethewifeofMarshal
d'Ancrewasburnedatthestakeasawitch.A
centurylater,
Montesquieu
isanoldman,VoltaireandRousseauareintheir,
prime,theEncyclopedia,
ifnot
published,
has
alreadyripened
in
theintellectual world.Asfarasideas,beliefs,customs,are
concerned,therevolutionof'89maybeconsidered
virtually
complete.Butwithoutwandering
farafieldforotherexamples,
whynottakethechiefcountries ofpresent-dayEurope
England,Germany,Italy,Spain? Certainly
iftheintellectual

75. 38 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.
I
and
spiritualrevolutionthathastaken
place
inthosecountries
inthecourseofthepastcenturyhadhadtodepend
on
organic
modificationsintheirpopulations,manydozensof
generations
at
leastwouldhavebeenrequired.
Incertain
regions,
whichfor
special
causeshadlagged
behind
the
general
trendin
Europe,
thetransformationhasbeenmore
rapidand,especially,moreprofound.Anyonesuperficially
familiarwiththehistoriesofScotlandand
Sicilycanmakea
readycomparisonbetweensocialconditionsinScotlandin1748
andthestatusthatcountryhadattainedin1848,andbetween
socialconditionsin
Sicily
in181andconditionstheretoday.
1
Ontheotherhand,examples
ofswiftdeclinesinnationsor
wholecivilizationsarefarfromrare.Thereisaverygeneral
inclinationto
charge
thesetodestructivebarbarianinvasions,
butthisisto
forget
thatbeforeacivilizedcountrycanfall
prey
tobarbarians itmusthave
lapsed
intoastateof
great
exhaustion
and
disorganization,whichinturnmustbeduetomoraland
politicaldecay.Greatercivilizationalmostalwayspresupposes
greaterpopulationandthe
possession
ofmorepotentandeffective
resourcesforoffenseanddefense.Chinahastwicebeencon-
queredbyMongols
orTatars,andIndiaanumberoftimesby
Turks,Tatarsand
Afghans.ButtheChineseandHinducivili-
zationshadalreadyentereduponperiods
ofdeclineatthetime
ofsuchinvasions.
Thatdeclineincivilized
peoples
isincertaincasesspontaneous
canbealmost
mathematically proved.
AllOrientalistsknow
thatthemostancientofallthe
Egyptian
civilizations theone
thatbuilttheNilecanals,invented
hieroglyphicwritingandreared
the
greatpyramids
fellto
pieces
ofitsownaccordandvanished
so
completely
thatsofarnoonehasbeenabletolearnwhy.
Therewerecivilwarsthatisallweknow.Thencamedark-
nessandbarbarism,fromwhich,morethanfourcenturies
later,anewcivilization
justas
spontaneouslyemerged. Says
Lenormant:
BeginningwiththecivildisturbancesinwhichNit-agrit
losthislife,
Egyptian
civilizationentersuponasudden
eclipsethathassofar
remainedunexplainable. Manethocounts436
yearsbetweentheend
oftheSixthDynastyandthe
beginning
oftheEleventh.
During
that
1
Therapidprogress
oftheScottishHighlandershasbeenstudiedbyColajanni
inLa
sociologia
criminale.

76. 14] EVOLUTIONARYTHEORIES 33
periodthemonumentsareabsolutely
silent. ItisasthoughEgypthad
beenstrickenfromtherosterofnations,andwhencivilizationreappears
attheendofthelongslumberitseemstobeginwithoutanytradition
fromthe
past.
1
Asamatteroffact,Lenormantdoesnotdeny
that
foreign
invasionsmayhaveoccurredduringtheperiod
in
question,but,
inanyevent,overandabovethefactthatthereisnotraceof
theminmonumentsand
inscriptions,
itiscertainthattheymust
havefollowed,not
preceded,
thedeclineoftheearlierEgyptian
civilization.
Babylonia,
formanycenturiesacenterofcivilization,wasnot
destroyedby
itsconquerors notbyCyrus,notbyDarius,not
byAlexander. Itcollapsedand
disappearedfromtheworld
scenebyslowdecay,byautomaticdissolution.TheRoman
Empire
intheWestissaidtohavebeendestroyedby
barbarians.
Butanyoneevenmoderately
familiarwithRoman
historyknows
thatthebarbarianskilledamere
corpse,thatthedeclineinart,
literature,wealth,public
administration inshort,inall
phases
ofRomancivilization hadbeentremendousbetweenthedays
of
MarcusAureliusandthedays
ofDiocletian. During
this
periodthebarbariansmadetemporary
raidsintoafewprovinces,
tobesure,buttheygained
afootholdnowherewithintheempire
andwroughtno
lasting
harm.A
great
invasionbytheGoths
occurredundertheEmperorDeciusandwas
finallyrepulsedby
ClaudiusII.Itwas,however,exceptional.
Itlaidwastethe
easternprovinces
oftheempire,butGreco-Roman civilization
wastosurviveformany,many
centuriesinthosevery
districts.
Withoutdisturbancesfromanyforeigninvasionorotherexternal
forces,theSpain
ofthesecondhalfoftheseventeenthcentury
becameamereshadowofthecountrythata
century
earlierhad
beentheSpain
ofCharlesV,andhalfacentury
earlierhadhad
aCervantes,aLope
deVegaandaQuevedo. This
rapiddecline
oftheIberianpeninsula
hasbeenblamedontheexpulsion
ofthe
Moors,whichoccurredforthemostpart
in1609,underPhilip
III.Buttheexpulsion
oftheMoors
injuredonlyafewprov-
inces,notablyparts
ofValenciaandAndalusia,andthesewere
the
regionsthatsufferedleastinthe
generalimpoverishment
of
Spain.PortugalandItalydeclinedsimultaneouslywithSpain,
1
Histoireanciennedel'0rient
tvol.II,chap^.
II.

77. 34 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
thoughtoaless
appreciable
extent.
Certainlytheywerenot
sufferingfromanyexpulsion
ofMoors.
Thetheory
oforganicand
superorganicevolutionwithnatural
selection
explains
allsuchfactsverybadly,
orrathernotatall.
Keeping
tothattheory,
amore
highly
civilizedpeople
shouldbe
progressivelypurifiedandimprovedbythe
struggle
forexistence
andshouldthroughheredityacquireoverothersanadvantage,
which,sofarasonecansee,itshouldnotloseintheraceofthe
nationsacrossthecenturies.Whatwesee,instead,isanation,
oragroup
of
peoples,now
leaping
forwardwithirresistible
impetus,then
collapsing
or
laggingwretchedlybehind.One
maynote,tobesure,acertain
progressivemovementwhich,in
spite
of
interruptionsand
gaps,
thrustsmankindfartherand
fartherforward,andthepresentcivilizationoftheAryan
race
isinfactsuperior
toall
preceding
civilizations. Butwemust
bearinmindthateverynew
people
thathasthegood
fortuneto
becomecivilizedhasashorterroadtotravelandexpendsinfinitely
lesseffort,because itinheritstheexperienceandthe
positive
knowledge
ofallthecivilizationsthathave
preceded
it.
CertainlytheGermansofTacituswouldneverhavesucceeded
insofewas
eighteen
centuriesin
formingsuchcentersofculture
asLondon,BerlinandNewYorkiftheyhadhadtodiscoverby
themselvesalphabetic writing,thefundamental
principles
of
mathematicsandalltheimmensestoreofknowledgethatthey
gainedfromcontactwiththeGreeksandRomans.Norwould
HellenicandRomancivilisationshavemadethe
progressthey
madewithoutinfiltrationsfromancientNearEasternciviliza-
tions,towhichthey
infactowedthe
alphabetandtherudiments
oftheexactsciences.Humancivilization
progressesby
scien-
tificratherthanbyorganic
inheritance. Thedescendantsofa
civilized
peoplemaystagnate
ormayeven
relapseintobarbarism,
butthe
learning
oftheirfathersmay
fertilizethenascentcivili-
zationofuncouthhordesthathappentofindthemselvesfavorably
placed
for
receivingsuchbeneficent
germs.ThemodernAnglo-
SaxonsarenotdescendantsoftheRomansortheGreeks,orofthe
Semitesof
Syriaamongwhomthe
religionthathasleftsodeep
animprintonthepeople
ofGreatBritainanditscolonies
origi-
nated.They
arenotdescendants oftheArabstowhomthe
worldowesmuchofthe
physicalandmathematical
knowledge
whichtheEnglishandAmericans ofmoderntimeshaveso

78. 14] EVOLUTIONARYTHEORIES 85
wondrouslyapplied
andmadeproductive.Whattheyhave
inherited isnotthebloodbutthescientificand
psychological
achievements ofthepeoplesmentioned. Attimesapeople
risinganewtocivilizationmay
availitselfoftheintellectualand
spiritualactivity
ofancestorswhohaveregressedfromciviliza-
tionafteronce
attaining
it.Thatwasthecasewiththeancient
EgyptiansandwiththeItaliansoftheRenaissance;butthat
veryfact,ifwechoosetoscrutinize it
carefully,furnishesone
moreargumentagainstthetheorythatsocial
progressdepends
on
organicheredity.
Eventheevolutionists recognizethatotherracesattained
civilization earlierthantheAryan
raceandearlierthanthe
Germanicbranchofthatracein
particular;buttheyaddthat
thoseracesdeclinedorbecame
stationary
becausetheyhadaged
inotherwords,becausetheyhadexhaustedalltheintellectual
andmoralresourcesattheircommand. Really,
thisideaofthe
aging
ofracesseemstoustheproduct
ofawhollyspecious
analogybetweenthelifeofanindividualandthelifeofacom-
munity. But,tokeep
tothefactsasweseethem,forthe
very
reasonthatthemembersofacommunitycontinuouslyreproduce
themselvesandeachnew
generation
hasallthe
vigor
of
youth,
awholesocietycanhardlygrow
oldinthesamesenseinwhich
anindividualgrowsoldwhenhispowersbegintofail.
1
Sofaras
weknow,furthermore,no
organic
differencehaseverbeenfound
betweentheindividualsina
progressingsocietyandtheindivid-
ualsinadecliningsociety.
Societiesindeclinegrow
oldbecauseof
changes
intheirtype
of
socialstructure.Atsuchtimes
religiousbeliefs,customs,preju-
dices,thetraditionsonwhich
politicalandsocialinstitutionsare
grounded,growold,orratheraregradually
discredited. But
theseareallsocialelements,thechanges
inwhichcomeabout
throughthe
interposition
ofnewhistoricalfactorswithwhicha
peoplechancestocomeintocontact,oreventhroughaslowand
automatic intellectual,moralandsocialevolutionwithinthe
people
itself. Itishazardous,therefore,veryhazardousindeed,
toassertthatchanges
inthe
physical
constitutionofaraceplay
anypart
insuch
things.
Itwouldbedifficulttoshowthatthe
brainsoftheFrenchmenofVoltaire'sdayweredifferentlycon-
1WeborrowthisremarkfromHenryGeorge,Progressand
Poverty*bookX,
chap.I,last
page.

79. 86 POLITICALSCIENCE
stitutedfromthebrainsoftheirgreat-grandfatherswhocom-
mittedtheMassacreofSt.Bartholomewand
organized
the
League.
Itis
veryeasy
toshow,ontheotherhand,thatina
littleoveracenturyandahalftheeconomicand-
political
situa-
tioninFrance,andherintellectual
atmosphere,hadaltered
radically.
Thebeliefthatallnon-Aryan
civilizations the
Egyptian,
the
Babylonian,
theancientandmodernChinesehavebeen,and
stillare,uniformlystationaryseemstoustobeduetonothing
lessthanan
optical
illusion
arising
fromthefactthatweview
themfromsofaraway.Soitiswiththemountainsof
Sicily,
which,viewedfromafaroffunderthatlimpid,transparentsky,
looklike
lovelyazurewalls
closing
thehorizonwithauniform
perpendicularity, butwhichfromcloseathandlook
altogether
otherwise,sinceeachcomprises
itsown
particular
littleworldof
ascents,descentsand
irregularities
of
every
kind.Chaldean
and
Egyptianmonumentshaveshownwitha
positiveness
that
canno
longerbequestionedthattherewereupsanddowns,
periods
ofdeclineand
periods
ofrenascenceand
progress
in
goodlynumberbothonthebanksoftheNileandonthebanks
oftheEuphratesandthe
Tigris.
1
AsforChina,itscivilization
has,tobesure,enduredamazinglyandwithoutinterruption
for
somethousands of
years,butthatisnot
sayingthatitwas
always
thesame.Weknowenough
ofChinese
history
tobe
certainthatthe
politicalandsocialorganization
oftheCelestial
Empire
hasundergonetremendouschanges
inthecourseofthe
centuries. Chinahadherfeudalperiodand,atleastuntilvery
recently,shewasruledbyabureaucracyrecruitedbycompetitive
examinations. Religionandpropertyownershiphavealsounder-
gonemostvariedvicissitudesinChina.
2
15.InhisEvolutiondelamorale,Letourneauattributes
prog-
ressinhumansocietiestoan
organicprocesswherebyagood
action,whichwouldbeausefulaction,leavesitsmarkonthe
brainandnervecentersoftheindividualwhoperforms
it.That
mark,repeatedoverandover
again,producesa
tendencyto
reiteratethesameact,andthetendency
isinturntransmitted
1
Lenormant,Maspero,Brugsch.
2
Rousset,AtraverslaChine;Mechnikov,Lacivilisation etlesgrandsfleuves
kistoriques;Clis6eR6clus,Nouvelle
g&ographieuniverselle,vol.VII.

80. 15] EVOLUTIONARYTHEORIES 37
totheindividual'sdescendants. Inthefirstplace,onemight
askwhybadinotherwords,harmful actionsshouldnotleave
similarmarks;andinthesecond
place,
asregards
usefulacts,
onemightask,usefultowhom?Totheindividualwhoperforms
themorto
society?
Thetwoutilitiesareonlytooseparateand
distinct,anditwouldseem
necessary
tohavehadvery
little
experience
oftheworldtomaintainthatanactionthatisuseful
to
society
is
generally
usefultotheindividualwhoperforms it,
andviceversa.ButsupposeweletLetourneauspeak
forhimself :
Justasphosphorescent bodiesremember
light,sothenervecell
remembers itsintimateacts,butin
ways
thatare
infinitelymorevaried
and
persistent. Every
actthathasbeenperformed
attheinstanceofa
nervecellleavesonthecellasortoffunctionalresiduethatthencefor-
wardwillfacilitaterepetitions
oftheactandsometimesprovoke
it.
Suchreiteration,infact,willbecomeeasierandeasierandintheendwill
take
placespontaneously, automatically. Bythattimethenervecell
has
acquiredaninclination,ahabit,aninstinct,aneed.
1
Andagainhesays:
Nervecellsare
essentiallyimpregnationmechanisms. Everycur-
rentofmolecularactivitythatrunsthroughthemleavesamoreorless
revivescent traceuponthem.By
sufficient
repetition
thesetraces
becomeorganic,fixed,andareeventransmittedbyheredity,andeach
ofthemhasacorresponding tendency,a
corresponding inclination,
whichwillmanifestitselfinduetimeandcontributetotheformationof
whatiscalledcharacter. Thisgeneralpicturemustbeheldinviewif
onewouldhaveanycomprehension
ofthe
originandevolutionof
morality.
Furtherpursuing
thesameideaheadds:
Intheiressentialaspectsethicsareutilitarianand
progressive.
However,oncetheyhavebeenformed,oncetheyhavebeenestablished
inthenervecenters,moralorimmoralinclinationsfadeasslowlyasthey
havebeenclothedwithflesh.Oftenalsotheyreappearatavistically,
andinsuchcasesonesuddenly
seesmoralspecimensfromtheStoneAge
rising
inthefullmidstofa
relatively
civilized
society,orheroictypes
in
theflowerofamercantilecivilization.
Thesequotationsshouldsufficetogivea
fairlyaccurateideaof
thewriter'sbasic
conception. They
willfurthersufficeto
give
a
1
Evolutiondelamorale,chaps.IIandXX.

81. 38 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.
I
fairly
clearideaofthe
arguments
ofthewholeschoolthatbases
its
sociologyontheanthropological
sciences.
Buthoweverattractive,howeverdaring,hypothesesmaybe,
theyareofvalueinscienceonlywhentheyaresupportedby
experience,
inotherwords,bydemonstrations basedonfact.
Wehavenointentionof
discussing
herethegenuineness
ofthe
complicatedorganicprocessthatwefindsetforthinLetourneau's
bookwithsuchdefinitenessandassurance.Butfactsarealways
facts.Theyhavethesamescientificvaluewhetherthey
are
derivedfromstudiesofnervecells,orofthehaircolorandcranial
measurements ofthisraceorthat,fromobservations ofanimal
societiesorfromstudiesofhuman
history.Theonly
classifica-
tioninorderofimportancethatispermissible
isaclassification
that
distinguishescarefully
ascertainedfacts facts,for
example,
thathavenotbeendiscoveredandchampionedbythesamemen
whohavespun
theoriesaboutthemfromdubious,inadequately
testedfactsthathavebeencoloredbythepreconceptions
ofthe
observer.Nowall
historyamplyshowsthatthe
progress
of
humansocietiesdoesnotfollowthecoursethatitwouldfollow
ifthetheoriesofthe
anthropological
schoolweresound.Before
wecan
acceptthesetheories,therefore,they
atleasthavetobe
qualified.
Ithastobeadmittedthatthecivilizedhumanbeing,
orthehumanbeingcapable
ofcivilization,whois
certainlyno
newcomeronthefaceoftheearth,hasexperienced
inhisnerve
cellssomanyandsuchvariedmoral
impressions
thatheisableto
adoptthemostdisparate
tendenciesandhabits,boththose
whichleada
societytowardintellectual,moraland
political
bettermentandthosewhichcarry
ittowarddeclineandruin.
1
16.Butso
qualified,theanthropologicaltheoryhasno
practi-
calvalueleft. Itdoesnot,itcannot,tellus
anything
thatwe
donot
alreadyknow. Itismoreworthourwhile,therefore,to
seekscientificresultsalongsomeotherroad,howeverroughthe
1
SeeFouillee,"LaPsychologicdespeuples
etFanthropologie." Thisarticle
supportspracticallythesamethesisthatweputforwardhere,withmoreorless
similararguments.
Fouilleewrites:"Ethnicfactorsarenotthe
onlyfactors,
northemostimportantones,that
figure
inanationalcharacter. Uniform
education,similar
training,commonbeliefsmorethanmakeup
fordifferences
inracialstock." ColajanniandMechnikov alsovigorouslyand
brilliantly
combatwriterswhoareinclinedtoexaggeratetheimportanceofraceasasocial
factor.

82. 16] THEHISTORICALMETHOD 39
goingmay
be.Thetruthisthat
just
asthestudy
ofclimatic
differenceshasneverbeenabletosupply
a
generallawto
explain
the
organization
ofhumansocietiesandthevariety
oftypethat
suchsocietiespresent,
sotoono
satisfactorylawhasbeenfound
onthebasisofracialdiversities;norisit
possibletoascribethe
progress
ortheruinofnationsto
organicimprovements or
organicdegenerations
inraces.
Anyonewhohastraveledagooddealordinarilycomestothe
conclusionthatunderneath
superficial
differencesincustomsand
habitshumanbeingsare
psychologically verymuchalikethe
worldover;andanyonewhohasread
history
atall
deeplyreaches
asimilarconclusionwith
regard
tothevariousperiods
ofhuman
civilization. Dipping
intothedocumentsthattellushow
people
ofother
agesfelt,thoughtandlived,wecomealways
tothesame
conclusion:thattheywereverymuchlikeus.
Psychologicalresemblance isalwaysstrongeramongpeoples
whohaveattainedapproximately
similarlevelsofcivilization
thanitisamongpeoples
closertoeachother
chronologicallyand
ethnically.
Inhismannerof
thinkingamodernItalianor
GermanisnearertoaGreekofthetimeofPlatoandAristotle
thanheistoamedievalancestorofhisown.Theliteraturesof
thedifferentepochs
bearthemostemphatictestimonytothatfact.
Suchpsychologicalresemblances,andthefactthatthe
great
raceswhichconstitutefour-fifthsofmankindhaveshownthem-
selvescapable
ofthemostvariedvicissitudes of
progressand
declineleadustoadvanceahypothesiswhichfollowsalsofrom
the
negativeinvestigationswehavesofarbeenmaking.Weare
inclinedtothinkthat
just
ashuman
beings,
oratleastthe
great
humanraces,haveaconstanttendencytowardsocial
grouping,
sotootheyhaveequallyconstantandpowerfulpsychological
tendencieswhichimpelthemonwardtowardever
higher
levelsof
cultureandsocial
progress.Suchtendencies,however,operate
withmoreorless
vigor,
ormayevenbestifled,accordingasthey
find
physicalenvironments complexes
ofcircumstances that
mightbecalled"chance" whicharemoreorlessfavorable;
and
according
alsoasthey
aremoreorlesshamperedby
social
environments,inotherwordsbypsychologicaltendenciesequally
universalandconstant.
1
1
For
proofthatwhatwecall"chance" achainofcircumstances that
escapehumancontrolandforesight
hasitsinfluenceonthedestiniesofnations,

83. 40 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
That,afterall,isan
organicprocess
similartowhattakesplace
inthewholeanimalandvegetableworld,though
farmorecom-
plicated.A
plant
hasa
strongtendency
tospreadandmultiply.
The
tendencymay
besecondedorthwartedbyphysical
environ-
ment,inotherwordsby
conditionsofwatersupply
andclimate,
bychanceintheformofwindandbirdswhichfertilizeorscatter
itsseeds,andthenagainby
traitsofthe
plantitself,the
greater
or
lesserresistance itofferstodiseasesthatattack it.Anda
similar
processgoesoninthatbranchofsocial
activitywhich
hasbeenso
generallyandso
successfully
studied theproduction
ofwealth.Wealthproductionhasatendency
toincreaseunlim-
itedly,butthetendency
ismoreorlesshinderedbyphysical
obstacles;itistoanextenthinderedbychance;anditishindered,
finally,by
the
ignorance,
theconsuminggreedandthemental
attitudesofhuman
beings.
Manneithercreatesnor
destroysany
oftheforcesofnature,
buthecanstudy
theirmannerof
actingandtheir
interplayand
turnthemtohisadvantage. Thatistheprocedure
in
agricul-
ture,in
navigation,
inmechanics.Byfollowing
itmodern
sciencehasbeenabletoachievealmostmiraculous resultsin
thosefieldsof
activity.Themethodsurelycannotbedifferent
whenthesocialsciencesareinvolved,andinfactitisthevery
methodthathasalreadyyielded
fairresultsin
politicaleconomy.
Yetwemustnot
disguise
thefactthatinthesocialsciencesin
generalthedifficultiestobeovercomeareenormouslygreater.
Not
onlydoesthe
greatercomplexity
of
psychologicallaws
(or
constanttendencies)thatarecommontoallhumangroupsmake
ithardertodeterminetheir
operation,butitiseasiertoobserve
the
thingsthatgoonaboutusthanitistoobservethe
thingswe
ourselvesdo.Mancanmuchmore
easilystudythephenomena
of
physics,chemistryorbotanythanhecanhisowninstincts
andhisown
passions.Oneshouldthinkofthe"divers
prej-
udices"which,according
toSpencer,impedeprogress
inthe
socialsciences. Certainlythestudentof
politicalsciencehasto
look
objectivelyuponnationalities, religions,politicalparties,
politicaldoctrines,treatingthemmerely
asphenomena ofthe
weneedonly
reflectthatinthepastthefateofanationhasoften
hingedonthe
outcomeofa
singlebattle(forexample,Plataea,Zama,J^rez,Poitiers,Hastings)
andthat,especially
beforewarscametobewagedaccordingtoscientific
prin-
ciples,chanceplayed
alargepart
intheoutcomeofabattle.

84. 17] THEHISTORICALMETHOD 41
humanmind.Buttheprecept
ismoreeasilygiven
toothers
than
appliedby
one'sself. Itmustbeconfessedthatthe
objec-
tivity
essentialtothesuccessfulconductofthistype
ofobserva-
tionwillalwaysbethe
privilege
ofthelimitednumberofindi-
vidualswhoareendowedwith
specialaptitudesandhaveunder-
gonespecial
intellectual
training.Butthen,evengranting
thatsuchindividualscanattainscientificresults,itis
highly
problematicalwhethertheycansucceedin
usingthemtomodify
the
politicalconduct ofthegreathuman societies.What
happens
ineconomics isinstructive. Freetradeisunanimously
regardedbyunprejudicedexperts
inthatscienceasagoodthing,
yetthemosthighly
civilizednationsaretodayturningtothe
fiercestprotectionism.
17.Whatever
practicalvalue
politicalsciencemayhaveinthe
future,progress
inthatfieldwillbebasedupon
thestudy
ofthe
factsof
society,andthosefactscanbefound
only
inthe
history
ofthevariousnations. Inotherwords,if
political
scienceisto
be
groundedupontheobservationand
interpretation
ofthe
factsof
politicallife,itistotheoldhistoricalmethodthatwe
mustreturn.Tothatmethodanumberof
objections,moreor
lessserious,are
being
raisedandwemust
brieflyconsiderthem.
Itissaid,inthefirst
place,thatanynumberofwriters,from
AristotledowntoMachiavelli,Montesquieuandthescholarsof
ourown
day,haveusedthehistoricalmethodandthat,though
many
oftheirincidentalobservationshavebeen
universally
accepted
asgroundedupon
factandastruths
scientifically
acquired,no
truly
scientificsystem
hasas
yetbeenfound.
Butwhatwehave
already
saidofthe
positivemethodin
generalmay
besaidofthehistoricalmethodin
particular:that
to
yieldgood
resultsithastobeproperlyapplied.Nowbefore
itcanbe
properlyapplied
anindispensablerequirement
isawide
andaccurateknowledge
of
history,andthatwasnotwithinthe
reachofAristotleorMachiavelliorMontesquieu,orof
any
other
writerwholivedearlierthanacenturyago.Greatsyntheses
canbeessayedonly
afteravastbody
offactshavebeenaccumu-
latedandverifiedbythescientificmethod. Historicalinforma-
tionwasofcoursenot
lacking
incenturies
past,butitborealmost
exclusivelyupon
isolated
periods.Downtothe
beginning
ofthe
lastcentury,Greco-Roman civilizationandthehistory
ofthe

85. 42 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
modernEuropean
nationswereknown
perhaps
afterafashion,
butasforthepast
oftherestoftheworldnothingwasavailable
exceptthevaguest
of
legendsandveryuntrustworthy
traditions.
Evenwithinthelimitedportions
of
historyjustmentioned,such
knowledge
aswasavailablewasfarfrom
perfect.Thecritical
sensewasstillundeveloped. Therewasnoneofthatpatient
documentaryresearch,ofthatminuteandattentiveinterpreta-
tionof
inscriptions,whichhasnotonlydrawnthegeneral
lines
oftheactsof
great
historicalcharactersmoreaccuratelyand
clearlybuthasrevealeddetailsofsocialcustomand
politicaland
administrativeorganization
inthedifferentpeopleswhichareof
far
greater
interesttothestudy
of
politicalsciencethanthe
personal
featsof
great
warriorsandrulers.
Exactknowledge
of
physicalgeography,ethnologyandcom-
parativephilology,whichshed
lightonthe
originsandbloodties
ofnations;prehistory,whichhasrevealedtheancientnessofthe
human
speciesandofcertaincivilizations;the
interpretation
of
hieroglyphic,cuneiformandancientHindualphabets,which
hasunveiledthemysteries
ofOrientalcivilizationsnowextinct
allthesewereconquests
ofthenineteenth
century.Duringthe
samecenturythemiststhatenvelopedthehistory
ofChina,
JapanandothernationsoftheFarEastwereatleast
partially
clearedawayandtherecordsofancientAmericancivilizations
wereinpartdiscovered,inpartmoreaccuratelystudied.
Finally
duringthatcenturycomparative
statisticalstudiesfirstcame
intogeneraluse,facilitatingknowledge
ofconditionsamong
farawaypeoples.Therecanbenodoubtaboutit:wherethe
studentofthesocialsciencescouldonceonlyguess,henowhas
themeanstoobserveandtheinstrumentsandthematerials
todemonstrate.
Aristotlehadbutaveryimperfectknowledge
ofthe
history
ofthegreat
Asiaticmonarchies. Hisinformationwasprobably
limitedtowhatHerodotusandXenophonhadwrittenandto
whathehadbeenabletolearnfromAlexander'sveterans,who
hadlittleunderstanding
ofthecountriestheyconquered.The
onlypoliticaltypeheknewwastheGreek
city-state
ofthe
fourthandfifthcenturiesbeforeourera.Hecouldhave
learnedlittleornothing
thatwasaccurateabouttherestofthe
world.Underthosecircumstances hisPolitics isanextra-
ordinary
intellectualfeat,andhisclassification ofgovernments

86. 18] THEHISTORICALMETHOD 48
intomonarchies, aristocraciesanddemocracies (aclassification
thatmightnowbejudgedsuperficialand
incomplete)wascer-
tainlythevery
bestthatthehumanmindcouldcontriveinhisday.
*TheonlymodelforthestatethatMachiavellihad
directly
beforehimwastheItaliancommuneofthelatefifteenthcentury,
withitsalternativesoftyrannyandanarchy,wherepowerwas
wonorlostinagame
ofviolenceand
trickery,withthewinnings
tohimwhowasthebetterliarordeliveredthelastdagger
thrust.
Wecanunderstandhowsuchamodelmustsohaveimpressed
his
mindastomakehimwritehisPrince*Thefactthathisinforma-
tionwasconfinedalmostexclusively
tosuchRomanhistory
as
couldbelearnedinhisdayandtothe
history
ofthe
greatmodern
monarchieswhichhadrisenalittlebeforehistimeexplains
his
commentaryon
Livy,
hishistoriesandhisletters.Montesquieu
hadnoway
ofknowingthe
history
oftheOrientverymuch
betterthanAristotle,orthatofGreeceandRomeanymore
profoundlythanMachiavelli. Hiswiderknowledge
ofthe
institutionsand
history
ofPrance,EnglandandGermany,
coupledwithhislittleknowledge
ofothercountries,explains
his
theorythat
politicallibertywouldbe
possibleonly
incold
countries.
18.Anotherobjection
ismadetothehistoricalmethod. If
itisnosounderthantheabove
objection,
itis
certainlymore
alluring,
somuchsothatinthe
eyes
ofmany
itmayseemtobe
veryserious,
ifnotinsuperable.
Itrelatestothescantrelia-
bility
ofhistoricalmaterials. Itiscommonlyallegedthat,for
alloftheirmanyefforts,historiansoftenfailtodiscoverthe
truth:thatitisoftenhardtodeterminewithanyexactnessjust
how
thingswhichhavehappened
inourowntownswithinthe
yearactuallycametopass;
sothatitis
virtuallyimpossible
to
obtainaccountsthatareworthy
ofbeliefwhenfaraway
times
and
places
areconcerned.Nooneforgetstopoint
tocontradic-
tionsbetweenthedifferenthistorians,totheliethey
often
give
eachother,tothe
passionsbywhichtheyarecommonlyswayed
theconclusion
being
thatnocertaininferences,norealscience,
canbederivedfromfactswhicharealwaysverydubious,always
veryimperfectlyknown.
Itisnothardtoanswersucharguments. Firstofall,and
incidentally,onemight
notethatonlywhenwehavenointerest

87. 44 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
in
learning
thetruth,ornomeansof
doingso,orwhen
contrary
interestsareopposed
toour
doingso,dowefailtolearnthe
exacttruthaboutcontemporary happenings.
Ifnosuch
obstaclesare
present,anyonewhois
willingtospendthetiiffe
andthemoneyrequiredcanalways,byamoreorlessintensive
inquiry,
discoverinthemazeof
varyingversions,gossipingsand
hearsaysjusthowa
given
eventcameto
pass.As
regards
historical facts,theolderthey
arethefainterbecomesthe
clamoroftheintereststhataimtodistortetactknowledge
regardingthem,andwetakeitforgrantedthatthehistorian
has
patienceenoughandtimeenoughto
disentanglethetruth
concerningthem.
Offar
greaterimportance
isasecondobservationthatwemust
makeinthisconnection. Thehistoricalfactswhichareand
always
willbeshroudedinthe
greatestuncertainty
areanecdotal,
biographicalfacts,factswhichmay
involvethe
vanity
or
profit
ofaman,anation,a
party.
Itis
chiefly
in
regard
tosuchfacts
thatthe
passions
ofawritermaybethecause,beit
unwittingly,
oferror.Fortunatelythattype
offactisofscantinteresttothe
studentofthe
political
sciences. Itmakeslittledifferenceto
himwhetherabattlehasbeenwonthroughthemeritofone
commanderorlostthroughthefaultofanother,orwhethera
politicalassassinationwasmoreorless
justifiable.Ontheother
hand,therearefactsthatconcernthesocial
typeand
organiza-
tionofthevarious
peoplesandthevariousepochs;anditisabout
suchfacts,whichareofthegreater
interesttous,thathistorians,
spontaneouslyandwithoutbias,oftentellthetruth.Atany
rate,more
enlighteningthanthehistoriansarethedocuments
themselves.
Weshallprobably
neverknow
justwhenHomerlived,in
whatcityhewasborn,whatepisodesmarkedhislife.These
problemsmayhaveacertaininterestforthecriticorthescholar,
whowouldliketoknowthemostminutedetailsaboutthelife
oftheauthoroftheIliadandtheOdyssey.Theyareoflittle
interesttothe
politicalscientist,whois
studyingthe
psycho-
logicalandsocialworldthatthe
greatpoetdescribes,aworld
which,howevermuchthebard's
fancymayhaveembellished
it,
must
actuallyhaveexistedinanagebut
slightlyanteriortohis
time.NoonewilleverknowthebreedofAlcibiades'
dog,the
colorofAlexander'shorse,whattheexactfaultsandmeritsof

88. 18] THEHISTORICALMETHOD 45
Themistocles were,justhowthespeeches
ofPericleswere
delivered,whether
Agesilauswaslameinhis
rightleg
orhisleft.
Butithasbeenestablishedbeyondpossibility
ofdoubtthat
fromthesixthtothefourth
century
beforeourerathereexisted
inHellasacertaintype
of
politicalorganization,thedifferent
varietiesand
peculiarities
ofwhichwealreadyknowwell(and
shallknowevenbetteras
inscriptionsandmonumentsthatare
graduallybeingfoundarestudied),alongwiththedetailsofits
administrative,economicand
military
structure.
Noone,probably,
willeverknowanythingexactaboutthe
lifeofCheops,theEgyptianking
oftheFourth
Dynasty,
in
spite
ofthe
greatpyramid
thatheorderedraisedashistomb.
Noonewilleverpossessthebiography
ofRamsesII,ofthe
NineteenthDynasty,though
Pentaur'spoem
incelebrationofhis
victories, realor
imaginary,
stillsurvives.Butnoonewill
doubtthat
thirty
or
forty
centuriesbeforeourerathereexisted
inthe
valley
oftheNilean
organized,civilized,verypopulous
society,andthatthehuman
spiritmusthavemade
prodigious
effortsofpatienceand
originality
toraiseitfrombarbarism.No
onecandoubtthatthat
society,everchangingwiththerevolv-
ingcenturies,had
religious
beliefsandscientificinformationand,
attimes,anadministrativeand
militaryorganization
soremark-
ablethatitmightalmostbecompared
withthoseofthemost
highly
civilizedstatesofourowntime.
1
WemaydoubtwhetherTiberiusandNeroweretherascals
thatTacitussaidtheywereandwhetherthefeeblemindedness
ofClaudius,thelasciviousness ofMessalina,Caligula'spassion
forhishorse,maynothavebeenexaggerated. Butwecannot
deny
thattheRomanempire
existedandthatitsemperorshada
power
tocommitcrimesandfollieswhichwouldnothavebeen
toleratedinotherepochsandinothertypes
of
politicalorgani-
zation.Norcanwedoubtthatintheearlycenturiesofour
eraa
greatcivilization,embodied
politically
ina
greatstate,
embracedthewholeMediterranean basin.Wealreadyknow
well,andshallknowbetterandbetter,the
legislationandthe
highlyperfectedfinancial,administrativeandmilitaryorgani-
zationofthatstate.Wemaygo
sofarastoassumethatSakya
1
Therewereperiodswhenpublic
officesseemtohavebeenawardedbyexami-
nationsandwhenarmy
officerswereeducatedandtrainedin
specialmilitary
schools.

89. 46 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
Muniwaswhollyamyth,
thatJesuswasnevercrucifiedoreven
thatheneverexisted.Butnoonewilleverdenytheexistenceof
BuddhismandChristianity,alongwiththedogmas
andmor$l
preceptsonwhichtheywerefounded;norwillanyone
everdeny
thatsincethosetwo
religionshave
spreadabroadsowidelyand
havesolongenduredtheymust
satisfyemotionsandpsycho-
logicalneedsthatarewidelyprevalent
inthehumanmasses.
19.Inconclusion, then,whiletheanecdoteandthebio-
graphical
detailmayhavehadtheirinfluenceonthe
history
of
nations,theycanbeoflittlehelp
in
discoveringthe
greatpsycho-
logical
lawsthataremanifestedinthelivesofthenations.Such
lawsrevealtheiroperation, rather,inadministrative and
judicialinstitutions, in
religions,
inallthemoraland
political
customsofthevariousnations;anditisthereforeuponthese
la'st
categories
offactsthatwemustconcentrateourattention.
Withregard
tosuchfacts,itseemstousdifficultand
scarcely
worthourwhiletoestablishveryrigid
standardsof
preference.
Any
detailofinformation,beithistoricalorcontemporary,which
relatestotheinstitutions ofa
people
thatis
organizedpoliti-
callya
people,
inotherwords,thathasconsolidated in
fairly
populousmassesandattainedacertaindegree
ofcivilization,of
whatevertypemaybeveryinteresting.
Ifanyrecommenda-
tionmaybemadeinthematter,itisthis:thatweavoid
deriving
allourobservationsfromagroup
of
politicalorganisms
that
belong
tothesamehistoricalperiod
or
presentthesame,ornot
widelydiffering,types
ofcivilization.
Forexample,
iftheonlyhistoryweconsideredwerethatofthe
Greekstatesinthe
age
ofPericles,wemightbeledtobelievethat
the
history
oftheworldcomesdowntoa
strugglebetween
Hellenismandbarbarism,orbetweendemocracyand
aristocracy
(orbetter,betweentwooligarchies,theoneofamorelimited,
theotherofamoreinclusivemembership).
Ifwe
thoughtonly
ofEuropebetweentheyear
1500andthe
year1600,we
might
concludethatthewholemovement ofhumanityduring
that
periodcamedowntoaconflictbetweenCatholicismandProtes-
tantism,orbetweenEuropeanandMohammedan civilizations.
InhisFirst
PrinciplesSpencer
triedtoforearmstudentsofthe
socialsciencesagainstwhathecalled"perversions
ofjudgment"
or"bias,"against
certainhabitsofthehumanmindwhereby

90. 20] THEHISTORICALMETHOD 47
theobserverviewsthefactsof
societyfroma
subjective,one-
sidedandlimitedpoint
ofviewthatisinevitablyproductiveof
erroneousresults.Nowtoeliminatethat
pitfall
itisnotenough
towarnanyonelikely
tofallintoitthatthe
pitfall
exists.His
mindhastobetrainedinsuchawayastoavoidit.Awareness
of
politicalprejudice,
nationalprejudice, religious
oranti-
religiousprejudice,
doesnotpreventanindividual,whenhecomes
toa
practicalapplication
oftheSpencerian theories,from
falling
intooneormoresuchprejudices
ifhehasbeenrearedin
thebeliefthattheadoption
ofa
given
formof
government
is
enoughtoregeneratemankind,thathisnationisthefirstin
theuniverse,thathis
religion
istheonlytrueoneorthat
human
progress
consistsin
destroying
all
religion.Thereal
safeguardagainst
thattype
oferrorliesinknowinghowtolift
one'sjudgmentabovethebeliefsandopinionswhicharecurrent
inone'stimeor
peculiar
tothesocialornationaltype
towhich
onebelongs.Thattogobacktoapointonwhichwehave
alreadytouchedcomeswiththestudyofmany
socialfacts,
withabroadandthoroughknowledge
of
history,not,certainly,
ofthehistory
ofa
singleperiod
orasinglenationbutsofaras
we
possiblycanthehistory
ofmankindasawhole.
0.Inourdaythereprevails,
oratleastdowntoavery
recentday
thereprevailed,
insocialresearcha
tendency
to
give
special
attentiontothesimplerandmore
primitivepolitical
organizations. Somescholarsgo
asfarbackas
possibleand
scrupulouslyanalyze
animalsocieties,trackingdowninbee-
hives,anthillsandthelairsofquadrupedsandquadrumanes
theearliestorigins
ofthesocialsentimentsthatfindtheircom-
pleteexpression
inthe
greatpoliticalorganisms
ofmen.The
majoritykeep
tothe
organizations
ofsavagetribes,andall
circumstances
relating
tosuch
peoplesarenotedandrecorded.
Thenarrativesoftravelerswhohavelivedamongsavageshave
so
acquiredspecialimportance,and
quotationsfromthemfill
modernvolumeson
sociology.
Wedonotsaythatsuchstudiesareuseless itishardtofind
anyapplication
ofthehuman
intelligencethatis
completely
unfruitful. Butcertainlytheydonotseemthebestadaptedto
furnishingsoundmaterialsforthesocialsciencesin
generaland
for
political
sciencein
particular.
Firstofall,thenarrativesof

91. 48 POLITICALSCIENCE [CHAP.I
travelersareasarulemore
subjective,morecontradictory,
less
trustworthy
thantheaccountsofhistorians,andtheyareless
subject
tocheckingbydocumentsandmonuments.Anindi-
vidualwhofindshimselfamongpeoplewho
belong
toavery
differentcivilizationfromtheonetowhichheisaccustomed
generally
viewsthemfromcertain
specialpoints
ofview,andso
mayreadily
bemisled.Herodotuswasthe
greatest
travelerof
antiquity,and,as
checkinghasnowproved,hewasacon-
scientiousandfarfrom
superficialobserver. Nevertheless,he
reportedmanythingsincorrectly,
forthesolereasonthathewas
steeped
inaGreekcivilizationandsowas
poorlyequipped
to
interpretcertainphenomena
ofNearEasterncivilization. If
onecouldcheckthe
reports
ofmoderntravelersonauthentic
documents, ashas
occasionallybeen
possible
inthecaseof
Herodotus,wedonotbelieve-thattheywouldprovetobeany
moreexact. Ifoneis
looking
for
lightontherealsocialcondi-
tionsofa
givenpeople,anauthenticdocumentsuchastheLaws
ofManu,thefragments
oftheTwelveTablesortheCodeof
Rothariisworthmuchmorethanthe
reports
ofanynumberof
moderntravelers.Weunderstand,however,thatatraveler's
accountmayproveveryusefulin
providing
illustrationandcom-
mentforsuchdocuments. Inthecaseof
primitivepeoples,of
course,nodocumentswhateverareavailable.
Inthesecond
place,
socialfactscanbe
gatheredonly
ina
humansociety,andbysocietywemeannotasmallgroup
of
afewfamiliesbutwhatiscommonly
calledanation,a
people,a
state.
Psychological
socialforcescannot
develop,andcannot
find
scope,except
in
largepoliticalorganisms,
in
aggregates,that
is,wherenumerous
groups
ofhumanbeings
arebroughttogether
inamoraland
political
union.Inthe
primitivegroup,
inthe
tribeof
fifty
orahundredindividuals,the
politicalproblem
hardlyexists,andthereforecannotbestudied.
Monarchy,
forexample,
iseasyenough
tounderstandina
smalltribewherethe
strongestandcraftiestmalereadilyimposes
hiswillonahandfulofcomrades.Butwemustbein
possession
ofverydifferentelementsbeforewecanaccountfortheestab-
lishmentofsuchaninstitutioninasociety
ofmillionsofindi-
viduals,wherea
singlemanalonecannotforcehimselfbyphysical
strengthupon
alltheotherscombined,andwhere,however
craftyand
energeticamanmaybe,hewill
readilyfindinthe

92. 20] THEHISTORICALMETHOD 49
massesabouthimhundredsofindividualswho,atleastpoten-
tially,
areastalentedandresourcefulashe.Soagainwecan
easily
seehowafewdozenorevenafewhundredindividuals
livingtogether,and
holdingapart
inmoralifnotmaterialisola-
tionfromtherestoftheworld,shouldcometopresentadefinite
onenessofmentaltypeandtohavea
lively
senseoftribeand
family.Buttounderstandthatisoflittlehelpwhenwecome
to
explainingwhya
singlemoral
type,anintensenational
feeling,
shouldexistinhumanaggregations
oftensandsometimes as
inthecaseofRussiaandChina ofhundredsofmillionsof
persons,whereindividuals
pass
theirwholelivesfarremoved
frommostoftheirfellows,areforthemostpartcutofffromany
personal
intercoursewiththem,andintheirvariousgroups
face
widelydiffering
conditionsofmaterial
living.
Thestudy
ofminute
political
unitsissaidtobeusefulbecause
theyshowinembryo
allthesocial
organsthatgraduallydevelop
in
largerandmoreadvancedsocieties;anditissupposed
tobe
mucheasiertostudy
themannerof
working
ofsuchorganswhen
theyareintheirrudimentaryformsthanwhentheyhavegrown
morecomplex.Butthecomparing,nowso
frequent,
ofthe
organization
ofhumansocietieswith
organizations
ofindividual
animalsocietieshasneverseemedtouslessaptandless
instructivethaninthisinstance. Itcan
easilybeturnedagainst
thethesisinfavorofwhichitwasinvoked.Wedonotbelieve
thatanyzoologistwould
try
tosolveproblems
ofanatomyand
physiology
inthewarm-blooded vertebratesbystudyingthe
loweranimals. Itwasnot,certainly,fromtheobservationof
amoebasand
polyps
thatthecirculationofthebloodwasdis-
coveredandthatthefunctionsoftheheart,brainandlungs
in
manandtheother
higher
animalswere
finallydetermined.

93. CHAPTERII
THERULINGCLASS
Amongtheconstantfactsandtendenciesthataretobe
foundinall
politicalorganisms,oneissoobviousthatitisappar-
enttothemostcasual
eye.
Inallsocietiesfromsocietiesthat
areverymeagerlydevelopedandhave
barelyattainedthedawn-
ings
ofcivilization,downtothemostadvancedandpowerful
societiestwoclassesof
peopleappearaclassthatrulesanda
classthatisruled.Thefirstclass,alwaysthelessnumerous,
performs
all
politicalfunctions,monopolizespowerandenjoys
theadvantages
thatpowerbrings,whereasthesecond,themore
numerousclass,isdirectedandcontrolledbythefirst;inamanner
thatisnowmoreorless
legal,nowmoreorless
arbitraryand
violent,andsuppliesthefirst,inappearance atleast,with
materialmeansofsubsistenceandwiththeinstrumentalities
thatareessentialtothe
vitality
ofthe
politicalorganism.
In
practical
lifeweallrecognizetheexistenceofthis
ruling
class(orpoliticalclass,aswehaveelsewherechosentodefine
it).
1
Weallknowthat,inourown
country,whichever itmaybe,
themanagement
ofpublic
affairsisinthehandsofaminority
of
influential
persons,
towhichmanagement, willingly
orunwill-
ingly,themajority
defer.Weknowthatthesamethinggoes
oninneighboringcountries,andinfactweshouldbeputtoitto
conceiveofarealworldotherwiseorganized aworldinwhich
allmenwouldbe
directlysubjecttoa
singlepersonwithout
relationships
ofsuperiority
orsubordination, orinwhichallmen
wouldshareequally
inthedirectionof
political
affairs. Ifwe
reasonotherwisein
theory,thatisduepartly
toinveterate
habitsthatwefollowinourthinkingand
partly
tothe
exagger-
atedimportance
thatweattachtotwo
political
factsthatloom
farlarger
inappearancethanthey
arein
reality.
Thefirstofthesefactsandonehas
only
toopenone's
eyesto
seeit isthatineverypoliticalorganismthereisoneindividual
1
Mosca,Teoricadei
governi
e
governoparlamentare,chap.
I.
50

94. ] THERULINGCLASS 51
whoischiefamong
theleadersofthe
ruling
classasawhole
andstands,aswe
say,
atthehelmofthestate.Thatperson
is
notalwaysthe
personwhoholdssupremepoweraccording
tolaw.
Attimes,alongside
ofthe
hereditaryking
oremperorthereisa
primeministeroramajor-domowhowieldsanactualpowerthat
is
greaterthanthesovereign's. Atothertimes,in
place
ofthe
electedpresidenttheinfluential
politicianwhohas
procuredthe
president's
electionwillgovern.Underspecialcircumstances
theremaybe,insteadofa
singleperson,twoorthreewho
dischargethefunctionsofsupreme
control. ,
Thesecondfact,too,
is
readilydiscernible. Whateverthe
type
of
politicalorganization, pressuresarisingfromthedis-
contentofthemasseswhoare
governed,fromthe
passionsby
which
they
areswayed,
exertacertainamountofinfluence
onthe
policies
ofthe
ruling,the
political,
class.
Butthemanwhoisattheheadofthestatewould
certainly
notbeabletogovernwithoutthesupport
ofanumerousclass
toenforce
respect
forhisordersandtohavethemcarriedout;
andgrantingthathecanmakeoneindividual,orindeedmany
individuals,inthe
ruling
classfeeltheweight
ofhispower,he
certainlycannotbeatoddswiththeclassasawholeordoaway
withit.Evenifthatwerepossible,hewouldatoncebeforced
tocreateanotherclass,withoutthe
support
ofwhichactionon
his
partwouldbecompletelyparalyzed.Ontheotherhand,
granting
thatthediscontent ofthemassesmightsucceedin
deposing
a
rulingclass,inevitably,
asweshalllatershow,there
wouldhavetobeanotherorganizedminoritywithinthemasses
themselvestodischarge
thefunctionsofa
ruling
class.Other-
wiseall
organization,andthewholesocialstructure,wouldbe
destroyed.
.Fromthepoint
ofviewofscientificresearchthereal
superiority
oftheconcept
ofthe
ruling,
or
political,
classliesin
thefactthatthevarying
structureof
rulingclasseshasa
pre-
ponderantimportance
indeterminingthe
politicaltype,and
alsothelevelofcivilization,ofthedifferentpeoples.According
toamannerof
classifying
formsofgovernment
thatisstillin
vogue,TurkeyandRussiawereboth,up
toafewyearsago,
absolutemonarchies,Englandand
Italywereconstitutional, or
limited,monarchies,andFranceandtheUnitedStateswere

95. 5 THERULINGCLASS [CHAP.
II
classedas
republics.Theclassificationwasbasedonthefact
that,inthefirsttwocountriesmentioned,headship
inthestate
was
hereditaryandthechiefwas
nominallyomnipotent;
inthe
secondtwo,hisofficeis
hereditarybuthispowersand
preroga-
tivesarelimited;inthelasttwo,heiselected.
,
That classification isobviously superficial. Absolutisms
thoughtheywere,therewaslittleincommonbetweentheman-
nersinwhichRussiaandTurkeyweremanagedpolitically,
the
levelsofcivilizationinthetwocountriesandthe
organization
of
theirruling
classes
beingvastly
different.Onthesamebasis,the
regime
in
Italy,amonarchy,
ismuchmoresimilartotheregime
inFrance,a
republic,thanitistothe
regime
inEngland,
alsoa
monarchy;andthereareimportant
differencesbetweenthe
politicalorganizations
oftheUnitedStatesandFrance,though
bothcountriesare
republics.
Aswehave
alreadysuggested,ingrained
habitsofthinking
havelongstood,asthey
stillstand,intheway
ofscientific
progress
inthismatter.Theclassificationmentionedabove,
whichdividesgovernments
intoabsolutemonarchies, limited
monarchiesand
republics,wasdevisedbyMontesquieuandwas
intendedto
replacetheclassical
categories
ofAristotle,who
dividedgovernmentsintomonarchies, aristocraciesanddemoc-
racies.WhatAristotlecalledademocracywas
simplyan
aristocracy
of
fairlybroadmembership. Aristotlehimselfwas
ina
position
toobservethatineveryGreekstate,whether
aristocraticordemocratic,therewasalwaysoneperson
ormore
whohadapreponderant
influence.Betweentheday
of
Polyb-
iusandtheday
ofMontesquieu,many
writers
perfected
Aris-
totle'sclassificationbyintroducingintoitthe
concept
of"mixed
"
governments. Lateronthemoderndemocratic
theory,which
haditssourceinRousseau,tookitsstandupon
the
concept
that
themajority
ofthecitizensinany
statecan
participate,andin
factoughtto
participate,
inits
politicallife,andthedoctrineof
popularsovereignty
stillholdsswayovermanymindsin
spite
ofthefactthatmodernscholarship
ismaking
it
increasingly
clearthatdemocratic,monarchicalandaristocratic
principles
functionsideby
sidein
everypoliticalorganism.Weshallnot
stop
torefutethisdemocratictheoryhere,sincethatisthetask
ofthisworkasawhole. Besides,itwouldbehardto
destroy
in
afew
pages
awholesystemofideasthathasbecome
firmly
rooted

96. 4] MILITARISM 53
inthehumanmind.AsLasCasas
aptlywroteinhislifeof
ChristopherColumbus^itisoftenmuchhardertounlearnthan
tolearn.
3.Wethinkitmaybedesirable,nevertheless,toreplyatthis
point
toan
objection
whichmightveryreadilybemadetoour
point
ofview. Ifitis
easy
tounderstandthata
singleindividual
cannotcommanda
group
without
finding
withinthegroupa
minority
tosupporthim,itisratherdifficulttogrant,
asacon-
stantandnaturalfact,thatminoritiesrule
majorities,rather
than
majorities
minorities.Butthatisoneofthe
points
so
numerousinalltheotherscienceswherethefirstimpression
onehasof
things
is
contrary
towhatthey
arein
reality.In
reality
thedominionofan
organizedminority,obeying
a
single
impulse,overtheunorganizedmajority
isinevitable.Thepower
of
anyminority
isirresistibleas
against
each
singleindividualin
the
majority,whostandsalonebeforethe
totality
ofthe
organ-
ized
minority.Atthesametime,theminority
is
organized
for
the
very
reasonthatitisaminority.Ahundredmen
acting
uniformly
inconcert,withacommonunderstanding,
will
triumph
overathousandmenwhoarenotinaccordandcanthereforebe
dealtwithoneby
one.Meanwhile itwillbeeasierforthe
formertoactinconcertandhaveamutualunderstandingsimply
becausethey
areahundredandnota
thousand.^It
followsthat
the
largerthe
politicalcommunity,thesmallerwilltheproportion
ofthe
governingminority
tothegovernedmajoritybe,andthe
moredifficultwillitbeforthemajority
to
organize
forreaction
againsttheminority?)
(^However,
inadditiontothegreatadvantageaccruing
tothem
fromthefactof
beingorganized,ruling
minoritiesare
usually
so
constitutedthattheindividualswhomakethemup
aredis-
tinguishedfromthemassofthegovernedbyqualitiesthat
give
themacertainmaterial,intellectualorevenmoral
superiority;
orelsetheyaretheheirsofindividualswho
possessedsuch
qualities. Inotherwords,membersofa
rulingminorityregu-
larlyhavesomeattribute,realorapparent,which is
highly
esteemedandvery
influentialinthesociety
inwhichthey
live.
4.In
primitive
societiesthatarestillintheearlystages
of
organization, militaryvaloristhe
quality
thatmostreadily

97. 54 THERULINGCLASS [CHAP.II
opens
accesstotheruling,
or
political, classr.Insocietiesof
advancedcivilization,waristhe
exceptionalcondition. Itmay
beregarded
asvirtuallynormalinsocietiesthatareintheinitial
stages
oftheirdevelopment;andtheindividualswhoshowthe
greatestability
inwar
easilygainsupremacyovertheirfellows
thebravestbecomechiefs.Thefactisconstant,buttheforms
itmayassume,inonesetofcircumstances oranother,vary
considerably.
Asarulethedominanceofawarriorclassovera
peaceful
multitude isattributedtoa
superposition
ofraces,tothecon-
quest
ofa
relativelyunwarlikegroupbyan
aggressive
one.
Sometimesthatis
actuallythecasewehaveexamples
inIndia
aftertheAryaninvasions, intheRomanEmpire
afterthe
GermanicinvasionsandinMexicoaftertheAztec
conquest.
Butmoreoften,undercertainsocialconditions,wenotetherise
ofawarlike
ruling
classin
placeswherethereis
absolutely
notraceofaforeignconquest.As
long
asahordelivesexclu-
sivelybythechase,allindividualscan
easilybecomewarriors.
Therewillofcoursebeleaderswhowillruleoverthetribe,but
wewillnotfindawarriorclass
rising
to
exploit,andatthesame
timeto
protect,anotherclassthatisdevotedto
peacefulpursuits.
Asthetribeemergesfromthehuntingstageandentersthe
agriculturaland
pastoralstage,then,alongwithanenormous
increaseinpopulationanda
greaterstability
inthemeansof
exerting
socialinfluence,amoreorlessclean-cutdivisionintotwo
classeswilltake
place,oneclass
beingdevoted
exclusively
to
agriculture,
theotherclasstowar.Inthisevent,itisinevitable
thatthewarriorclassshouldlittleby
littleacquiresuchascend-
a^jicyovertheotherastobeabletooppress
itwith
impunity.
5Polandoffersacharacteristicexample
ofthegradualmeta-
morphosis
ofawarriorclassintoan
absolutelydominantclass.
OriginallythePoleshadthesame
organizationbyrural
villages
as
prevailedamong
alltheSlavicpeoples.Therewasnodis-
tinctionbetweenfightersandfarmers inotherwords,between
noblesandpeasants.ButafterthePolescametosettleonthe
broad
plainsthatarewateredbytheVistulaandtheNiemen,
agriculturebegan
todevelopamongthem.However,theneces-
sity
of
fighting
withwarlikeneighborscontinued,sothatthe
tribalchiefs,orvoivodes,gatheredaboutthemselvesacertain
numberof
pickedmenwhose
specialoccupationwasthebearing

98. 4] MILITARISMANDPLUTOCRACY 55
ofarms.Thesewarriorsweredistributedamongthevarious
ruralcommunities. Theywereexemptfrom
agriculturalduties,
yettheyreceivedtheirshareoftheproduce
ofthesoil,along
withtheothermembersofthecommunity. In
earlydays
their
positionwasnotconsidered
verydesirable,andcountry
dwellers
sometimeswaivedexemptionfrom
agricultural
laborinorderto
avoid
going
towar.Butgradually
asthisorderof
thingsgrew
stabilized,asoneclassbecamehabituatedtothe
practice
of
armsand
militaryorganization
whiletheotherhardenedtothe
useoftheplowandthe
spade,
thewarriorsbecamenoblesand
masters,andthe
peasants,
oncecompanionsandbrothers,
becamevilleinsandserfs. Littleby
littlethewarriorlords
increasedtheirdemandstothe
pointwherethesharetheytook
asmembersofthecommunitycametoincludethecommunity's
wholeproduceminuswhatwas
absolutelynecessary
forsub-
sistenceonthepart
ofthecultivators;andwhenthelatter
triedtoescapesuchabusestheywereconstrainedby
forceto
stayboundtothesoil,their
situationtaking
onallthecharac-
teristicsofserfdompureand
simple, j
Inthecourseofthisevolution,aroundtheyear1333,King
CasimirtheGreattriedvainlytocurbtheoverbearinginsolence
ofthewarriors.Whenpeasantscametocomplain
ofthe
nobles,hecontentedhimselfwithaskingwhethertheyhadno
sticksandstones.Somegenerations later,in1537,the
nobility
forcedalltradesmeninthecitiestosellsuchrealestateasthey
owned,andlandedpropertybecamea
prerogative
ofnobles
only.
Atthesametimethe
nobility
exerted
pressureupontheking
to
opennegotiationswithRome,totheendthatthenceforwardonly
noblesshouldbeadmittedtoholy
ordersinPoland.Thatbarred
townsmenandpeasants
almostcompletelyfromhonorific
posi-
tionsand
strippedthemofany
socialimportance
whatever.
1
Wefinda
paralleldevelopment
inRussia.Therethewarriors
whoformedthedruzhina,orescort,oftheoldknezes
(princes
descendedfromRurik)
alsoreceivedashareintheproduce
ofthe
mirs
(ruralpeasantcommunities) fortheirlivelihood. Littleby
littlethissharewasincreased. Sincelandaboundedandworkers
werescarce,the
peasants
oftenhadaneyetotheiradvantageand
movedabout.Attheendofthesixteenthcentury,accordingly,
1
Mickiewicz,LesSlaves,vol.I,legonXXIV,pp.876-880;Histoire
populaire
de
Pologne,chaps.
I-II.

99. 56 THERULINGCLASS [CHAP,
II
theczarBorisGodunovempoweredthenoblestoholdpeasants
totheirlandsbyforce,soestablishingserfdom.However,armed
forcesinRussiawerenevercomposedexclusively
ofnobles.
Themuzhiks,or
peasants,
wenttowarascommonsoldiersunder
thedroujina.As
early
asthesixteenthcentury,IvantheTerri-
bleestablishedtheorderofstrelitzeswhichamountedpractically
toastandingarmy,andwhichlasteduntilPetertheGreat
replaced
itwithregimentsorganizedalong
westernEuropean
lines.Inthoseregimentsmembersoftheolddruzhina,withan
intermixture offoreigners,becameofficers,whilethemuzhiks
provided
theentirecontingent
of
privates.
1
(Amongpeoples
thathaverecentlyenteredtheagricultural
stageandarerelativelycivilized, itistheunvarying
factthat
the
strictlymilitary
classisthe
political,
orruling,
class.Some-
timesthebearing
ofarmsisreservedexclusively
tothatclass,
ashappened
inIndiaandPoland.Moreoftenthemembersof
thegoverned
classareonoccasionenrolled always,however,
ascommon soldiersandinthelessrespected
divisions. So
inGreece,during
thewarwiththeMedes,thecitizensbelonging
tothericherandmoreinfluentialclassesformedthepickedcorps
(thecavalryandthe
hoplites),
thelesswealthyfought
as
peltasts
oras
slingers,
whiletheslaves,thatisthelaboringmasses,
werealmostentirely
barredfrommilitary
service.Wefind
analogousarrangements
inrepublicanRome,downtotheperiod
ofthePunicWarsandevenaslateastheday
ofMarius;in
LatinandGermanicEuropeduringtheMiddleAges;
inRussia,
as
justexplained,
andamongmany
otherpeoples. Caesarnotes
repeatedlythatinhistimethebackboneoftheGallicarmieswas
formedbycavalrymen
recruitedfromthenobility.TheAedui,
forexample,
couldnotholdoutagainst
Ariovistusafterthe
floweroftheircavalryhadbeenkilledinbattle.
5.Everywhere
inRussiaandPoland,inIndiaandmedieval
Europe therulingwarriorclassesacquirealmostexclusive
ownership
oftheland.Land,aswehaveseen,isthechiefsource
ofproduction
andwealthincountriesthatarenot
very
far
advancedincivilization. Butascivilization
progresses,
revenue
fromlandincreases proportionately.
Withthegrowth
of
population
thereis,atleastincertainperiods,
anincreasein
1
Leroy-Beaulieu,
L*Empire
deatzarsetUsRusws,vol.I,pp.838f.

100. 5] MILITARISMANDPLUTOCRACY 57
rent,intheRicardiansenseoftheterm,largelybecausegreat
centersofconsumption
arisesuchatalltimeshavebeenthe
greatcapitals
andother
largecities,ancientandmodern.Even-
tually,
ifothercircumstances permit,averyimportantsocial
transformation occurs.Wealthratherthan
militaryvalorcomes
tobethecharacteristic featureofthedominantclass:the
people
whorulearetherichratherthanthebrave.
fTheconditionthatinthemainis
required
forthistransforma-
tionisthatsocial
organization shallhaveconcentratedand
become
perfectedtosuchanextentthattheprotection
offered
bypublicauthority
is
considerablymoreeffectivethanthe
protectionofferedbyprivate
force.Inotherwords,private
propertymustbesowell
protectedbythe
practicalandreal
efficacy
ofthelawsastorenderthepower
ofthe
proprietor
himself
superfluous.
Thiscomesaboutthroughaseriesof
gradual
alterationsinthesocialstructurewherebya
type
of
politicalorganization,whichweshallcallthe"feudalstate,"is
transformed intoan
essentiallydifferent
type,whichweshall
termthe"bureaucratic state."Wearetodiscussthesetypes
atsome
lengthhereafter,butwemaysayatoncethatthe
evolutionherereferredtoisasarule
greatlyfacilitatedbyprog-
ressin
pacificmannersandcustomsandbycertainmoralhabits
yhich
societiescontractascivilizationadvances!.
Oncethistransformation hastaken
place,wealth
produces
politicalpowerjustas
politicalpowerhasbeen
producingwealth.
Ina
societyalreadysomewhatmature where,therefore,indi-
vidualpower
iscurbedbythecollectivepower
ifthe
powerful
areasaruletherich,toberichistobecome
powerful. And,in
truth,when
fighting
withthemailedfistis
prohibitedwhereas
fighting
withpoundsandpence
issanctioned,thebetter
posts
are
inevitablywonbythosewhoarebettersuppliedwith
pounds
and
pence.
Thereare,tobesure,statesofaveryhigh
levelofcivilization
whichintheoryareorganizedonthebasisofmoral
principles
of
suchacharacterthattheyseemtoprecludethis
overbearing
assertivenessonthe
part
ofwealth.Butthisisacaseandthere
aremanysuchwheretheoretical
principlescanhavenomore
thanalimitedapplication
inreallife.IntheUnitedStatesall
powers
flow
directly
or
indirectlyfrom
popularelections,and
suffrage
is
equal
forallmenandwomeninallthestatesofthe

101. 58 THERULINGCLASS [CHAP.II
Union.Whatismore,democracyprevailsnotonly
ininstitu-
tionsbuttoacertainextentalsoinmorals.Therich
ordinarily
feelacertainaversionto
enteringpubliclife,andthepoor
a
certainaversiontochoosingtherichforelectiveoffice.Butthat
doesnot
prevent
arichmanfrom
beingmoreinfluentialthana
poorman,sincehecanuse
pressureuponthe
politicianswho
control
publicadministration. Itdoesnotprevent
elections
from
being
carriedontothemusicof
clinking
dollars. Itdoes
not
preventwhole
legislaturesandconsiderablenumbers of
nationalcongressmenfrom
feelingtheinfluence of
powerful
corporationsand
great
financiers.
1
InChina,too,downtoafew
yearsago,though
the
govern-
menthadnotacceptedthe
principle
of
popularelections, itwas
organizedonan
essentially equalitarian
basis.Academic
degreesgave
accessto
publicoffice,and
degreeswereconferred
byexaminationwithoutanyapparentregard
forfamily
or
wealth.
According
tosomewriters,only
barbersandcertain
classesofboatmen,togetherwiththeirchildren,werebarred
fromcompeting
forthevarious
grades
ofthemandarinate.
2
Butthoughthemoneyed
classinChinawaslessnumerous,less
wealthy,
lesspowerfulthanthemoneyed
classintheUnited
Statesisatpresent,
itwasnonethelessabletomodifythe
scrupulousapplication
ofthis
system
toavery
considerable
extent.Notonlywastheindulgence
ofexaminersoftenbought
withmoney.Thegovernment
itselfsometimessoldthevarious
academicdegreesandallowed
ignorantpersons,
oftenfromthe
lowestsocialstrata,tohold
public
office.
3
Inallcountriesoftheworldthoseother
agencies
for
exerting
socialinfluence personalpublicity,goodeducation,specialized
training,highrankinchurch,publicadministration,andarmy
arealways
readierofaccesstotherichthantothe
poor.The
richinvariablyhaveaconsiderably
shorterroadtotravelthan
the
poor,tosaynothing
ofthefactthatthestretchofroadthat
thericha.respared
isoftenthe
roughestandmostdifficult.
1
Jannet,Leistituzioni
politiche
esocialidegli
StatiUnitid
>
America
tpartIIf
chap.Xf.
2
Rousset,AtraverslaChine.
8MasySans,La,ChinedUspuissancesckrMiennes,vol.II,pp
f332-334;
Hue,UEmpire
chinois.

102. 6] THEOCRACIES 5
6*Insocietiesinwhich
religious
beliefsare
strongandmin-
istersofthefaithforma
special
classa
priestlyaristocracyalmost
always
arisesand
gainspossession
ofamoreorless
important
shareofthewealthandthe
politicalpower.Conspicuous
examples
ofthatsituationwouldbeancientEgypt(during
cer-
tain
periods),BrahmanIndiaandmedievalEurope. Often-
timesthe
priests
not
onlyperformreligious
functions.They
possesslegalandscientificknowledgeandconstitutetheclassof
highest
intellectual culture.
Consciously
or
unconsciously,
priestly
hierarchiesoftenshowatendency
tomonopolizelearning
andhamperthedisseminationofthemethodsandproceduresthat
makethe
acquisition
ofknowledgepossibleand
easy.)Tothat
tendencymayhavebeendue,in
part
atleast,the
painfullyslow
diffusionofthedemoticalphabet
inancientEgypt,though
that
alphabetwas
infinitelymoresimplethanthe
hieroglyphic script.
TheDruidsinGaulwereacquaintedwiththeGreek
alphabetbut
wouldnotpermit
theirrichstoreof*sacredliteraturetobe
writtendown,requiring
their
pupils
tocommitittomemoryat
thecostofuntoldeffort.
;Tothesameoutlookmaybeattrib-
utedthestubbornandfrequentuseofdead
languagesthatwe
findinancientChaldea,inIndia,andinmedievalEurope.
Sometimes, aswasthecaseinIndia,lowerclasseshavebeen
explicitly
forbiddento
acquireknowledge
ofsacred
books.)
Specializedknowledgeand
really
scientificculture/purged
ofanysacredor
religiousaura,becomeimportantpolitical
forces
only
ina
highlyadvanced
stage
ofcivilization,andonlythendo
theygive
accesstomembership
intheruling
classtothosewho
possessthem]
Butinthiscasetoo,itisnotsomuch
learning
in
itselfthathas
politicalvalueasthepracticalapplicationsthat
may
bemadeof
learning
tothe
profit
ofthe
public
orthestate.
Sometimes allthatisrequired
ismere
possession
ofthemechani-
cal
processes
thatare
indispensable
tothe
acquisition
ofa
higher
culture.Thismaybeduetothefactthatonsuchabasisitis
easiertoascertainandmeasuretheskillwhichacandidatehas
beenabletoacquire
itiseasierto"mark"or
gradehim.Soin
certain
periods
inancientEgypt
the
profession
ofscribewasa
roadto
public
officeand
power,perhapsbecausetohavelearned
the
hieroglyphicscriptwas
proof
of
longand
patientstudy.
In
modernChina,again,learningthenumberlesscharacters in

103. 60 THERULINGCLASS [CHAP.
II
Chinese
script
hasformedthebasisofthemandarin'seducation.
1
In
present-dayEuropeandAmericatheclassthatappliesthe
findings
ofmodernsciencetowar,publicadministration, public
worksand
public
sanitationholdsa
fairlyimportantposition,
both
sociallyand
politically,andinourwesternworld,asin
ancientRome,analtogetherprivilegedposition
isheldbylawyers.
Theyknowthecomplicatedlegislationthatarisesinallpeoples
of
long-standingcivilization,andtheybecome
especiallypowerful
iftheirknowledge
oflawiscoupledwiththetype
ofeloquence
thatchancestohaveastrongappeal
tothetasteoftheir
contemporaries./
Thereareexamples
inabundancewhereweseethatlong-
standingpractice
in
directing
the
militaryandcivil
organization
ofacommunity
createsanddevelops
inthehigherreachesofthe
ruling
classarealartof
governing
whichis
something
betterthan
crudeempiricismandbetterthananythingthatmereindividual
experience
could
suggest.
Insuchcircumstancesaristocraciesof
functionaries arise,suchastheRomansenate,theVenetian
nobilityandtoacertainextentthe
Englisharistocracy.
Thosebodies allstirredJohnStuartMilltoadmiration
and
certainlythey
allthreedevelopedgovernmentsthatwere
distinguished
for
carefully
considered
policiesandfor
great
steadfastnessand
sagacity
in
carryingthemout.Thisartof
governing
isnot
politicalscience,though
ithas,atonetimeor
another,anticipatedapplications
ofanumberofthepostulates
of
political
science.However,eveniftheartof
governinghas
nowand
againenjoyedprestige
withcertainclassesof
persons
whohavelongheld
possession
of
politicalfunctions,knowledge
ofithas
i^everservedasanordinary
criterionfor
admitting
to
public
offices
personswhowerebarredfromthemby
socialstation.
Thedegree
ofmastery
oftheartofgoverningthataperson
possessesis,moreover,apartfromexceptionalcases,avery
diffi-
cult
thing
todetermine ifthe
person
has
givenno
practical
demonstrationthathe
possesses
it.
7\Insomecountrieswefind
hereditary
castes.Insuchcases
thegoverning
classis
explicitly
restrictedtoa
givennumberof
1
Thiswastrueuptoafewyearsago,theexaminationofamandarincovering
onlyliteraryandhistoricalstudies astheChineseunderstoodsuchstudies,of
course.

104. 7] HEREDITARYARISTOCRACY 61
families,andbirthistheonecriterionthatdetermines
entry
into
theclassorexclusionfromit.Examples
are
exceedinglycom-
mon.Thereis
practicallynocountry
oflong-standing
civiliza-
tionthathasnothada
hereditaryaristocracy
atone
periodor
anotherinits
history.Wefindhereditary
nobilities
during
certainperiods
inChinaandancientEgypt,
inIndia,inGreece
beforethewarswiththeMedes,inancientRome,among
the
Slavs,among
theLatinsandGermansoftheMiddle
Ages,
in
MexicoatthetimeoftheDiscoveryandin
Japandowntoa
few
yearsago./
Inthisconnectiontwopreliminaryobservationsarein
point.
Inthefirst
place,
all
rulingclassestendtobecomehereditary
infactifnotinlaw.All
political
forcesseemto
possessa
qualitythatin
physics
usedtobecalledtheforceofinertia.
Theyhaveatendency,
thatis,toremainatthe
pointandinthe
stateinwhichthey
findthemselves. Wealthand
military
valorare
easilymaintainedincertainfamiliesbymoraltradi-
tionandbyheredity. Qualification forimportant
officethe
habitof,andtoanextentthecapacityfor,dealingwithaffairs
of
consequence
ismuchmore
readilyacquiredwhenonehas
hadacertain
familiaritywiththemfromchildhood.Evenwhen
academic
degrees,
scientifictraining,specialaptitudes
astested
byexaminationsandcompetitions,opentheway
to
publicoffice,
thereisno
eliminating
that
specialadvantage
infavorofcertain
individualswhichtheFrenchcalltheadvantage
of
positions
d6j&prises.
Inactualfact,though
examinationsandcom-
petitionsmaytheoretically
beopen
toall,the
majoritynever
havetheresourcesformeeting
theexpense
of
longpreparation,
andmany
othersarewithouttheconnectionsand
kinshipsthat
setanindividualpromptlyonthe
rightroad,enablinghimto
avoidthe
gropingsandblundersthatareinevitablewhenone
entersanunfamiliarenvironment withoutanyguidance
or
support.
;Thedemocratic
principle
ofelectionbybroad-based
suffrage
wouldseematfirstglance
tobeinconflictwiththetendency
toward
stabilitywhich,according
toour
theory,rulingclasses
show.Butitmustbenotedthatcandidateswhoaresuccessful
indemocraticelectionsarealmostalwaystheoneswho
possess
the
political
forcesaboveenumerated,whichare
very
often
hereditary. IntheEnglish,
FrenchandItalianparliamentswe

105. 62 THERULINGCLASS [CHAP.II
frequently
seethesons,grandsons,brothers,nephewsandsons-
ii^-law
ofmembersanddeputies,ex-membersand
ex-deputies.!
fInthesecondplace,whenweseea
hereditary
casteestablished
inacountry
andmonopolizing politicalpower,wemaybesure
thatsuchastatusde
jurewasprecededbyasimilarstatusde
facto.Beforeproclaiming
theirexclusiveandhereditaryright
topowerthefamiliesorcastesin
questionmusthaveheldthe
scepter
ofcommandinafirm
grasp,completelymonopolizing
all
the
political
forcesofthatcountry
atthatperiod.Otherwise
suchaclaimontheirpartwouldonlyhavearousedthebitterest
protestsandprovokedthebitterest
struggles.
Hereditary aristocracies oftencometovauntsupernatural
origins,
oratleast
origins
differentfrom,and
superiorto,thoseof
thegoverned
classes.Suchclaimsare
explainedbyahighly
significant
socialfact,namelythateverygoverning
classtends
to
justify
itsactualexerciseofpowerbyresting
itonsome
universalmoral
principle.
Thissamesortofclaimhascomefor-
wardinourtimeinscientific
trappings.Anumberofwriters,
developingand
amplifyingDarwin'stheories,contendthatupper
classesrepresentahigher
levelinsocialevolutionandarethere-
foresuperior
tolowerclassesbyorganic
structure.Gumplowicz
wehavealreadyquoted.Thatwritergoestothepoint
ofmain-
tainingthatthedivisionsofpopulationsintotradegroupsand
professional
classesinmoderncivilizedcountriesarebasedon
ethnologicalheterogeneousness.
1
Nowhistoryverydefinitelyshowsthe
special
abilitiesaswell
asthe
special
defectsbothverymarkedwhichhavebeen
displayedby
aristocraciesthathaveeitherremained
absolutely
closedorhavemadeentry
intotheircirclesdifficult.Theancient
Roman
patriciateandtheEnglishandGermannobilitiesof
moderntimes
give
aready
ideaofthetypewereferto.Yetin
dealingwiththisfact,andwiththetheoriesthattendtoexag-
gerate
its
significance,wecanalways
raisethesame
objection
thattheindividualswho
belong
tothearistocraciesinquestion
owetheir
specialqualities
notsomuchtothebloodthatflows
intheirveinsastotheirveryparticularupbringing,whichhas
brought
outcertainintellectualandmoraltendenciesinthemin
preference
toothers.
1
DerRassenkampf.
Thisnotion
transpiresfromGumplowicz'swholevolume.
Itisexplicitly
formulatedinbookII,chap.XXXIII.

106. 7] HEREDITARYARISTOCRACY 68
Among
allthefactorsthat
figure
insocial
superiority,
intel-
lectual
superiority
istheonewithwhichheredityhasleasttodo.
Thechildrenofmenof
highestmentality
oftenhaveverymedio-
cretalents.Thatiswhyhereditaryaristocracieshave"never
defendedtheirruleonthebasisofintellectualsuperiorityalone,but
rather
onthebasisoftheir
superiorities
incharacterandwealth.
I
Itis
argued,
inrebuttal,thateducationandenvironmentmay
serveto
explainsuperiorities
in
strictly
intellectualcapacities
butnotdifferencesofamoralorder will
power,courage,pride,
energy.Thetruthisthatsocial
position,familytradition,the
habitsoftheclassinwhichwelive,contributemorethanis
commonlysupposed
tothe
greater
orlesserdevelopment
ofthe
qualitiesmentioned. Ifwecarefullyobserveindividualswho
havechanged
theirsocialstatus,whetherforbetterorforworse,
andwho
consequently
findthemselvesinenvironments different
fromtheonestheyhavebeenaccustomedto,itisapparentthat
theirintellectual
capacities
aremuchless
sensibly
affectedthan
theirmoralones.Apartfroma
greater
breadthofviewthat
educationandexperiencebring
toanyonewhoisnot
altogether
stupid,everyindividual,whetherheremainsamereclerkor
becomesaministerofstate,whetherhereachestherankof
sergeant
ortherankof
general,
whetherheisamillionaireora
beggar,
abides
inevitablyontheintellectual levelonwhich
naturehas
placed
him.Andyet
withchanges
ofsocialstatusand
wealththeproudmanoftenbecomeshumble,servilitychanges
to
arrogance,
anhonestnaturelearnstolie,oratleasttodis-
semble,underpressure
ofneed,whilethemanwhohasan
ingrainedhabitof
lyingand
bluffingmakeshimselfoverandputs
onanoutwardsemblanceatleastofhonestyandfirmnessof
character. Itistrue,ofcourse,thatamanfallenfromhigh
estateoftenacquirespowers
of
resignation,
self-denialand
resourcefulness, just
asonewhorisesintheworldsometimes
gains
insentimentsof
justiceandfairness. Inshort,whetheraman
change
forthebetterorfortheworse,hehastobe
exceptionally
level-headed ifheistochange
hissocialstatusveryappreciably
andstillkeep
hischaracterunaltered. Mirabeauremarkedthat,
foranyman,anygreat
climbonthesocialladderproduces
a
crisisthatcurestheillshehasandcreatesnewonesthathenever
hadbefore.
1
1
Correspondance
entrelecomtedeMirabeauetlecomtedeLaMarck,vol.II,p.228,

107. 64 THERULINGCLASS [CHAP.II
Courageinbattle,impetuousness
inattack,endurance in
resistance sucharethe
qualitiesthathave
longandoftenbeen
vauntedasa
monopoly
ofthe
higher
classes.
Certainlythere
maybevastnaturaland ifwemaysay
soinnatedifferences
betweenoneindividualandanotherinthese
respects;butmore
than
anything
elsetraditionsandenvironmental influencesare
the
thingsthatkeepthem
high,lowor
justaverage,
inanylarge
group
ofhuman
beings.We
generallybecomeindifferentto
dangeror,perhapsbetter,toagiventype
of
danger,whenthe
personswithwhomwe
daily
livespeak
ofitwithindifferenceand
remaincooland
imperturbablebeforeit.Manymountaineersor
sailorsarebynaturetimidmen,yettheyfaceunmoved,theones
the
dangers
ofthe
precipice,theothersthe
perils
ofthestormat
sea.So
peoplesandclassesthatareaccustomed towarfare
maintain
military
virtuesatthe
highestpitch.
Sotrueisthisthateven
peoplesandsocialclasseswhichare
ordinarilyunaccustomed toarms
acquirethe
military
virtues
rapidlywhentheindividualswho
composethemaremade
membersof
organizations
inwhich
courageand
daringaretradi-
tional,when ifonemayventurethemetaphor they
arecast
intohumancruciblesthatare
heavilychargedwiththesenti-
mentsthataretobeinfusedintotheirfiber.MohammedII
recruitedhisterribleJanizariesinthemainfrom
boyswhohad
been
kidnappedamongthe
degenerateGreeksofByzantium.
Themuch
despisedEgyptianfellah,unusedfor
longcenturiesto
warandaccustomedto
remainingmeekand
helplessunderthe
lashofthe
oppressor,becamea
goodsoldierwhenMehemetAli
placedhiminTurkishorAlbanian
regiments.TheFrench
nobility
has
alwaysenjoyeda
reputationforbrilliantvalor,but
downtotheendofthe
eighteenthcenturythat
qualitywasnot
creditedin
anything
likethesame
degreetotheFrenchbour-
geoisie.However,thewarsofthe
RepublicandtheEmpire
amplyprovedthatnaturehadbeen
uniformlylavishinher
endowments of
courageuponalltheinhabitants ofFrance.
Proletariatand
bourgeoisiebothfurnishedgoodsoldiersand,
whatismore,excellentofficers,thoughtalentforcommandhad
beenconsideredanexclusive
prerogativeofthe
nobility.Gum-
plowicz'stheorythatdifferentiation insocialclasses
depends
verylargelyon
ethnologicalantecedents
requiresproofatthe
very
least.Many
factstothe
contraryreadilyoccurto

108. 8] SOCIALSTABILITYANDCHANGE 65
among
otherstheobviousfactthatbranchesofthesame
family
oftenbelong
towidely
differentsocialclasses.
8.
Finally,
ifweweretokeep
totheideaofthosewhomaintain
theexclusiveinfluenceofthe
hereditaryprinciple
intheformation
of
rulingclasses,weshouldbecarriedtoaconclusionsomewhat
liketheonetowhichwewerecarriedbytheevolutionaryprinci-
ple:The
politicalhistory
ofmankindought
tobemuchsimpler
thanitis. Ifthe
ruling
class
reallybelonged
toadifferentrace,
orifthe
qualitiesthatfititfordominionweretransmitted
primarilybyorganicheredity,
itisdifficulttoseehow,oncethe
classwasformed, itcoulddeclineandloseits
power.The
peculiarqualities
ofaraceareexceedinglytenacious. Keeping
totheevolutionarytheory,acquiredcapacities
inthe
parents
are
inbornintheirchildrenand,
as
generationsucceeds
generation,
are
progressively
accentuated. Thedescendants ofrulers,
therefore,ought
tobecomebetterandbetterfittedtorule,and
theotherclashesoughttoseetheirchancesof
challengingor
supplantingthembecomemoreandmoreremote.Nowthe
mostcommonplaceexperience
sufficestoassureonethat
things
donotgo
inthatway
atall.
Whatweseeisthatassoonasthereisashiftinthebalance
of
political
forceswhen,thatis,aneedisfeltthat
capacities
differentfromtheoldshouldassertthemselvesinthe
manage-
mentofthestate,whentheold
capacities,therefore,losesomeof
theirimportance
orchanges
intheirdistributionoccurthenthe
mannerinwhichthe
ruling
classisconstitutedchanges
also. If
anewsourceofwealthdevelopsina
society,
ifthe
practical
importance
ofknowledgegrows,
ifanold
religiondeclinesora
newoneisborn,ifanewcurrentofideasspreads,then,simultane-
ously,far-reaching
dislocationsoccurinthe
ruling
class.One
mightsay,indeed,thatthewhole
history
ofcivilizedmankind
comesdowntoaconflictbetweenthetendency
ofdominant
elementstomonopolizepoliticalpowerandtransmit
possession
of
itbyinheritance,andthetendencytowardadislocationofold
forcesandaninsurgence
ofnewforces;andthisconflictproduces
anunendingfermentofendosmosisandexosmosisbetweenthe
upper
classesandcertainportions
ofthelower,
fBulingclasses
declineinevitablywhentheyceasetofindscope
foi*the
capacities
throughwhichthey
rosetopower,whentheycanno
longer

109. 66 THERULINGCLASS [CHAP.II
renderthesocialserviceswhichtheyoncerendered,orwhentheir
talentsandtheservicestheyrenderloseinimportance
inthe
socialenvironmentinwhichthey
live.SotheRoman
aristocracy
declinedwhenitwasnolongertheexclusivesourceof
higher
officersforthearmy,
ofadministrators forthecommonwealth,
of
governors
forthe
provinces. SotheVenetianaristocracy
declinedwhenitsnoblesceasedtocommandthe
galleysandno
longerpassedthe
greaterpart
oftheirlivesin
sailing
theseasand
in
tradingand
fighting.
In
inorganic
naturewehavetheexampleofourair,inwhicha
tendency
toimmobilityproducedbytheforceofinertia is
continuously
inconflictwithatendencytoshiftaboutasthe
resultof
inequalities
inthedistribution ofheat.Thetwo
tendencies,prevailingbyturninvarious
regionsonour
planet,
producenowcalm,nowwindandstorm.Inmuchthesameway
inhumansocietiesthere
prevailsnowthetendencythatproduces
closed,stationary,crystallizedrulingclasses,nowthetendency
thatresultsinamoreorless
rapidrenovationof
ruling
classes.
I
TheOrientalsocietieswhichweconsider
stationaryhavein
reality
notalwaysbeenso,forotherwise,aswehavealready
pointedout,they
couldnothavemadetheadvancesinciviliza-
tionofwhichtheyhaveleftirrefutableevidence. Itismuch
moreaccuratetosaythatwecametoknowthematatimewhen
their
political
forcesandtheir
political
classeswereinaperiod
of
crystallization. Thesamething
occursinwhatwecommonly
call
"
aging"societies,where
religiousbeliefs,scientific
knowledge,
methodsofproducingand
distributingwealthhaveforcenturies
undergone
noradicalalterationandhavenotbeendisturbedin
theireverydaycourseby
infiltrationsof
foreignelements,mate-
rialorintellectual. Insuchsocieties
political
forcesarealways
thesame,andtheclassthatholds
possession
ofthemholdsa
powerthatis
undisputed. Poweristhereforeperpetuated
in
certainfamilies,andtheinclinationto
immobility
becomes
generalthrough
allthevariousstratainthatsociety.
'
fSoinIndiaweseethecastesystembecomethoroughly
entrenched afterthesuppression
ofBuddhism.TheGreeks
found
hereditary
castesinancientEgypt,butweknowthatin
the
periods
of
greatnessandrenaissanceinEgyptiancivilization
political
officeandsocialstatuswerenot
hereditary.Wepossess
anEgyptiandocumentthatsummarizesthelifeofa
higharmy

110. 8] SOCIALCHANGE 67
officerwholivedduring
th6
period
oftheexpulsion
oftheHyksos,
Hehadbegun
hiscareerasasimple
soldier.Otherdocuments
showcasesinwhichthesameindividualserved
successively
in
army,
civiladministrationand
priesthood.
1
[The
best-knownandperhapsthemostimportantexample
of
asocietytendingtoward
crystallization
istheperiod
inRoman
historythatusedtobecalledtheLowEmpire. There,after
severalcenturiesofalmostcomplete
socialimmobility,adivision
betweentwoclassesgrewsharperand
sharper,theonemadeup
of
great
landownersandhighofficials,theothermadeup
ofslaves,
farmersandurban
plebeians.Whatisevenmore
striking,public
officeandsocial
positionbecamehereditarybycustombefore
theybecamehereditarybylaw,andthetrendwas
rapidly
generalizedduringtheperiodmentioned.
2
Ontheotherhanditmayhappen
inthe
history
ofanationthat
commercewithforeignpeoples,
forced
emigrations,discoveries,
wars,createnewpovertyandnewwealth,disseminateknowledge
of
thingsthatwere
previouslyunknownorcauseinfiltrationsof
newmoral,intellectualand
religious
currents.Or
againasa
resultofsuchinfiltrations orthroughaslow
process
ofinner
growth,
orfrombothcauses itmayhappenthatanew
learning
arises,orthatcertainelementsofanold,longforgottenlearning
returntofavorsothatnewideasandnewbeliefscometothe
foreandupsettheintellectualhabitsonwhichtheobedienceof
themasseshasbeenfounded.The
ruling
classmay
alsobe
vanquishedand
destroyed
inwholeorinpartbyforeigninvasions,
or,whenthecircumstances
justmentionedarise,itmaybedriven
frompowerbytheadventofnewsocialelementswhoare
strong
infresh
political
forces.Then,naturally,therecomesa
period
ofrenovation, or,ifone
prefer,
ofrevolution,duringwhichindi-
vidualenergieshavefreeplayandcertainindividuals,more
passionate,more
energetic,more
intrepid
or
merelyshrewder
thanothers,forcetheirwayfromthebottomofthesocialladder
tothetopmostrungs.
Oncesuchamovementhassetin,itcannotbestoppedimme-
diately.Theexample
ofindividualswhohavestartedfrom
nowhereandreachedprominentpositions
firesnewambitions,
1
Lenormant,Maspero,Brugsck
2
Marquardt,Manueldes
antiquiUsromaines;FusteldeCoulanges,Nouvettes
recherchessur
quelqueaprobtimes
d'histoire.

111. 68 THERULINGCLASS [CHAP.II
new
greeds,new
energies,andthismolecularrejuvenation
ofthe
ruling
classcontinues
vigorously
untila
longperiod
ofsocial
stabilityslowsitdown
again.Weneed
hardlymentionexamples
ofnationsinsuchperiods
ofrenovation. Inourage
thatwould
be
superfluous. Rapidrestocking
of
ruling
classesisafrequent
andverystrikingphenomenon
incountriesthathavebeen
recentlycolonized.Whensociallife
begins
insuchenvironments,
thereisnoready-maderulingclass,andwhilesuchaclassisin
processofformation,admittancetoitis
gainedveryeasily.
Monopolization
oflandandother
agencies
of
production is,if
not
quiteimpossible,
atanyratemoredifficultthanelsewhere.
Thatiswhy,
atleastduringacertain
period,
theGreekcolonies
offeredawideoutletforallGreek
energyand
enterprise. Thatis
why,
intheUnitedStates,wherethe
colonizing
ofnewlands
continuedthrough
thewholenineteenthcenturyandnewindus-
trieswerecontinuallyspringingup,examples
ofmenwhostarted
withnothingandhaveattainedfameandwealtharestillfrequent
allofwhich
helps
tofosterinthepeople
ofthatcountrythe
illusionthatdemocracy
isafact.
Supposenowthatasocietygraduallypassesfromitsfeverish
statetocalm.Sincethehumanbeing'spsychological
tendencies
arealways
thesame,thosewho
belong
tothe
ruling
classwill
begin
toacquireagroupspirit.They
willbecomemoreand
moreexclusiveandlearnbetterandbettertheartof
monopolizing
totheiradvantagethe
qualitiesandcapacitiesthatareessential
to
acquiringpowerandholding
it.Then,atlast,theforcethat
is
essentiallyconservativeappears theforceofhabit.Many
peoplebecomeresigned
toalowlystation,whilethemembersof
certain
privileged
familiesorclassesgrowconvincedthatthey
havealmostanabsolute
right
tohigh
stationandcommand.
A
philanthropistwouldcertainly
betempted
to
inquirewhether
mankind ishappier
orlessunhappy duringperiods
ofsocial
stabilityand
crystallization,wheneveryone
isalmostfatedto
remaininthesocialstationtowhichhewasborn,x*rduringthe
directlyoppositeperiods
ofrenovationandrevolution,which
permit
allto
aspire
tothemostexalted
positionsandsometo
attainthem.Suchan
inquirywouldbedifficult.Theanswer
wouldhavetotakeaccountofmanyqualificationsand
exceptions,
andmightperhapsalways
beinfluencedbythe
personalprefer-
encesoftheobserver.Weshallthereforebecarefulnotto

112. 8] SOCIALCHANGE 69
ventureonanyanswerofourown.Besides,evenifwecould
reachanundebatableconclusion, itwouldhaveaveryslight
practicalutility;
forthesadfactisthatwhatthephilosophersand
theologians
callfreewillinotherwords,spontaneouschoiceby
individuals hassofarhad,andwillperhapsalwayshave,little
influence, ifany
atall,in
hastening
eitherthe
ending
orthe
beginning
ofoneofthehistorical
periodsmentioned.

113. CHAPTERIII
FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS
I.Aswehave
justseen,in
fairlypopulous
societiesthathave
attainedacertainlevelofcivilization, ruling
classesdonot
justify
theirpowerexclusivelyby
defacto
possession
ofit,buttry
tofindamoraland
legal
basisforit,representing
itasthe
logical
and
necessaryconsequence
ofdoctrinesandbeliefsthatare
generallyrecognizedand
accepted. Soifa
society
isdeeply
imbuedwiththeChristian
spiritthe
political
classwillgovernby
thewillofthe
sovereign,who,inturn,will
reignbecauseheis
God'sanointed.SotooinMohammedan societies
political
authority
isexerciseddirectly
inthenameofthe
caliph,
orvicar,
oftheProphet,
orinthenameofsomeonewhohasreceived
investiture, tacitor
explicit,fromthe
caliph.TheChinese
mandarinsruledthestatebecausetheyweresupposedtobe
interpreters
ofthewilloftheSonofHeaven,whohadreceived
fromheaventhemandatetogovernpaternally,andinaccordance
withtherulesoftheConfucianethic,"the
people
ofthehundred
families."Thecomplicatedhierarchy
ofciviland
military
func-
tionariesintheRomanEmpire
resteduponthewillofthe
emperor,who,atleastdowntoDiocletian'stime,wasassumed
bya
legal
fictiontohavereceivedfromthepeopleamandateto
rulethecommonwealth. Thepowers
ofalllawmakers,magis-
tratesandgovernment
officialsintheUnitedStatesemanate
directly
or
indirectlyfromthevoteofthevoters,whichisheldto
bethe
expression
ofthe
sovereign
willofthewholeAmerican
popple.
{
This
legalandmoralbasis,or
principle,
onwhichthepower
of
tie
political
classrests,iswhatwehaveelsewherecalled,and
shallcontinueheretocall,the
"political
formula." (Writerson
the
philosophyoflaw
generally
callitthe"principle
ofsover-
eignty/'
1
)The
politicalformulacanhardlybethesameintwo
1
Mosca,Teoricadei
governi
e
governoparlamentare,chap.I;seealsoMosca,
Lecostituzionimoderne.
70

114. 2] POLITICALFORMULAS 71
ormoredifferentsocieties;andfundamental orevennotable
similaritiesbetweentwoormore
political
formulasappearonly
wherethepeoplesprofessingthemhavethesametype
ofciviliza-
tion(ortouseanexpressionwhichweshallshortly
define
belong
tothesamesocial
type).According
tothelevelof
civilizationinthepeoplesamongwhomtheyarecurrent,the
various
political
formulasmaybebasedeitheruponsupernatural
beliefsoruponconceptswhich,if
theydonotcorrespond
to
posi-
tiverealities,atleastappear
toberational/)Weshallnotsay
thattheycorrespond
ineithercasetoscientifictruths.A
conscientiousobserverwouldbe
obliged
toconfessthat,ifnoone
haseverseentheauthenticdocumentbywhichtheLordempow-
eredcertainprivilegedpersons
orfamiliestorulehis
people
on
hisbehalf,neithercanitbemaintainedthatapopularelection,
howeverliberalthe
suffragemaybe,is
ordinarilytheexpression
of
thewillofapeople,
orevenofthewillofthemajority
ofa
people.
(
And
yetthatdoesnotmeanthat
politicalformulasaremere
quackeriesaptly
inventedtotrickthemassesintoobedience);
Anyonewhoviewedtheminthat
lightwouldfallintograve
error.
<Thetruthisthattheyanswerarealneedinman'ssocial
nature;andthisneed,souniversally felt,of
governingand
knowing
thatoneisgoverned
notonthebasisofmerematerialor
intellectualforce,butonthebasisofamoral
principle,
hasbeyond
anydoubta
practicalandareal
importance.
/Spencer
wrotethatthedivine
right
of
kingswasthe
greatsuper-
stitionof
pastages,andthatthedivine
right
ofelectedassemblies
isthe
greatsuperstition
ofourpresentage.)Theideacannotbe
calledwhollymistaken,but
certainly
itdoesnotconsideror
exhaustallaspects
ofthequestion.
Itisfurthernecessary
tosee
whetherasocietycanholdtogetherwithoutoneofthese"great
superstitions" whetherauniversalillusionisnotasocialforce
thatcontributespowerfully
toconsolidatingpoliticalorganization
and
unifyingpeoples
orevenwholecivilizations.
/
2XMankind isdividedintosocialgroupseachofwhichisset
apartfromothergroupsbybeliefs,sentiments,habitsandinter-
eststhatare
peculiar
toit.Theindividualswhobelong
toone
suchgroup
areheld
togetherbyaconsciousness ofcommon
brotherhoodandheld
apartfromothergroupsbypassionsand
tendenciesthataremoreorless
antagonisticandmutually

115. 72 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
repellent.Aswehavealreadyindicated,the
political
formula
mustbebasedupon
the
special
beliefsandthestrongest
senti-
mentsofthesocialgroup
inwhichitiscurrent,oratleastupon
thebeliefsandsentimentsoftheparticularportion
ofthatgroup
whichholds
politicalpreeminence,
(Thisphenomenon
theexistenceofsocialgroups
eachofwhich
hascharacteristicspeculiar
toitselfandoftenpresumes
absolute
superiority
overothergroups(theborianazionale,thenational
conceit,thatVicotalksabout
!)hasbeen
recognizedandstudied
bymanywriters,and
particularlybymodernscholars,in
dealing
withthe
principle
of
nationality. Gumplowicz,
forinstance,
pointedtoitsimportance
in
politicalscience,orin
sociology
ifyou
will.Weshouldbe
quitereadytoadoptthewordthatGum-
plowiczusestodesignate
itsyngenism
didthetermnotimply,
inconformitywiththefundamental ideasofthatwriter,an
almostabsolutepreponderance
ofthe
ethnologicalelement,of
community
ofbloodandrace,intheformationofeachseparate
socialgroup.
1
Wedothinkthat,inanumberof
primitive
civilizations,notsomuchcommunity
ofbloodasabeliefthat
suchcommunity
existed beliefinacommonancestor,often
arising,
asGumplowicz
himselfadmits,afterthesocialtypehad
beenformedmayhavehelped
tocementgroup
unities.Butwe
alsothinkthatcertainmodern
anthropologicaland
philological
doctrineshaveservedtoawakenbetweensocialgroupsand
betweenfractionswithinonegroupantipathiesthatuseracial
differencesasmere
pretexts. Actually,moreover,intheforma-
tionofthegroup,
orsocial
type,manyotherelementsbesidesa
moreorlesscertainracial
affinityfigure
for
example,community
of
language,
of
religion,
ofinterests,andthe
recurring
relation-
shipsthatresultfromgeographical
situation. Itisnot
necessary
thatallthesefactorsbepresent
atoneandthesametime,for
community
of
history
alifethatislivedforcenturiesincom-
mon,withidenticalorsimilar
experiences,engendering
similar
moralandintellectualhabits,similarpassionsandmemories
oftenbecomesthechiefelementinthedevelopment
ofaconscious
socialtype.
2
Oncesuchatype
isformed,we
get,toreturntoametaphor
whichwehaveearlierused,asortofcruciblethatfusesallindi-
1
Gumplowicz,
Der
Rassenkampf,bookII,chap.XXXVII.
Mosca,"Fattoridellanazionalita."

116. 3] SOCIALTYPE 73
vidualswhoenteritintoa
singlealloy.
Callit
suggestion,
callit
imitationormimetism, calliteducationpureand
simple,
it,
neverthelesscomesaboutthatamanfeels,believes,loves,hates,
accordingtotheenvironment inwhichhelives.Withexceed-
ingly
rare
exceptions,weareChristiansorJews,Mohammedans
orBuddhists,Frenchmen orItalians,forthesimplereason
thatsuchwerethe
peopleamongwhomwewerebornand
bred.
1
3.Intheearlydawnof
historyeachofthecivilized
peoples
was
virtuallyanoasisinadesertofbarbarism,andthevarious
civilizations, therefore,hadeitherscantintercoursewithone
anotherornonewhatever.Thatwasthesituationofancient
EgyptduringtheearlydynastiesandofChinadowntoaday
far
lessremote.Underthesecircumstances, naturally,eachsocial
typehadanabsolute
originality
thatwas
virtuallyunaffectedby
infiltrationsandinfluencesfromoutside.
2
And
yet,though
this
isolationmusthavecontributedconsiderablytostrengthening
thetendencythat
every
socialtypemanifeststoconsolidateinto
a
singlepoliticalorganism,neverthelesseveninthose
earlydays
thattendencyprevailedonlysporadically.Tokeep
tothe
examplesmentioned :China,intheday
ofConfucius,wasbroken
upintomanyquasi-independent
feudalstates;andinEgyptthe
varioushiqs,
or
viceroys,
oftheindividualnomesoftenacquired
full
independence,andsometimesupperEgyptandlowerEgypt
wereseparatekingdoms.
Lateron,inhighlyadvancedandverycomplex
civilizations
suchastheHellenic,weseean
oppositetendencycomingmore
prominently
tothefore,atendencyonthe
part
ofasocialtype
todivideinto
separate,andalmostalwaysrival,politicalorgan-
isms.Thehegemony
thatoneGreekstateoranothertriedto
imposeontheotherHellenicpeopleswasalwaysaconcept
far
removedfromwhatwemodernsthinkofas
politicalunity;and
theattempts
ofAthensand
Sparta,andlateronofMacedonia,to
establishsuchahegemony
inapermanentandeffectiveform
neverquitesucceeded.
1
Cf.above,chap.I,12,and,incidentally,chap.II,2.
2Wearethinkinghereofmoralandintellectualinfluences. Physicalmixtures
with
neighboringbarbariansmustalwayshaveoccurred, if
only
forthereason
thatoutsiderswerehuntedforthepurpose
ofprocuring
slaves.

117. 74 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.
Ill
Thetraitthatistruly
characteristic ofmany
ancientpeoples,
andin
general
ofcivilizationsthatwemay
call
primitive
because
foreign
elementshaveexertedhardlyanyinfluenceuponthem,is
thesimplenessandunity
ofthewholesystem
ofideasandbeliefs
onwhichapeople's
existenceandits
politicalorganization
are
based.|Among
ancientpeoplesthe
politicalformulanotonly
resteduponreligionbutwaswhollyidentifiedwithit.Their
godwaspreeminently
anational
god.Hewasthespecial
protector
ofthe
territoryandthepeople.Hewasthefulcrumof
its
politicalorganization.Apeopleexistedonly
as
long
asitsgod
was
strongenough
tosustainit,andinhisturnthegod
survived
only
as
long
ashispeopledid.)
^TheancientHebrewsarethebest-knownexample
ofapeople
organizedaccording
tothesystemjust
described.Wemustnot
assume,however,thatthekingdoms
ofIsraelandJudahwereany
exception
intheperiods
inwhichthey
flourished.Therolethat
Jehovahplayed
inJerusalemwasplayedbyChemoshatMoab,
1
byMarduk(Merodach)
atBabylon,byAshuratNineveh,by
AmmonatThebes. JustastheGodofIsraelcommandedSaul,
DavidandSolomonto
fighttothebitterend
againsttheAmmon-
itesandthePhilistines,soAmmonorderedtheEgyptianPharaohs
tosmitethebarbarianstoeastandwestandAshurincitedthe
sovereigns
ofNinevehtoexterminate all
foreignersandassured
themofvictory.Thespeechthatthe
Assyrianambassador,
Rab-shakeh,addressedtotheJewsassembledonthewallsof
Jerusalem,illustratestheconceptionsmentioned.
2"
Yieldtomy
Lord,"he
argues,
"for
just
asothergodshavebeen
powerless
to
savetheirpeoplesfromAssyrianconquest,
sowillJehovahbe
powerless
tosaveyou."Inotherwords,Jehovahwasa
god,but
hewaslesspowerful
thanAshur,sinceAshur's
peoplehadcon-
queredother
peoples.The
Syrians
ofDamascusaresaidtohave
onceavoidedjoining
battlewiththeKings
ofIsraelinthemoun-
tainsbecausethey
believedthatJehovah
foughtbetterona
mountainousterrainthantheirgoddid^l
Butlittleby
littlecontactsbetweenrelativelycivilized
peoples
becamemore
frequent. Vastempireswerefounded,andthese
1
SeethefamoussteleofMesha,king
ofMoab.Atranslationofitmaybe
foundinLenormant.
*IIKmgsl8:10f.
8
1Kings
0:28:"TheLordisGodofthehills."

118. 4] RELIGIONANDSOCIALTYPE 75
couldnotalwaysbebaseduponcomplete
assimilationand
destruction ofvanquishedpeoples.Theconquerors
oftenhad
torestcontentwithmerelysubduingthem.Insuchcasesthe
victoroftenfoundit
politic
torecognizeandworship
thegod
of
the
vanquished.TheAssyriankingswhoconqueredBabylon
paidhomage
toMarduk,andCyrusseemstohavedonethe
same.AlexandertheGreatsacrificedtoAmmon,andin
general
toallthedeitiesofthe
peoples
he
conquered.TheRomans
admitted allconquered
deitiesintotheirpantheon.Atthat
point
in
history,long
interludes of
peace,andthe
lulling
of
nationalrivalriesthatfollowsupontheestablishment of
great
politicalorganisms,hadpreparedtheground
fora
relatively
recentphenomenon theriseof
greatreligionswhichwere
humanitariananduniversalandwhich,withoutdistinction of
race,language
or
politicalsystem,sought
toextendtheinfluence
oftheirdoctrinesindiscriminately overthewholeworld.
^4.Buddhism,ChristianityandMohammedanism arethethree
greathumanitarian
religionsthathavesofarappeared
in
history.
1
Eachofthem
possessesacompletebody
ofdoctrine,thebasis
beingpredominantlymetaphysical
inBuddhismanddogmatic
in
ChristianityandMohammedanism. Eachofthemclaimsthat
itsdoctrinecontainstheabsolutetruthandthatitoffersatrust-
worthyandinfallibleguide
towelfareinthisworldandsalvation
inthenext.CCommonacceptance
ofoneofthese
religions
constitutesavery
closebondbetweenmostdisparatepeopleswho
differ
widely
inraceand
language.
It
givesthemacommonand
specialmannerof
viewingmoralityandlifeand,morethanthat,
politicalcustomsandprivatehabitsofsuchanatureastocause
theformationofarealsocialtypewithconspicuouscharacter-
isticsthatareoftensoprofound
astobecome
virtually
indelible.
Fromthe
appearance
ofthese
greatreligionsdatesaclean-cut
distinctionbetweensocialtypeandnationaltypethathad
scarcelyexistedbefore.TherehadoncebeenEgyptian,Chal-
deanandGreekcivilizations,butnoChristianorMohammedan
1
TheJewish
religion,parent
of
ChristianityandMohammedanism, hasalso
becomepreponderantlyhumanitarianthrougha
longprocessofevolutionthat
canbetracedasfarbackastheProphets. Judaism,however,hasneverhad
anyverywide
following. Theremayhavebeenhumanitariantendenciesinthe
religionofZoroaster,though
thatwas
justanational
religion
in
origin.

119. 76 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
civilization inotherwords,therehadneverbeenaggregations
of
peopleswhoweredifferentin
languageandraceandwere
dividedintomanypoliticalorganismsbutwerenevertheless
unitedbybeliefs,sentimentsandacommon
cultur^j.
Ofall
religionsMohammedanism istheone,perhaps,
that
leavesitsimprintmost
deeplyonindividualswhohaveembraced
it,orbetter,whohavebeenbornintoa
societyoverwhichithas
securedcontrol.
Christianity,andJudaismtoo,havebeenand
stillareformsthatare
exceedingly
welladaptedtomoldingthe
softclay
ofthehuman
spirit
inaccordancewithcertaindefinite
patterns.TheinfluenceofBuddhism ismorebland,butitis
stilleffective.
Itistobenoted,however,thatif
(thesegreatreligions,with
their
closelyknitdoctrinesandtheirstronglyorganizedreligious
hierarchies,doserve
wonderfully
tobindtheircobelievers
together
inbrotherhoodandassimilatethemtoacommontype,
they
alsoactas
estranging
forcesof
greatpotencybetween
populations
thatcherishdifferentbeliefs.They
createalmost
unbridgeable gulfsbetween
peopleswhoareotherwiseclosekin
inraceandlanguageandwholivein
adjoining
territoriesoreven
withinonecountryADifferencesin
religionhaverenderedany
fusionbetweenthepopulationsinhabitingtheBalkanpeninsula
almost
impossible,andthesameistrueofIndia. (InIndia
?
asis
hiown,the
religionsprevailing
at
present
areMohammedanism
andBrahamanismi Thelatterisnotahumanitarian
rellgidn,
butitis
stronglyorganized. Minute
preceptscreatecasesof
impurity
attheleastcontactbetweenpersons
ofdifferentcastes.
Thecaste,therefore,becomesapowerfulestrangingforce,and
greatlyhamBfiia^jaByfermentofimpulsestowardsocialassimi-
Amazing
indeed istheskillthattheRomansshowedin
assimilatingsubjectpeoples,
inthefaceoftheveryconsiderable
obstaclesthatarosefromdifferencesinrace,languageandlevel
ofcivilization.Theymight
nothavesucceededsowellhad
they
encounteredtheresistance ofhostile,exclusiveand
strongly
organizedreligions,DruidisminGaulandBritainhada
very
rudimentary organization,butitofferedacertainamountof
resistancenevertheless. TheJewsallowedthemselvestobe
killedand
dispersed,buttheywereneverassimilated. InNorth
Africa,Romesucceededin
Latinizing
theancestorsofthemodern

120. 5] RELIGIONANDSOCIALTYPE 77
Moors,ArabsandKabylesandin
convertingthemtoherciviliza-
tion,atleastup
toacertainpoint;butsheneverhadtodealwith
theMussulman
religion,
astheFrenchandItaliansofourday
arc
obliged
todo.JugurthaandTacfarinascouldnotappeal
to
religiouspassions
asAbd-el-KaderandBou-Mazahavedonein
ourtime.AsKaramzinso
aptlyremarks,theChristian
religion
savedMoscowfrombecomingwholly
Asiaticunderthe
long
dominion oftheMongols.Ontheotherhand,thoughthe
Russiansintheirturnareefficientassimilators,andthough
FinnishandMongolbloodareblendedin
largeproportionswith
theSlavicinWhiteRussia,theunitsofMohammedanTatarsin
Kazan,AstrakhanandtheCrimeahaveneverbeenabsorbed.
Eithertheyhaveemigrated
orelsetheyhavestayedonasa
peopleapart,subject,
tobesure,butsharplydistinguishedfrom
therestoftheRussianpeople.
1
ThechildrenoftheCelestial
Empirehavebeen
fairly
successfulin
assimilating
theinhabitants
ofthesouthernprovinces,
alienby
raceand
language,butthey
havenotsucceededsowellwiththeRoui-Tze,descendants of
Turkishtribeswhohavedweltforathousand
years
ormorein
provinces
inthenorthwestofChina
proper.Thesehavetaken
onthelanguageandtheexternalappearance
oftherealChinese,
andminglewiththelatterinthesamecities,buttheyhavebeen
kept
in
spiritual
isolationbyMohammedanism, whichtheir
fathershadembracedbeforepassingtheGreatWall.The
Turkishtribesin
questionestablishedthemselvesintheprovinces
ofShensiandKansuundertheTangdynasty,on
beingsummoned
thithertocheckinvasionsbytheTibetans. In1861the
antip-
athiesthathadalwaysexistedbetweentheMohammedansand
theirBuddhistfellowcountrymengave
risetoaterribleinsurrec-
tion,inwhichtheMohammedanswagedawarofextermination
againsttheBuddhists. Afterthe
provincesmentionedhadbeen
reducedto
ghastlydesolation,thecivilwarbecamelocalizedin
theKashgar,beyond
theGreatWall. Itdidnotenduntil1877,
whentheMohammedan leader,Jakoub-beg,wasassassinated.
2
Withtheappearance
ofthe
great
universal
religions,the
history
ofmankindbecomescomplicatedbynewfactors.We
havealready
seenthatevenbeforethose
religionsarose,asocial
1
Leroy-Beaulieu,E
'Empire
destmrsetlesRusses,
2
Rousset,AtiraverslaChine,

121. 78 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
type,
in
spite
ofitstendencytoward
unity,mightsplitup
into
different
politicalsystems.Withtheadventofthe
great
religions,
thisfactbecomesmore
generalandless
avoidable.)
and
theground
isprepared
fortheemergence
ofaphenomenonwhich,
asregardsEurope,
iscalledthe
strugglebetweenchurchand
state.
ipThecomplication
arises
primarilyfromthefactthatthe
tendency
ofthesocialtypetowardunityremainsbutishampered
by
far
stronger
forces.The
politicalorganization
stilltriesto
justify
itsownexistencebythetenetsofthe
prevailingreligion,
butthe
religion,
onitsside,isalwaystrying
toobtaincontrolof,
andto
identify
itselfwith,politicalpower
inordertousethe
latterasaninstrumentforitsownendsand
propaganda^
TJ^ljffjnn
fljid.-.pn|jf
tjfifift^emostcloselyunitedinMohammedan
countries.TheheadofaMohammedanstatehasalmostalways
Seenthehighpriest
ofoneofthegreatIslamicsects,orelsehas
receivedElsinvestiturefromtEeliandsofa
highpriest.In
past
centuriesthisinvestiturewasoftenanemptyformalitywhichthe
caliph,by
thattimestripped
oftemporalpower,couldnotwith-
holdfromthe
powerful./Inthe
periodbetweenthefallofthe
AbbassidsofBagdadandtheriseofthe
greatOttomanEmpire
Mussulmanfanaticismwaslessviolentthanitis
today.Evena
superficialfamiliaritywiththe
history
oftheMohammedan
countriesconvincesoneofthat.HeirsofthePersiancivilization
ofthe
age
oftheSassanids,andthankstotheirstudy
ofancient
Greekauthors,theMussulmanswereforseveralcenturiesduring
theMiddleAgesmuchlessprejudicedthantheChristiansofthe
sameperiod.
1
j
Itiscertain,moreover,thatalmost
everygreat
revolutionintlieMohammedanworld,thebirthofalmostevery
state,isaccompaniedand
justifiedby
anew
religiousschism.So
itwasintheMiddleAges,whenthenewempires
oftheAlmora-
videsandtheAlmohadesarose;andthatwasalsothecaseinthe
nineteenthcentury
withtheinsurrectionoftheWahabisandthe
revoltledby
theMahdiofOmdurman.
InChina,Buddhismlivesmeeklyonundertheprotectionof
thestate,thelattershowingthatit
recognizesandfostersthe
creedasagesture
ofdeferencetowardthelower
classes,which
really
believeinit.DowntoafewyearsagotheGrandLama,
whoisthehighauthority
oftheBuddhistsinTibet,Mongoliaand
*Anaari.St&riadeiMusulmaniinSidlia.

122. 5] RELIGIONANDSOCIALTYPE 79
certainprovinces
ofChina
proper,scrupulouslyfollowedthe
suggestions
oftheChineseresidentatLhasa.Thebonzes,who
arescatteredoverthegreaterpart
ofChina,havenocentralized
organization
inawaythey
aretheProtestantsofBuddhism.
Thegovernment
toleratesthemandoftenspendsacertain
amountofmoney
onBuddhistfestivalsinordertohumorpopular
beliefs,fThehigher
classesinChinafollowthe
agnosticposi-
tivismofConfucius,whichisnot
clearlydistinguishablefroma
vaguesortofdeism.)InJapanthesamereligion
istolerated,but
thegovernment
hasoflatebeentrying
torehabilitatetheancient
nationalcultofShinto.
(ThevariousChristiansectshavemetwidelyvarying
conditions
in
Europe.
InRussiatheczarwastheheadoftheorthodox
religionandthechurchauthoritywas
practicallyonewiththe
state
authority.
Intheeyes
ofaloyalRussianagoodsubject
of
theczarhadtobeanorthodoxGreekCatholic.
1
InProtestant
countries,too,thedominantsectoftenhasamoreorlessofficial
character. SincethefalloftheRomanempire,Catholicismhas
had
greaterindependence) IntheMiddleAges
it
aspiredto
controlover
layauthority
inallthecountriesthathadenteredthe
Catholicorbit,andtherewasatimewhenthepope
couldreason-
ablyhopethatarealizationofthevastpapalproject
of
uniting
all
Christianity
inotherwordsawholesocialtypeunderhismore
orlessdirectinfluencewasnearathand.Todaythepopegets
alongbycompromises,lending
his
support
tosecularpowersand
receiving
theirs.Inonecountry
oranotherheisinopenconflict
withthem.
But^a
politicalorganism,whichhasapopulationthatfollows
oneoftheuniversal
religions,
orisdividedamong
severalsects
ofoneofthem,musthavea
legalandmoralbasisofitsownon
whichtheruling
classmaytakeitsstand. Itmust,therefore,be
foundedonanational
feeling,
onalong
traditionof
independence,
onhistoricmemories,onanage-oldloyalty
toa
dynasty on
something,
inshort,thatis
peculiar
toitself
*)Alongside
ofthe
generalhumanitarian cult,theremustsomehowbea,soto
say,
nationalcultthatismoreorless
satisfactorily reconciledand
coordinatedwiththeother.Thedutiesofthetwocultsareoften
simultaneously
observedby
thesameindividuals, forhuman
beings
arenotalwaysstrictly
consistentin
reconciling
thevarious
1
Leroy-Beaulieu,
ISEmpire
destzarsetUs

123. 80 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
principles
that
inspire
theirconduct. In
practiceonemaybea
goodCatholicandatthesametimeagoodGerman,oragood
Italian,oragoodFrenchman,ora
loyalsubject
ofaProtestant
sovereign,
oragood
citizenofa
republicthatmakesofficial
profession
ofanticlericalism. Sometimes, asfrequentlyhap-
pened
inanolder
Italy,onecanbeagoodpatriotandanardent
socialistatthesametime,thoughsocialism,likeCatholicism,
isinessence
antagonistic
tonational
particularisms.
These
compromisesoccur,however,when
passions
arenotvery
keen.
In
point
ofstrict
consistency,theeighteenthcenturyEnglish
were
rightwhentheythoughtthat,sincethekingwastheheadof
theAnglicanChurchand
everygood
Catholicowedhisprime
obe-
diencetothepope,nogood
CatholiccouldbeagoodEnglishman.
^JWhenthereisamoreorlessmaskedantagonismbetweena
doctrine,oracreed,that
aspires
to
universality,andthesenti-
mentsandtraditionsthatsupportthe
particularism
ofastate,
whatis
really
essential isthatthosesentimentsandtraditions
shouldbereallyvigorous,
thattheyshouldalsobeboundupwith
manymaterialinterestsandthataconsiderableportion
ofthe
ruling
classshouldbestronglyimbuedwiththemandshould
propagateandkeepthemaliveinthemasses. If,inaddition,
thiselementinthe
ruling
classissoundlyorganized,
itcanresist
allthereligious
ordoctrinarycurrentsthatare
exertingan
influenceinthesociety
thatitrules.Butifitislukewarminits
sentiments,
ifitisfeebleinmoralandintellectualforces,
ifits
organization
isdefective,thenthe
religiousand
doctrinary
cur-
rents
prevailandthestateendsbybecoming
a
plaything
ofsome
oneoftheuniversal religions
ordoctrines for
example
of
Catholicismorofsocialdemocracy.
J
6.Beforewe
proceedanyfurther,itmightbewiseto
linger
briefly
onthetwotypes
intowhich,inouropinion,
all
political
organismsmaybeclassified,thefeudalandthebureaucratic.
Thisclassification, itshouldbenoted,isnotbaseduponessen-
tial,unchanging
criteria. Itisnotourviewthatthereisany
psychologicallawpeculiar
toeitheroneofthetwo
typesand
thereforealientotheother. Itseemstous,rather,thatthetwo
types
are
just
differentmanifestations, different
phases,ofa
single
constanttendencywherebyhumansocietiesbecomeless
simple,or,ifonewill,morecomplicated
in
politicalorganization,

124. 6] FEUDALSYSTEMS 81
astheygrow
insizeandare
perfected
incivilization. Levelof
civilization is,onthewhole,more
important
inthisregardthan
size,since,inactualfact,a
literallyhuge
statemayoncehave
been
feudallyorganized.Atbottom,therefore,abureaucratic
stateis
justafeudalstatethathasadvancedanddevelopedin
organizationandsogrownmore
complex;andafeudalstatemay
derivefromaoncebureaucratized
societythathasdecayed
in
civilizationandrevertedtoa
simpler,moreprimitiveformof
politicalorganization,perhapsfalling
to
pieces
inthe
process.
By"feudalstate"wemeanthattype
of
politicalorganization
inwhichalltheexecutivefunctionsof
society
theeconomic,the
judicial,theadministrative, themilitaryare
exercisedsimul-
taneouslybythesameindividuals,whileatthesametimethe
stateismadeup
ofsmallsocial
aggregates,
eachofwhich
possesses
alltheorgansthatarerequired
for
self-sufficiency. TheEurope
oftheMiddleAges
offersthemostfamiliarexample
ofthistype
of
organization
that*4swhywehavechosento
designate
itby
theterm"feudal";butasonereadsthehistoriesofotherpeoples
orscanstheaccountsoftravelersofourowndayonereadily
perceivesthatthetype
iswidespread. Justasthemedieval
baronwassimultaneouslyowneroftheland,militarycommander,
judgeandadministrator ofhisfief,overwhichheenjoyedbotha
pureandamixedsovereignty,
sotheAbyssinian
rasdispensed
justice,commandedthe
soldieryandleviedtaxes^orrather
extortedfromthefarmereverythingoverandaboVethebare
necessariesofsubsistence. Incertainperiods
ofancientEgypt
the
hiq,
orlocal
governor,sawtotheupkeep
ofthecanals,super-
vised
agriculture,administered
justice,exactedtribute,com-
mandedhiswarriors. Thiswasmore
especiallythecase
during
theearliestknown
periodsandundersomeofthemorerecent
dynasties, jitmustnotbe
forgottenthatthe
history
ofancient
Egyptcoversabout
thirtycenturies,aperiodlongenough,
in
spite
oftheallegedimmobility
oftheEast,forasocietytopass
backandforthbetweenfeudalismandbureaucracyanynumber
oftimes.;SotoothecuracaofPeru,underIncarule,wasthe
headofhis
village,andinthatcapacityadministeredthecollec-
tiverural
property,
exercisedall
judiciaryfunctionsand,atthe
request
oftheSonoftheSun,commandedthearmed
quotas
thatthe
village
contributed. Chinaalso
passedthroughafeudal
period,andinJapanthattype
of
organization
lasteddowntothe

125. 8$ FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
endofthesixteenthcentury,
itslasttracesnotvanishing
tillafter
therevolutionof1868.Afghanistan
isstillfeudallyorganized,
andsowasIndiatoa
greatextentatthetimeoftheEuropean
conquest.Wemaygo
sofarastosaythateverygreatsociety
musthavepassedoneormoretimesthroughafeudalperiod.
Sometimes
religious
functionsalsoareexercisedby
theleader
whohas
charge
ofothersocialactivities. Thiswastrueof
Europeinmedievaltimes,whenabbotsandbishopswereholders
offiefs.{Afeudalordermayexist,furthermore,evenwhenland,
thealmostPexclusive sourceofwealthinsocietiesof
low-grade
civilization, isnotbylawtheabsoluteproperty
ofthegoverning
class.Evengrantingthatthecultivatorsarenotlegallyvassals
andslaves,orindeedarenominallyownersofthesoilthey
culti-
vate,thelocalleaderandhissatellites,having
fullpowertoexact
tributeandrequireforcedlabor,willleavetheworkersoftheland
nomorethanisindispensable
forabare
subsistence^
Evensmallpoliticalunits,inwhichtheproduction
ofwealth
restsnotuponagriculturebutuponcommerceand
industry,
sometimesshowmarkedlyfeudalcharacteristics, exhibitinga
concentrationof
politicalandeconomicmanagement
inthesame
persons
thatischaracteristically feudal.The
politicalheadsof
themedievalcommuneswereatthesametimeheadsofthecraft
andtrade
guilds.ThemerchantsofTyreandSidon,likethe
merchantsofGenoaandVenice,BremenandHamburg,managed
banks,superintended
thetradingpoststhatwereestablishedin
barbariancountries,commanded shipswhichservednowas
merchantmen,nowaswarvessels,andgoverned
theircities.
Thatwasthecaseespeciallywhenthecitieslivedbymaritime
commerce,intheexerciseofwhichanyonewhocommandeda
vesselreadilycombinedhisfunctionsasamerchantwith
political
ormilitaryleadership. Inotherplaces,
inFlorenceforexample,
wherealargepart
ofthemunicipalwealthwasderivedfrom
industryandbanking,therulingclasssoonlostitswarlikehabits
andtherewithdirectionof
military
affairs.Tothatfactmay
havebeenpartlyduethetroubledcareerofthecommercial
oligarchy
inFlorenceaftertheexpulsion
oftheDukeofAthens
anddowntothetimeofCosimodeiMedici.The
year1325
sawthelastofthecavallate,or
militaryexpeditions,inwhich
thenoblesandwealthymerchants ofFlorence
personally
participated.
1
1
Capponi,
Storiadelta
Repubblica
diFirms.

126. 7] BUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS 8S
7.Inthebureaucraticstatenotalltheexecutivefunctionsneed
tobeconcentratedinthebureaucracyandexercisedby
it.One
mightevendeclarethatsofarin
historythathasneverbeenthe
case.Themaincharacteristicofthistype
ofsocial
organization
lies,we,believe,inthefactthat,whereveritexists,thecentral
powerconscriptsaconsiderableportion
ofthesocialwealthby
taxationandusesitfirsttomaintaina
militaryestablishmentand
thentosupportamoreorlessextensivenumberof
public
services.
The
greaterthenumberofofficialswhoperformpublicdutiesand
receivetheirsalariesfromthecentralgovernment
orfromitslocal
agencies,themorebureaucraticasocietybecomes.
Inabureaucraticstatethereisalwaysa
greaterspecialization
inthefunctionsofgovernmentthaninafeudalstate.Thefirst
andmostelementary
divisionof
capacities
isthewithdrawalof
administrativeand
judiciarypowersfromthe
militaryelement.
Thebureaucratic state,furthermore,assuresafar
greater
disci-
pline
inall
grades
of
political,administrativeand
militaryservice.
To
gainsomeconception
ofwhatthismeans,onehas
onlyto
compare
amedievalcount,hedgedaboutbyarmedretainersand
byvassalswhohavebeenattachedforcenturiestohis
familyand
supportedbytheproduce
ofhislands,withamodernFrenchor
Italian
prefect
orarmygeneral,whomatelegramcansuddenly
shearofauthorityandevenofstipend.Thefeudalstate,there-
fore,demandsgreatenergyanda
great
senseof
statesmanshipin
theman,ormen,whostandonthetoprung
ofthesocialladder,
ifthevarioussocialgroups,whichwouldotherwisetendtodis-
organizationandautonomy,
aretobe
keptorganized,compact
andobedienttoa
singleimpulse.Sotrueisthisthatoftenwith
thedeathofaninfluentialleaderthepower
ofafeudalstate
itselfcomestoanend.Onlygreatmoralunitythepresence
of
asharplydefinedsocialtypecan
longsavethe
politicalexistence
ofapeoplethatisfeudallyorganized. Nothing
lessthanChris-
tianitywas
required
toholdtheAbyssinian
tribestogetheramid
themassesofpagansandMohammedans thatencircledthem,
andtopreserve
theirautonomy
forovertwothousand
years.
Butwhentheestranging
forceisfeeble,orwhenthefeudalstate
comesintocontactwithmoresoundlyorganizedpeoples,then
suchastatemayveryeasilybeabsorbedandvanishinoneofthe
frequentperiodical
crisestowhichitscentralpower
isirremedi-
ablyexposed theexample
ofPolandcomesimmediately to

127. 84 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
mind.OBtheotherhand,thepersonalqualities
ofthesupreme
headexert
relatively
littleinfluenceonthedestiniesofabureau-
craticstate.A
societythatis
bureaucratically organizedmay
retainitsfreedomevenifitrepudiatesanold
political
formulaand
adopts
anewone,orevenifitsubjects
itssocialtype
tovery
far-
reaching
modifications. ThiswasthecasewiththeRoman
Empire.
Itsurvivedtheadoption
of
Christianity
intheWest
foracenturyandahalf,andintheEastformorethaneleven
centuries. Soourmodernnationshavenearly
allshiftedatone
timeoranotherfroma
divine-rightformulatoparliamentary
systems
ofgovernment.
8.Bureaucraticorganizationneednot
necessarilybecentral-
ized,inthesensecommonlygiven
tothat
expression. Often
bureaucratization is
compatible
withavery
liberal
provincial
autonomy,
asinChina,wheretheeighteenstrictlyChinese
provincespreserved
broadautonomousprivilegesandthecapital
city
ofeachprovince
lookedafteralmostall
provincial
affairs.
1
StatesofEuropean
civilization eventhemostdecentralizedof
themareallbureaucratized. Aswehavealreadyindicated,
thechiefcharacteristic ofabureaucraticorganization
isthatits
militaryfunctions,andotherpublic
servicesinnumbersmoreor
less
large,
areexercisedby
salariedemployees. Whethersalaries
arepaidexclusivelyby
thecentralgovernment
orin
partby
local
bodiesmoreorlessunderthecontrolofthecentralgovernment
is
adetailthatisnotasimportant
asitisoftensupposedtobe.
History
isnot
lacking
incasesofvery
small
politicalorganisms
whichhaveaccomplished
miraclesof
energy
in
everybranchof
humanactivitywiththebarestrudimentsofbureaucratic
organ-
izationorwith
practicallynoneatall.TheancientHellenic
citiesandtheItaliancommunesoftheMiddleAges
areexamples
thatflocktomind.Butwhenvasthumanorganisms,spreading
overhuge
territoriesandcomprising
millionsandmillionsof
individuals,areinvolved,nothing
shortofbureaucraticorganiza-
tionseemscapable
of
unitingundera
singleimpulsetheimmense
treasuresofeconomicpowerandmoralandintellectual
energy
withwhicha
ruling
classcaninameasuremodifyconditions
withinasocietyandmakeitsinfluenceeffectiveand
powerful
beyond
itsownfrontiers.Underafeudal
organization the
1
Hue,Reclus,Rousset.

128. 8] BUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS 85
authoritywhichagivenmemberoftheruling
classexertsover
individualsofthe
subjectclass,fewormany,maybemoredirect,
oppressive,
and
arbitrary.Underabureaucraticorganization
society
isinfluencedlessbythegiven
individualleaderthanby
therulingclassasawhole.
Egyptwasbureaucratizedinthe
goldenages
oftheseventeenth
and
eighteenthdynasties,whenthecivilizationofthePharaohs
hadoneofitsmostlustrous
periods
ofrenascence,andtheEgyp-
tianbattalionspushed
theirconquestsfromtheBlueNiletothe
foothillsoftheCaucasus. InancientEgypt,asinChina,the
coinage
of
preciousmetalswasunknown. Taxesthereforewere
collectedinkindorwerecalculatedin
preciousmetals,whichwere
weighedoutonscales.Thiswasnoinconsiderable obstacleto
the
functioning
ofthebureaucraticsystem.The
difficultywas
overcomebyacomplicatedandvery
detailedsystem
ofbook-
keeping.
Itis
interesting
alsotonote,onthe
psychological side,
thatwithsocialconditionsequal,manisalwaysthesame,even
inlittle
things,through
the
ages.Letters
survivingfromthose
days
1
show
Egyptian
officers
detailing
the
hardships
oftheir
farawaygarrisons
in
Syria,andfunctionarieswhoareboredin
theirlittle
provincialtowns
solicitingtheinfluence oftheir
superiors
to
procure
transferstothegayercapital.Suchletters
couldbedrawnfromthearchivesofalmostanydepartment
in
anymodernEuropeangovernment.
TheRomanempirewasahighlybureaucratized state,andits
soundsocialorganismwasabletospreadGreco-Roman civiliza-
tionandthelanguage
of
Italy
over
largeportions
oftheancient
world,accomplishing
amostdifficulttaskofsocialassimilation.
AnotherbureaucracywasczaristRussia,which,despiteanumber
ofseriousinternalweaknesses,hadgreatvitalityandcarriedits
expansiondeep
intotheremotefastnessesofAsia.
In
spite
oftheseexamples,andnotafewothersthatmight
readilyoccurtoone,weshouldnot
forgetaveryimportantfact
towhichwehavealready
alluded:namely,that
historyshowsno
instanceofa
greatsociety
inwhichallhumanactivitieshave
been
completely
bureaucratized. This,perhaps,
isoneofthe
many
indicationsofthe
greatcomplexity
ofsociallaws,fora
type
of
politicalorganizationmayproducegood
resultswhen
applied
up
toacertainpoint,
butbecome
impracticableandharmful
1
TextsandtranslationsbyLenormantandMaspero.

129. 86 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
whenitis
generalizedandsystematized. Justiceis
quitegener-
allybureaucratized,andsoispublicadministration. NapoleonI,
great
bureaucratizerthathewas,succeededin
bureaucratizing
educationandeventheCatholic
priesthood.Weoftensee
bureaucracies buildingroads,canals,railwaysandallsortsof
publicworksthatfacilitatetheproduction ofwealth.But
production
itselfweneversee
entirely
bureaucratized. Itwould
seemasthoughthatveryimportantbranchofsocialactivity,
like
somany
otherbranches,lendsitselfilltobureaucraticregulation,
individual
profitbeingafarmoreeffectivespur
totheclasses
engaged
inproductionthananygovernmentsalarycouldbe.
-Whatismore,wehave
fairlystrongevidencethattheextension
ofbureaucratic controltothe
productionanddistribution of
wealthasawholewouldbefatal.Wearenotthinkinghere
oftheeconomicevilsof
protectionism,
ofgovernmental
controlof
bankingandfinance,oftheoverdevelopment
of
publicworks.
Wearemerelypointing
toawell-established fact.Inabureau-
craticsystemboththemanager
ofeconomic
productionandthe
individualworkerare
protectedagainstarbitrary
confiscations
onthe
part
ofthestrongandpowerful,andallprivate
warfare
issternlysuppressed.Humanlifeandproperty
aretherefore
relatively
secure.Underabureaucraticregime,theproducer
pays
overafixedquota
tothesocialorganizationandsecures
tranquilenjoyment
oftherestofhis
product. This
permitsan
accretionofwealth,publicand
private,
thatisunknowntobar-
barousor
primitivelyorganized
countries.Buttheamountof
wealththatisabsorbedandconsumedbytheclassthatfulfills
otherthaneconomicfunctionsmaybecometoo
great,either
becausethedemandsofthemilitaryclass,andofotherbureau-
crats,areexcessive,orbecausethebureaucracy
triestoperform
toomanyservices,orbecauseofwarsandthedebtsthairesult
fromwars.Underthesecircumstancesthetaxesthatarelevied
uponthewealth-producing
classesbecomesoheavythatthe
profitthatanindividualcanearninthefieldofproduction
is
markedly
reduced. Inthateventproduction
itself
inevitably
fallsoff.Aswealthdeclines,emigrationandhigherdeathrates
thinoutthepoorerclasses,andfinallytheexhaustionofthe
entiresocialbody
ensues.Thesephenomena*areobservable
wheneverabureaucratic statedeclines.Weseetheminthe
epochthatfollowedupon
themaximumdevelopment
ofbureau-

130. 0] COMTE'SCLASSIFICATION 87
cracy
inancientEgypt,
andmore
strikingly
still
during
thedecay
oftheRomanEmpire.Attheendofthelongreign
ofRamses
II,withwhichthedeclineofthethirdEgyptian
civilization
begins,
taxeshadbecomeintolerable,asisattestedbynumbers
of
privatedocumentsthathavebeendecipheredbyMaspero,
Lenormantandothers.Weknowthattherealreasonforthe
declineoftheRomanEmpirewasaf
alling-off
in
population
and
wealth,whichinturnmusthavebeencausedinthemainbythe
burdenoftaxesandtheunthinkinggreedwithwhichthey
were
collected.
1
InFrance,too,populationandwealthdwindledat
theendofthelongreign
oftheGreatKing.Theywereput
into
good
conditionagainundertheadministration ofthepeace-
loving
Cardinalde
Fleury.
9.Itwouldtakeustoofarafieldtorespondseriatimtoall
thetheoriesanddoctrinesthat
divergefromourpoint
ofview
concerningtheclassification ofgovernmentaltypes
inhuman
societies.Amongsuchdoctrines,however,twoareso
important,
inviewofthevoguethattheyarehavingtoday,thatwecan
hardlyignorethem.Wealludetothe
closelyrelatedtheories
ofComteandSpencer.Largenumbersofwritersonthesocial
and
political
sciencesmakethe
concepts
ofthosefamoussociolo-
giststhecornerstonesoftheir
reasoningsandtheir
systems.
Comte,asiswellknown,stressedthree
stages
intheevolution
ofhumanintelligence,the
theological,the
metaphysicalandthe
positive,withthreedifferenttypes
ofsocial
organization cor-
responding
tothem,themilitary,thefeudalandtheindustrial.
Littlefaultneedbefoundwiththisclassification oftheintel-
lectualprocesses
ofmanin
general.Manmay,
infact,explain
tohimselfallphenomena
inthe
organicand
inorganicuniverse,
evensocialphenomena,byattributingthemtosupernatural
beings,
totheintervention ofGodorofgods
orof
spiritsbene-
ficentormaleficent,whomhetakestobetheauthorsof
victory
anddefeat,ofabundanceandfamine,ofgoodhealthand
pes-
tilence;andifoneassumesthattherewasa
stage
inhistory
inwhichmanreasoned
exclusively
inthisfashion,thestage
maywellbecalled
theological.Manmay
also
explainthesame
phenomenabyascribingthemto
prime,orfirst,causeswhichare
productsofhisimagination
orofa
superficial
orfancifulobserva-
1
Marquardt,OrganisationfinancierechezletRomains.

131. 88 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
tionoffacts,aswhenhebelievedthatthedestiniesofindividuals
andnationsdependedupon
themotionsandconjunctions
ofthe
planets,
orthatthehealthofthehumanbodydependedupon
combinations ofhumors,orthatthewealthofnationscorre-
sponded
tothequantities
of
preciousmetalsthattheypossessed.
Inthiscasemanmaywellbesaidtobeinametaphysical,
or
aprioristicstage. Finally,mancan
giveuptrying
todiscover
theprimecausesofphenomenaandtryinstead,with
rigorous
methodsofobservation, toformulatethenaturallawswith
whichphenomenaconformandsoenablehimselftotakeall
possibleadvantage
ofthem.Inthisframeofmindmancanbe
saidtobeinascientificor
positivestage.
Objections
toComte'ssystembeginwhenhesetsouttoascribe
thethreeprocessesmentionedtodefinitehistoricalperiodsand
thento
classifyhumansocietiesbyassigningthemtooneor
another ofthe
periods
soobtained. Allthreeintellectual
processesgooninallhumansocieties,fromthematurestdownto
thosewhicharestill,sotospeak,
inthesavage
state.Ancient
Greecegave
usHippocratesandAristotle,andRomeLucretius.
ModernEuropean
civilizationhasgivenus
physics,chemistry
and
politicaleconomy.
Ithasinventedthe
telescopeandthe
microscope.
Ithastamed
electricityanddiscoveredthebacteria
thatcauseepidemics
anddiseases.Yetwecannot
helprecogniz-
ing
thatinAthensasinancientRome,JnParisasinBerlin,in
LondonasinNewYork,themajority
ofindividualswereand
areinthefullmidstofthetheologicalstage,
oratbestinthe
metaphysical stage.
Justastherewasnotimeinclassical
antiquitywhensoothsayersandoracleswerenotconsulted,or
whensacrificeswerenotofferedandomensbelieved,sorevealed
religions
continuetoplayimportant
rolesinthelivesofour
contemporaries,
andwherever
religionweakenswewitness
growths
of
spiritualistic superstitions
oroftheabsurdmeta-
physics
ofsocialdemocracy.Ontheotherhandthe
savagewho
seesafetishina
plant
orastone,orwhobelievesthathistribe's
medicinemanproduces
rainandmakesthe
lightning,couldnot
liveinthisworldifhedidnot
possess
acertainamountof
soundly
positive
information.Whenhestudiesthehabitsoftheanimals
hehunts,whenhelearnstoidentify
theirtracksandtakes
accountofthedirectionofthewindinorderto
surpriseand
capturethem,heis
utilizingobservationsthathavebeenaccumu-

132. 9] COEXISTENCEOFSTAGES 89
latedand
systematizedby
himselfandhisfathers,andis
acting
thereforeinaccordwiththedictatesofsoundscience.
1
Butthatisnotall.Comte'sthreeintellectualprocessesgo
on
simultaneously
tousehiscurious
language,
histhree
periods
coexistnotonly
inonehistoricalepochandinone
people,
butalsoinoneindividual.Wemaysay,withexamplesby
the
hundredsbeforeour
eyes,
thatthisisthe
general
ruleandthat
thecontrary
istheexception.WhatItalian,infact,hasnot
knownsomeGod-fearingship'scaptainwhoin
religion
believes
inthemiraclesofOurLady
ofLottrdesoroftheMadonnaof
Pompeii,whoin
politics
orineconomicsbelievesinuniversal
suffrage
orintheclass
struggle,butwho,whenitcomesto
running
his
ship,
handleshistiller
according
tothecompassand
trimshissailsaccording
tothedirectionofthewind? All,or
virtually all,physiciansdowntotwocenturies
agobelievedin
religionandsodidnotdeny
the
efficacy
ofprayerandvotive
offerings
inthetreatmentofthesick.As
regardsthefunction-
ing
ofthedifferentorgans
inthehumanbodyandthevirtuesof
certain
simples,they
heldvarious
metaphysicalbeliefs,derivedin
largepartfromGalenorfromArabdoctors.Butatthesame
timetheywerenotwithoutacertainfundofscientificinformation
thatwentbacktoHippocratesandwhich,slowlyenrichedby
theexperience
ofmanycenturies,permittedrationaltreatments
insomefewcases.So"prayers
for
victoryandTeDeumsof
thanksgiving
wereofferedinEurope
totheMostHighlong
after
GustavusAdolphus,TurenneandMontecuccolihadbegun
to
fightwarsonscientific
principles.Tomentiononeothercase:
WhenXenophonbelievedthatadreamwasa
warningfromthe
gods
hewasinafull
theologicalperiod.Astotheshape
ofthe
earthandthe
composition
ofmatterhehadideasthatthe
geogra-
phersandchemistsofourdaywouldcharacterizeas
metaphysical.
But,in
leading
thefamousretreatoftheTenThousand,he
founditnecessarytoprotect
hismaincolumn,whichwas
marching
withthebaggagetrain,fromcontinuousraidsbythe
Persian
cavalry.Heflankeditwithtwolinesof
light-armed
troops
so
guiding
himselfbyprincipleswhich,giventhearma-
1
ThisobjectiontoComte'stheorywasseenbyComte
himself,forhewrote:
"Thisephemeralcoexistenceofthethreeintellectual
stagestoday
istheonly
plausibleexplanation
fortheresistancethatoutdatedthinkersarestill
offering
tomylaw."Sy*t$metvol.Ill,p.
41.

133. 90 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
mentstheninuse,amoderntacticianwouldjudgethoroughly
scientificand
positive.
Inthe
CyropaediaXenophon
isprimarily
theologicalandmetaphysical.Heturns
positiveagain
inhis
treatiseontheartofhorseback
riding.Onthistopic
hedraws
his
precepts,
asanymodernwriterwould,fromstudy
ofthe
natureofthehorse.
10.Thetruthisthat,inthisasinsomanyothercases,over-
simplification
isnotwellsuitedtothesciencesthatdealwiththe
psychology
ofman.Manisanexceedinglycomplexanimal,
fullofcontradictions. Heisnotalwaysconsiderateenough
to
be
logicalandconsistentandso,evenwhenhebelievesandhopes
thatGodisgoing
tointerfereinhisbehalf,heiscarefultokeep
hispowderdry
carefultotakeadvantage,
inotherwords,both
ofhisownandofother
people'sintelligenceand
experience.
Theone
really
validargumentthatcanbeadducedinfavor
ofComte'sclassification isthat
although
thethreeintellectual
stages
coexistinallhumansocietiesandcanbedetectedinthe
majority
ofindividualswhocomposethosesocieties,theymay,
according
tothecase,beveryunequally
distributed.Apeople
mayhaveanequipment
ofscientificknowledgethatisunques-
tionablysuperior
tothatofanotherpeople,andinthevarious
periods
ofits
history
itmayprogress
ordeclinegreatly
in
respect
ofscientificknowledge;anditis
just
ascertainthatmetaphysical
doctrinesandsupernatural
beliefs
generallyhaveastronger
hold
on
scientificallybackwardnationsandindividualsandexerta
greater
influenceonthem.Butsubjected
tothoselimitations
Comte'stheorycomesdowntosomething
liketherathercom-
monplace
doctrinethatthefartherasocietyprogresses
in
scientific
thinking,
thelessroomithasleftfor
aprioristic
or
metaphysicalthinking,andthelessinfluencethesupernatural
hasupon
it.
"Natio estomniumGallorumadmodum dedita
religionibus
(thewholeraceofGaulsisextraordinarilydevotedto
religious
rites),"wroteCaesarajudgment
thatanindividual
belonging
toamorecivilizedpeoplealwaysmakesofalesscivilized
people.
1
Itisacuriousfactthatifbelieversinrevealed
religionshave
acertainamountofscientifictrainingthey
arecarefulnot
toattributeeverything
thathappens
inthisworldtothecon-
1
DebeUoGallico,VI,Id.

134. 10] COMTE'SCLASSIFICATION 91
tinuousinterference of
supernatural beings,
ascruder
peoples
andmore
ignorant
individuals
usually
do.
Buttheideasofthefatherofmodernsociologyseemtogo
evenwiderofthemarkinthematterofthe
parallel
thathesets
upbetweenhisthreeintellectual
stagesandhisthreetypes
of
politicalorganization,
the
military,thefeudalandtheindustrial,
thefirstcorresponding
tothe
infancy,thesecondtotheadoles-
cence,thethirdtothematurity
ofhumansocieties.
The
militaryfunction,inotherwordsthe
organization
ofan
armedforceforthedefenseofapeople
athomeandabroad
(and,
forthatmatter,foroffensetoo,according
ashuman
interests,prejudicesand
passionschancetodetermine)hasso
farbeena
necessity
inallhumansocieties.The
greater
or
lesserpredominance
ofthemilitaryelementin
political
life
dependspartlyupon
factorswhichwehavealreadyexamined
onwhetherthe
militaryelementisamoreorless
indispensable
andcomprehensive politicalforce,andwhether itismoreor
lessbalancedbyother
political
forcesand
partlyonotherfactors
whichweshallnotfailtoconsiderinduecourse.Forthetime
beingweseeno
necessity
fortheindissolubleunionthatComte
insistson
establishingbetweenthepredominance
ofmilitarism
in
political
lifeandtheprevalence
ofthe
theologicalperiod
in
theintellectualandmoralworlds.Wecanevengoonand
say
thatwedonotconsideritinanywayprovedthatthetype
of
organization
thatComtecallsmilitarycan
prevailonly
in
societiesthatareinthefirst
stage
oftheirdevelopment, or,to
usethe
language
ofthemodern
positivists,
inastateof
infancy.
Hellenic
society,
afterAlexandertheGreat,wasevidently
organizedaccording
toapatternthatanysociologistwould
defineas
military.
AftertheMacedonianconquesttherepub-
lican
leagues
ofGreeceproperhadonlyavery
limited
political
importance.DowntotheRomanconquesttheywerealways
intheposition
ofclientsorvassalstothe
greatHellenized
kingdoms
ofEgypt,Syriaand,particularly,Macedonia,which
werereal
militaryabsolutismsbasedonthesupport
ofarmies.
YetthosewerethedayswhenGreek
societywasinanything
butastateof
infancy,ora
theologicalperiod.The
philo-
sophical
schoolsthat
representthegreatest
effortofHellenic
thought
inthedirectionof
positivesciencehadbeenformed
shortly
beforeandwere
flourishing
atthattime.Thesame
thing

135. 92 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
maybeobservedinRomansocietywhen,afterCaesar,an
imperialabsolutismresting
onthe
praetorianguards
andthe
legionscametobeestablished.
When
religious
beliefsarewidespreadandapeople
hasardent
faithinthemwe
inevitablyget
a
politicalpredominance
ofthe
priestly
classes.Nowthoseclassesandthemilitary
classes
arenotalways
oneandthesame,nordotheyalwayshavethe
samesentimentsandinterests.Theunionofthroneandaltar
thattook
place
in
Europeearly
inthenineteenth
century,
after
theHolyAlliance,wasduetothe
peculiar
circumstancethat
boththroneandaltarwere
directlythreatenedby
thesame
rationalisticand
revolutionary
currents.Butfarfromconsti-
tuting
a
general
rulewhichmightbetakenasauniversallaw,
thatcaseistoberegardedratherasoneofthemanytransitory
phenomenathatdevelop
in
history.Thereisnolackofexam-
ples
tothecontrary
thecaseofIndia,forinstance,where,at
onetime,theBrahmancastefounditselfinconflictwiththe
warriorcaste.InEuropethere isthecelebrated
struggle
betweenpapacyand
empire.
Goingon,wecanfindno
justification
infactwhateverfor
thatportion
ofComte'sdoctrinewhichcorrelatesthe
predomi-
nanceofthefeudalsystem
in
politicalorganizationwiththe
predominance
ofmetaphysics
inhuman
thought. InComte's
system,medievalmonotheismandmedieval
ontologyrepresent
atransitionbetween
polytheism
inotherwordsa
full-fledged
theologicalperiodandmodernscience,just
asfeudalism,which
Comteregards
asadefensive
type
ofmilitarism, isa
bridge
betweenthemilitaryandindustrial
periods."Infact,"he
says,"monotheism fitsinwithdefenseaswellas
polytheism
fitsinwithconquest.Thefeudallordsformed
just
ascomplete
atransitionbetweenmilitarycommandersandindustrialleaders
asontologyformedbetweentheologyandscience."
1
Nowto
holdthatmonotheism isbestadapted
todefense,justas
poly-
theismisbestadapted
toconquest,
istotakenoaccountwhat-
everof
largeportions
oftheworld'shistorythe
history
ofthe
Mussulmanworld,for
example.
Wehavealreadyseen
(chap.Ill,6)thatwhatis
commonly
calledfeudalorganization
isa
relativelysimplepoliticaltype
thatisoftenencountered inthe
earlystages
of
greathuman
1
Systime,
vol.Ill,p.
66,

136. 10] FEUDALISMANDMETAPHYSICS 98
societiesandappearsagain
as
great
bureaucraticstates
degener-
ate.Politicalprogressandscientific
progressdonotalwaysgo
handinhand,asisshownbythe
history
of
Italy
intheRenais-
sance.Wemay
nevertheless
grant,withreservations, that
periods
of
generalignoranceandintellectualprostration
cor-
respondonthewholeto
primitivestages
in
political
lifeorto
periods
of
political
decadenceanddissolution. Butwhatwe
cannotseeiswhysuchperiodsshouldbecharacterizedbythe
prevalence
ofmetaphysical
ratherthan
theologicalthinking
anymorethanwecanseethattherecannecessarilybeno
scientificactivityduringtheflowering
ofafeudal
organization.
ConfuciuslivedinaperiodwhenChinawas
feudallyorganized,
andhe
certainlywasno
metaphysician. Ontheotherhandthe
triviumandthequadrivium
areunknowntotheAfghansand
Abyssinians
ofourday
aswell,forthatmatter,as
anything
morethantheveryelementaryformsofculture*
Comtebaseshisargumentlargelyupontheexample
ofmedie-
valEurope,andthatperiodundoubtedlyhadits
greatmeta-
physicians,
asdidclassical
antiquity.Buttothinkofmedieval
thought
asasortofbridgebetweenancienttheologyandmodern
scientificthought
isamistake,just
asitisamistaketoimagine
thatfeudalismwasan
organicallyintermediary politicalform
betweentheancienthieraticempiresandthemodernstate.
Onehasonly
toreadamedievalwriterawriter,preferably,
whoissomewhatposteriortothefallofthewesternEmpireand
nottooclosetotheRenaissance toperceive
atoncehowmuch
moreprofoundly,howmuchmore
basicallytheological,medie-
valthinkingwasthanthethinking
of
antiquity. Medieval
writersandthepeopleaboutthemareimmenselymoreremote,
immenselymoredifferent,fromus,thanthecontemporaries
of
AristotleorCiceroeverwere.Andthefeudalorderdeveloped
andflourishedinthevery
centurieswhencontinuousfearof
famineand
pestilence,andfrequentapparitionsofcelestialand
infernal
beingstormentedandutterlymoronizedthehuman
mind;whenterrorofthedevilwasapermanentmentalstatein
wretchedsoulsinwhomreasonhad
languished
forwantofany
culturalsustenance,andtowhomthemarvelousandthe
super-
naturalwereelementsasfamiliarastheair
theybreathed.
Oneofthemostcharacteristic writersofthe
periodwasthe
monkRaoulGlaber(Radulfus)whowroteachroniclethatcomes

137. 94 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.
Ill
downtoalmostthemiddleoftheeleventhcentury.
1
Accord-
ing
tothatmonktheancientclassicalwriters,Vergilincluded,
appeared
totheirreadersinthe
guise
ofdevils. Glaber'sfaith
issteadfastbutunwarmedbybrotherlylove,andinitfearofthe
EvilOneprobablyplaysa
larger
rolethanloveandworship
ofthegood,
themercifulGodoftheChristians. InGlaber's
eyes,Satanisatalltimes
presentandhasa
finger
ineverything
thathappens
tohuman
beings.Thereis
perhaps
no
living
personwhohasnotseenhim.In
spite
ofan
energeticpiety
andzealouscompliancewiththeruleofhisorder,Glaberhimself
hasseentheDevilthreeorfourtimes.
Notallwritersofthatera,tobesure,showthesamederange-
mentoftheintellectualfaculties,butnooneis
altogetherimmune
toit.ANorman,GoffredoMalaterra,tellsthestory
ofCount
Roger'sconquest
of
SicilyfromtheSaracenswithconsiderable
discernmentandbalanceof
judgment,andattimesheevincesa
certaincapacity
for
observinghumaneventswithan
unpreju-
diced
eye.Yetin
describingabattlethatwas
fought
atCerami
betweentheCountandtheinfidels,heascribesthe
victory
ofthe
Christianstothedirectinterposition
ofSt.George,who
fought
inperson
intheranksoftheNormans. In
proof
ofthemiracle
Malaterrarecordsthatawhite
flagemblazonedwithacrosswas
seentoappear
onthelanceoftheChristianleaderandflutter
inthewind.
Theepidemic
ofdemonolatryevenspreadtotheByzantine
East.GeorgiusCedrenusandthechroniclerConstantinePor-
phyrogenitus
relatethatthecapture
ofSyracuseby
theSaracens
wasknowninthePeloponnesuslongbeforeanyrefugeesarrived,
becausesomedemonswere
chattingtogether
inawoodone
nightandwereoverheardrecounting
thedetailsofthatdisaster.
In
justification
ofhistheoryComtewrites:"Noteworthy
as
characterizingthetrue
spirit
ofCatholicism isthefactthatit
reducestheological
lifetothedomainofthe
strictlynecessary."
2
Butthatis
failingtotakeaccountofthefactthatthe
super-
naturalis"reducedtothestrictlynecessary"notonly
inCatholi-
cismbutinallmonotheistic
religionswhentheyare
professed
by
civilizedpeopleswhopossessbroadscientificcultures the
modernEnglish
forinstance.Nosuchreductionoccurswhen
1
fimileGebhart,"L*tatd'amed'uamoinedeFan1000,"
e,vol.Ill,p.
484.

138. 11] SPENCER 95
monotheistic religions
areprofessedby
barbarous
peoples
of
lowculturallevels.Insuchcasesthesway
ofthesupernatural
overthemindsofmenmaybemuch
greaterthanitisamong
polytheisticpeoples
ofhigher
levelsofcivilization.
11.ThethirdnecessarycorrespondencethatCointesetsup,
the
relationbetweentheindustrialsystemand
positivescience,is
alsofallacious.Wemaydispensewith
proof
ofthatbecause,in
thisthirdsectionofComte's
politicalpositivism,
hisideashave
hadno
greatresonance,being
toodivergentfromtheideasthat
arenowmostinvogueamong
ourcontemporaries, andnot
offering
sufficient
leverage
for
justifyingwithasemblanceof
scientificmethodthepassionsandintereststhathavesofar
beenmosttotheforeinourday.Comteregarded
industrialism
asatype
ofsocialorganizationthatwouldberealizedinaremote
futurewhenthemanagerial
functions of
societywouldbe
entrustedtoapriesthood
of
positivistic
scientistsandtoa
patriciate
ofbankersandbusinessmen,towhich,itwouldseem,
themembersofthelowerclasseswerenottogainreadyadmit-
tance.Foreseeing
thatthisquestionmightarise,Comtedid
not
forget
towritethat"the
priesthood
will
prevailuponthe
proletarians
toscornanytemptation
toleavetheirownclassas
contrary
tothemajesty
ofthe
people'sfunctionandfataltothe
righteousaspirations
ofthemasses,whohavealwaysbeen
betrayedbydesertersfromtheirranks."
1
Anotherfundamental
ideaofComte'sisthattheentireintellectualand
politicalmove-
mentattheendofthe
eighteenthcenturyandinthefirsthalf
ofthenineteenthwasa
revolutionarymovementthatresultedin
moraland
politicalanarchybecausethefeudalmonotheistic
systemhadbeen
destroyedandnobodyhadbeenabletofind
asubstituteforit.InlinewiththisideaComte
severely
con-
demnedtheparliamentarysystem
asamanifestation ofthe
anarchicperiod(inwhichwearestill
living)
;andthe
representa-
tivefunction itself,whereby
inferiorschoosetheir
superiors,
Comtedefinedasarevolutionaryfunction.
2
Itwillbemoretoourpurpose
todwellonthesecondtheory
mentioned(9),thatistosay,onthemodificationthatSpencer,
andahostofmodern
sociologists
afterhim,madeinComte's
*
Ibid.,vol.IV,p.
83.
8
IMd.
tvol.IV,chap.5,especiallypp.368,382,808-94.

139. 96 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
doctrines. Spencer
dividedhumansocietiesintotwo
types,
themilitant
(i.e.,military),baseduponforce,andtheindustrial,
baseduponcontractandthefreeconsentofthecitizens.This
dualclassification ispropoundedmore
especially
inSpencer's
PrinciplesofSociology,butitis
regularlyassumedinmostof
hisother
writings,
aswellasintheworksofhisnumerous
followers.
Any
classificationhastobebasedupondistinctive traits
thatareclearanddefinite,and
Spencer,
infact,doesnotfailto
serve
warning
attheoutsetthat,although"during
social
evolutiontherehas
habituallybeena
mingling
ofthetwotypes
[themilitantandtheindustrial],weshallfindthat,alikein
theoryandinfact,itis
possible
totracewithdueclearnessthese
oppositecharacterswhich
distinguishthemintheirrespective
completedevelopments/'
1
Spencer's
fundamental criterion is
thatthemilitantsociety
isbasedonstatus,on"regimenta-
tion,""themembers
standingtowardsoneanotherinsuccessive
grades
ofsubordination,"
2
andonthesupervision, therefore,
andthecoercion,whichthegovernors
exerciseoverthegoverned.
Hisindustrial
society
isbaseduponcontract,upon
thefree
consentofitsmembers,in
exactly
thesameway
asa
literary
society,
oranindustrialorcommercial
partnership,
isbased
onthefreeconsentoftheassociatedmembersandcouldnot
existwithoutsuchconsent.
Now,forafirst
generalobjection,
thisclassification isbased
uponeminentlyaprioristicassunfptionswhichdonotstandthe
testoffacts.Anypoliticalorganization
isbothvoluntaryand
coerciveatoneandthesametimevoluntarybecauseitarises
fromtheverynatureofman,aswaslongagonotedbyAristotle,
andcoercivebecauseitisanecessaryfact,thehumanbeing
finding
himselfunabletoliveotherwise. Itisnatural,therefore,
andatthesametimeindispensable,thatwheretherearemen
thereshouldautomaticallybea
society,andthatwhenthereisa
societythereshouldalsobeastatethatisto
say,aminority
thatrulesandamajoritythatisruledby
the
rulingminority.
1
PrinciplesofSociology*
vol.II,chap.XVtl("The
MilitantType
of
Society"),
547,p.
568."TheIndustrialType
ofSociety"
isdiscussedin
chap.XVIII.
ChapterXIX,"PoliticalRetrospectandProspect,"
relatestothepastand
futureofthetwotypes.
vol.II,chap.XVII, 553.

140. 11] SPENCERANDASSENT 97
Itmightbeobjectedthat,althoughtheexistenceofasocial
organization
isnaturaland
necessarywhereverhuman
groups
ormultitudesform,therearestatesthatreceivetheassent,
oratleastthetacit
acquiescence,
ofthegreatmajority
of
theindividualswho
belong
tothem,andstatesthatdonot
attainthatcondition.Wedonotdenythat
things
stand
exactly
thatway,butstillwedonotseewhytheformershouldbecalled
industrialstatesandthelattermilitantstates,inthesensethat
Spencerattachestotheterms.The
majority
ofa
people
consentstoagivengovernmentalsystemsolelybecause tjie
system
isbaseduponreligious
or
philosophical
beliefsthatare
universallyacceptedbythem.Tousea
language
thatwe
prefer,theamountofconsentdependsupontheextenttowhich,
andtheardorwithwhich,theclassthatisruledbelievesinthe
politicalformulabywhichtheruling
class
justifies
itsrule.
Now,in
general,faithofthatkindis
certainlygreaternotin
Spencer's
industrialstatesbutinstatesthatSpencer
classifies
asmilitant,orwhichpresent
allthecharacteristics thathe
attributestomilitantstates stateswhereanabsoluteand
arbitrarygovernment
isbasedondivine
right.
Inthemonarchies oftheNearEastthereareoftencon-
spiraciesagainst
thepersons
of
sovereigns,butdowntoafew
yearsagoattemptstosetupnewformsofgovernmentwerevery
rare.Among
allthenationsofmodernEurope
beforethe
WorldWar,TurkeyandRussiaweretheoneswheregovern-
mentalsystemsweremostinharmonywiththe
political
ideals
ofthegreatmajority
intheir
populations. Only
smalleducated
minoritiesweresystematicallyopposed
totheruleoftheczar
andthesultan.Inallbarbarouscountriespopulationsmaybe
dissatisfiedwiththeirrulers,but
ordinarilythey
neitherconceive
ofbetter
politicalsystems
nordesireany.
Wecanhardlyagree,either,withcertainapplicationsthat
Spencermakesofhis
categories
toparticular
cases.
Spencer
seemstohavethought
ofanindustrialstateasasortofdemo-
craticstate,astate,atanyrate,inwhichgovernment
isbasedon
representation,
orinwhichthereisatleastatendencynotto
recognizeanyauthorityaslegitimate
unlessitemanatesfrom
some
publicassembly.Hesays:"Suchcontrolasis
required
undertheindustrialtypecanbeexercisedonlybyanappointed
agency
for
ascertainingand
executing
the
averagewill;anda

141. 98 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
representativeagency
istheonebestfittedfordoing
this."
1
HethereforeclassifiesthePuebloIndiansofNewMexicoand
Arizonawithsocietiesoftheindustrialtypebecause,"sheltering
intheirwalled
villagesand
fightingonlywheninvaded,they
...unitedwiththeirhabituallyindustrial lifeafreeformof
government:
...*thegovernorandhiscouncilwereannually
electedbythe
people/
"
2
NowSpencercouldnothavebeen
unawarehow
widelycommontheelectivesystemwasinthe
republics
ofancientGreece,inRome,andevenamong
the
ancientGermans,whochosetheirleadersbyacclamation,
raisingthemon
highontheirshields. Nevertheless, allthose
peoples,according
toSpencer'sowncriteria,wouldbeclassified
asmilitant
peoples.Ontheotherhand,weshouldhardlybe
abletocallthemindustrial
peoples,
in
Spencer's
sense.Thefact
thatapeopleparticipates
inelectoralassembliesdoesnotmean
thatitdirectsitsgovernment
orthattheclassthatisgoverned
choosesits
governors.
Itmeansmerelythatwhentheelectoral
function
operatesunderfavorablesocialconditions itisatool
bywhichcertain
political
forcesareenabledtocontroland
limitthe
activity
ofother
political
forces.
12.Spencer
findscertain
distinguishing
characteristics inhis
militantandindustrialtypesthatseemtous
exceedinglyvague
andindefinite.Hewritesthatasmilitarismdecreasesand
industrialism increasesproportionately, asocial
organization
inwhichtheindividualexistsforthebenefitofthestate
develops
intoanotherorganization
inwhichthestateexistsforthebenefit
oftheindividual.
3
Thatisasubtledistinction. Itreminds
oneofthedebateastowhetherthebrainexistsforthebenefit
oftherestofthebodyortherestofthebodyforthebenefit
ofthebrain.
Spencerelsewherefindsthatthemilitantstateis
"positively
regulative,"
inthesensethatitrequires
theperformance
of
certainacts,whiletheindustrialstateis"negativelyregulative
only,"
4
sinceitconfinesitselftospecifying
actsthatmustnot
beperformed,andhegives
his
blessing
tostatesofthe
negatively
1
lUd.>566,p.508.
*
im.>vol.II,chap.XVIII,513,p.616.
/&.,chap,XVIIL
JN&,

142. 12] SPENCEE 99
regulativevariety.Asamatteroffact,nosocial
organization
haseverexistedinwhichcontrolisnotsimultaneously positive
andnegative. Furthermore, sincehuman
activityhasits
limits,multiplication
ofnegativeinjunctions
isalmostasbad,
asregardsfettering
individualinitiative,asexcessive
regulation
inapositive
sense.
Spencer
relatestohistwotypes
ofstatetraitsthatwewould
explainand
classify
otherwise. InancientPeru,forinstance,
public
officialssuperintended agricultureanddistributedwater
(probably
forpurposes
of
regularirrigation
orelseinareasand
attimesofextreme
drought). Spencer
findsthattraitchar-
acteristicofmilitantstates.Weshouldthinkofitsimply
asa
phenomenon
ofover-bureaucratization. Then
again,Spencer,
quotingBrant6me,findsthe
practice
ofthe
private
vendetta
stillcommoninFranceinthelateMiddleAges,evenamongthe
clergy,andheregardstheinstitutionasasymptom
ofmilitancy.
We,forour
part,
shouldexpecttofindsuchphenomena
asthe
vendettaconspicuous
in
peoplesamongwhomsocialauthority
isweak,orrecently
hasbeenweak
peoples,
inotherwords,
whoareintheperiod
ofcrudeand
primitiveorganizationwhich
wedefinedasfeudal,orwhohave
recentlyemergedfromit.
Whereverthevendettaflourishes,andthereforeamongalmost
allbarbarouspeoples,
or
peopleswhosesocial
organizationhas
greatlydecayed,
itisnaturalthatpersonalcourage
shouldbea
muchesteemed
quality. Infact,thesame
thingoccursinany
societywhich,foronereasonoranother,hashadtofightmany
warsofdefenseandoffense. Itisnaturalthatbraveryand
bombastshouldbetheattributesthatconfer
prestigeand
influenceinbarbarous societies,thelowlevelofculturenot
permittingaptitudes
forscienceorfortheproduction
ofwealth
todevelopandtowinesteem.
Spencerbelievesthatmilitant societiesareprotectionist
societiesandviceversa.Hefindsinthematendency
tolive
ontheirowneconomicresourceswiththeleast
possible
resort
tointernational exchange.
Inouropinionthattendency is,
morethananythingelse,aconsequence
ofcrudenessandisolation
in
primitivepeoples.
Inmoderncivilizednationsitresultsfrom
popularprejudicesthatare
exploited
intheinterestsofafew
individuals,whoareexpert
intheartsof
serving
theirown
advantage
attheexpense
ofthemany.
Itisveryprobable

143. 100 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.Ill
thatthetribeswhicharesooftenmentionedbySpencer
as
typical
of
primitive
industrialsocieties
profitedvery
littlefrom
exchangewithothertribes;andinourdayprotectionist
doctrines
have,alas,nolessinfluencein"industrial"NorthAmerica
thanin"militant"Germany.
Itwouldbeamistake,according
to
Spencer,
to
identify
industrial societiesbythe
degree
ofeconomicdevelopment
thattheyattain,ormilitantsocietiesbythe
energytheydevelop
andthesuccesstheyachieveinwar.Now
superficial
assuch
criteriamightbe,theywouldhavetheadvantage
ofbeing
verysimpleand
easilyapplied.ButSpencer
himself
directly
or
indirectlywarnsthattheyaretobe
rejected.Withregard
tothefirst,henotesthat"industrialismmustnotbeconfounded
withindustriousness
"
andthat"thesocialrelationswhich
characterize theindustrialtypemay
coexistwithbutvery
moderate
productive
activities."
1
Asregardsthesecond,
SpencerwouldallowonetoassumethattheRomanRepublic
waslessmilitantthantheNearEasternempireswhichwere
subduedbyRome,andfollowingthesame
reasoning,
theEnglish
wouldbelessadvancedtowardtheindustrialtypethanthe
Hinduswhomtheyconquered
inIndia.
Despite
theseobjectionsandstillothersthatmightbe
urged
againstSpencer'sclassification, itcannotbedeniedthatwithits
aidheglimpseda
great
truthbutasthroughacloud,soto
speak,
of
misunderstanding.
Ifwefollownotsomuch
Spencer's
criteriaofclassificationasthemassofhisincidentalassertions,
and
especially
the
spirit
thatanimateshisworkasawhole,we
cannotfailtoseethatbya"militantstate"hemeansastatein
which
juridical
defensehasmadelittle
progress
andbyan"indus-
trialstate"anothertype
of
society
inwhich
justiceandsocial
moralityaremuchbettersafeguarded.
Themisunderstanding thatkeptSpencer
from
going
farther
thanhewentinthediscovery
ofa
great
scientific
principlelay
inthis:
impressedbythefactthatmaterialviolencehasbeen,
asitstillis,oneofthe
greatest
obstaclestoprogress
in
juridical
defense,hebelievedthatwarandtheneedofmilitaryorgani-
zationwerethecausesofallviolence.Buttoviewtheproblem
inthat
light
istoconfusethecausewithoneofitseffects. It
meanstakingwarasthesole
origin
ofthetendency
inhuman
1
Ibid.,502,pp.603-604.

144. 12] VOLUNTEERARMIES 101
naturetotyrannize
overone'sfellows,whereaswaris
justoneof
themany
manifestations ofthattendency.Nowintheexternal
relationsbetweenpeopleand
people,
thattendencycanbe
curbedonlybythe
greaterand
greaterprevalence
ofmaterial
interestsrightlyunderstood. Thecurb
operatesonlyamong
peoplesthathaveattained
higheconomicandscientificlevels,
because itis
onlyunderhighly
civilizedconditionsthatwar
infalliblyharms,though
stillin
varyingdegrees,bothvictors
andvanquished. Ininternal relationsbetween individual
membersofone
people
thetendency
in
questioncanbetoan
extentneutralized,aswehaveseen,onlybyamultifariousinter-
play
ofsuch
political
forcesasareabletoassertthemselvesina
society,andbythecontrolthey
areabletoexerciseoverone
another
reciprocally.
Howisitthatamong
thevarious
rulingcliques,among
the
various
politicalforces,thesectionthat
representsmaterial
force,inotherwordsthearmy,
isnot
alwaysupsetting,the
juridicalequilibrium
initsownfavorand
forcing
itswillsystem-
aticallyuponthestate? Certainlythe
possibilitythatthat
may
occurisa
standingdanger
towhichallsocietiesareexposed.
Itisadangerespecially
tosocietiesthatarerapidlyrejuvenating
their
political
forcesor
hastilyoverhauling
their
politicalformu-
las.Weare,therefore,obliged
toexaminetherelationsthat
obtainbetweenmilitaryorganizationand
juridicaldefensein
ordertodiscover, if
possible,thebestmethodsfordealingwith
thatdanger.
Itisamostimportantsubject,andweshalllater
go
intoitinsomedetail.
Forthe
presentwemightsimplyremarkthatthe
foregoing
criticismof
Spencer'sconception
ofwarand
militarypowerwas
madefromatheoreticalpoint
ofview.Butneithercanwe
approve
ofhisdoctrinein
respect
ofanumberof
practical
applications
thathemoreorless
directlysuggests.Ofthe
variousformsofmilitaryorganizationSpencershowsapre-
dilection forformsinwhichthesoldier,"volunteering on
specifiedterms,acquires
insofartheposition
ofafreeworker";
andhethinksthatsuchan
organization
isbestsuitedtoa
society"wheretheindustrialtype
ismuchdeveloped."
1
That
means,inotherterms,thatthoseelementsina
societywhich
havea*
greater
inclinationtowardthe
bearing
ofarmsought
1
Ibid.,562,p.603.

145. 102 FEUDALANDBUREAUCRATICSYSTEMS [CHAP.HI
voluntarilytoassumeresponsibility
for
militarydefensebothat
homeandabroad,foracompensationwhich,inthemilitary
tradeasinanyother,wouldbefixedby
marketconditions.
NowitseemstousandsoitseemedtoMachiavelliandto
manyothersafterhimthat,apartfrom
special
andexceptional
circumstances, thatisthesystemthat
yields
thepositively
worstresultsamongpeoples
of
high
culturallevels. Itisthe
onethatdevelopsmostreadily
inthemilitary
classthetendency
tooppressotherclasses,whileit
deprives
thelatterofanychance
ofeffectiveresistanceand
stripsthemofanyprotection.

146. CHAPTERIV
RULINGCLASSANDSOCIALTYPE
1.Wehave
just
seenthatM&very
socialtypehasatendencyto
concentrateintoa
singlepoliticalorganism.Wemustnowadd
thatthe
politicalorganism,
in
expanding,
almostalwaysaimsat
spreading
itsownsocialtype,andoftensucceedsindoing
s^.
fWefindthisaspiration
inremotestantiquity.
Itwassatisfied
inveryearlydaysbygross,
violentandbarbarousmeans,which
were,however,effective.TheAssyrianswereaccustomedto
transplantconqueredpeoples.Tornby
forcefromtheirnative
soils,thesewerescatteredaboutamonggroupsthatwereAssyrian
in
spiritandnationality,andintheendwereabsorbedbythem)
1
Assyrian
colonistswereoftensettledintheirturninconquered
territories.TheIncasofPeruwerelikewisegiven
totrans-
plantingenmassethesavage
tribestheyconquered,themore
readilytotamethemtoPeruvianwaysandassimilatethemtothe
othersubjects
oftheSonoftheSun.IntheMiddleAges,
afterwiping
outtheSaxonsin
largepart,Charlemagnetrans-
ferrednumerouscoloniesofFrankstotheirlands,andthedistrict
thussettledafterwardcametobecalledFranconia.Somecen-
turieslatertheTeutonicKnightsspreadtheGermantongueand
theChristianreligionfromthebanksoftheElbetothemouths
oftheVistulaandtheNiemenbysimilarmeansthat
is,by
deci-
matingthenativepopulationsandsettlingnumerousGerman
coloniesontheconquered
lands.Thechief
inspirerandexecutive
ofthispolicy
offar-reachingcolonizationwastheGrandMaster
HermannvonSalza.
SimilarmethodswereusedonoccasionbytheRomans,but
notasa
regularpolicy.Forexample,theywereneverapplied
tothehighly
civiliaedpopulations
oftheEast,andeveninGaul,
SpainandBritaintheempire
assimilatedthebarbarians
princi-
pallybyestablishingtheLatinlanguageandRomanlawand
1
Asmusthavehappened,
inlargepart,tothefloweroftheTenTribesof
Israel,whichweretransportedbeyondtheEuphrates.
103

147. 104 RULINGCLASSANDSOCIALTYPE [CHAP.IV
spreadingGreco-Latin literatureand
learning
inshort,by
extendingthebenefitsofanadmirablyorganizedpublicadmin-
istrationanda
superior
civilization.
1
Onthewhole,religiouspropagandaandtheoffering
ofa
higher
levelofculturearethemosteffectivemeansof
assimilating
subjectpeoples.BythosemeansMexico,Peruandmany
other
countriesinSouthAmericatooktheimprint
ofSpanish
and
Portuguese
civilizationinthecourseofafewcenturies,though
thepopulations
ofthosecountriesweretoremain
largely
non-
Iberianinblood.
2.(Butoftentimesa
differing
social
type
willsurvive,forsome
centuriesatleast,in
spite
ofthefactthatthehegemony
or
dominionofa
conqueringpeopleweighsheavilyupontheelements
that
belong
toit.IntheancientPersianempirethefire-worship-
ingMedo-Persianswereintheascendant. Theirsovereignwas
King
ofKingsandcommanded allothersovereignswithinhis
vastempire.Butthesubjectpopulations,
ruledbysatraps
or
evenby
theiroldnative
dynasties,kept
theirbeliefs,habitsand
customsintact.They
didnotforsaketheirownsocialtype
in
favoroftheMedo-Persiantype}
Inthecaseofcertaintribes,
whichlivedintheverymiddleoftheempirebutwereprotected
by
theirwarlikehabitsandbythenatural
strength
oftheir
positions,subjectionwasmoreapparentthanreal.Thefact
appearsveryclearlyfromXenophon'saccountoftheretreat
oftheTenThousand forinstance,thestoriesof
Syennesis,king
ofCilicia,andofthemarchthroughthelandsoftheKarduchians,
theMosynaeciansandotherpeoplesalongthesouthshoreofthe
BlackSea.In
spite
ofthisthecourtofSusawasabletorulea
hugestragglingempire
foralmosttwocenturies,andfromthe
endofthe
reign
ofDarius,sonofHystaspes,downtotheinvasion
ofAlexandertheGreattherewerenoverytroublesomerebellions,
exceptpossibly
inEgypt.Oneshouldnote,however,thatthe
empirecrumbledatthefirst
fairly
seriousshock.Therewasno
realcohesionbetweenthesubjectandthedominant
peoples,nor
weretheirsocialforcesunifiedandcementedbysoundadministra-
tiveand
militarysystems.Theneo-Persianempireofthe
Sassanidswasmuchsmallerthantheold,butthe
peopleswithin
itwereheld
together
incommonbrotherhoodbytheteachings
1
Mommsen,TheProvinces
of
theRomanEmpire.

148. {*] MIXTURESOFSOCIALTYPES 105
oftheAvesta. Itrodeoutmoreviolentstormsthantheold
Persianempirehadsuffered,andmorenumerousones. Itlasted
formorethanfourcenturies.
Wefind
differing
socialtypesexisting
sideby
sideevenin
modernstates.TurkishcitiesusedtohavetheirGreek,Arme-
nianandJewishquarters,andintheBalkancountryOsmanli
villages
oftenadjoinedGreekand
Bulgarianvillages.
InIndia,
Brahmans,Mohammedans, ParseesandEuropeans
livesideby
side.\^00ne
peculiarthingabouttheOrient,indeed, isthatit
seemstobeasortofmuseumfor
collectingand
preservingthe
looseendsand
tags
ofsocialtypes
thatareelsewhereabsorbed
andvanish.Thiscomesabouteitherbecausethegovernments
oftheOrientpossess
fewersocialforces,andthereforelesspower
ofassimilation,thanEuropeanstates,orelsebecausethereis
morerealtoleranceintheEastthanthereisamong
us.One
needonly
recallhowcompletely
themanyprosperousMoham-
medancoloniesin
SicilyandSpainvanishedwithinacentury
or
soafter
losing
their
political
dominion.More
recently,
inthe
BalkanPeninsula,themomentacountryescapedfromthe
sultan'srule,itsMohammedanpopulationdwindled
rapidlyand
sometimesdisappearedaltogether.
^^i^Whenastateismadeup
ofamixtureofsocial
types,the
ruling
classshouldberecruitedalmost
entirelyfromthedominanttype;
andifthatruleisnotobserved,becausethedominanttype
istoo
weakeitherinnumbersorinmoralandintellectual
energies,
thenthecountrymaybelookedupon
asasick
countrythat
standsonthebrinkofserious
politicalupheavals,y/
ThiswasthecaseintheTurkey
ofthesurfanduringthe
centuryjustpast.Oncoming
intointimatecontact,andinto
conflictsofinterests,withEuropeancivilization,Turkeyhadto
use
largenumbersofGreeks,ArmeniansandevenEuropeans
in
her
ruling
class.Now,ashasbeensoundlyobserved,that
policy
providedherwithsomeoftheresourcesofa
superiorcivilization;
butit
deprivedtheTurkish
ruling
classofmuchofits
savage
vigor,andinfactdidnotsavethesultanfrom
losingconsiderable
portions
ofhis
territory.(InIndia,theBritish
conquerorshave
sofarbeenvastlysuperiortotheHindusincivilization,but
beingfewinnumber,they
are
acceptingtheassistanceofnatives
in
publicadministration, inthecourtsandinthearmy.
Ifthe
share
assigned
tothesenativeelementsin
publicfunctions

149. 106 RULINGCLASSANDSOCIALTYPE [CHAP.IV
becomesso
large
astomakeit
possibleto
dispensewithEuro-
peans,
itisdoubtfulwhetherEuropean
rulecanverylongendure
inthat
country)
IWhenanumberof
differing
socialtypesaremixedtogether
in
o&estate,adirecting,
ifnot
strictlya
ruling,
classalmostinevi-
tablydevelops
withinthetypesthatarein
subjection. Some-
timesthisclassisthefirsttobeabsorbedbythe
rulingtype.The
Gallic
aristocracy,
forinstance,became
rapidlyRomanized. It
acquired
theclassicaland
juridicalcultureoftheLatinswithina
few
generationsandwassoon
clamoring
forRoman
citizenship,
whichwas
readilygranted. So,afterthebattleofKossovo,the
begs
ofBosniawentovertoIslamisminordertosavetheif
possessionsandavoiddropping
tothelevelofthedowntrodden
raias.Butthearistocraciesin
question
inboththesecaseshad
no
great
cultureand,moreimportant still,theywerenotheirs
toanyparticular
memoriesofanancientand
glorious
national
past.Moreoften,traditionsofanancient
greatness,asenseof
groupsuperiority,alongwithaninstinctiverepugnance
tothe
intruding
social
type,
are
strongenough
toovercome
personal
interests,andthentheupper
stratainthevanquished classes
becomethemostunassimilableelement.Membersofthenoble
FanariotfamiliesinConstantinoplehave
rarelybeenknownto
acceptconversiontoIslamism.TheCopts
oftoday
follow
pro-
fessionsasscribesand
public
clerksandseemtodescendina
directlinefromtheletteredclasswhichmadeupthe
aristocracy
inancientEgypt.TheyremainChristian,thoughthemassof
peasants,
orfellahin,havebeenMohammedans forcenturies.
TheGhebersoftoday,whostillmaintainfire
worship,seemto
descendfromtheoldPersian
aristocracy.
InIndiathe
highest
casteshavesupplied
fewestconvertstoIslamism.
Nowwecometoasocialphenomenonthatislessapparent
totheeyebutisperhapsmoreimportant.Thecasewhere
severalsocialtypes
coexistin
guisesmoreorlessmaskedwithin
asinglepoliticalorganismmaybenotedIncountriesthat
present
alltheappearances
ofstrong
social
unity.
Thissituationarises
wheneverthe
politicalformula,onwhichthe
ruling
classina
givensociety
basesitsdominion, isnotaccessibletothelower
classes,orwhenthecomplex
ofbeliefsandmoraland
philosophical
principles
thatunderlietheformulahavenotsunkdeeplyenough

150. 3] SUBTYPEANDPOLITICALFORMULAS 107
intotheconsciousnessofthemorepopulousandlesswelleducated
strataof
society.Thesame
thing
occurswhenthereisanycon-
siderabledifferencebetweenthecustoms,cultureandhabitsof
theruling
classandthoseofthegoverned
classes,,^
Afewexamples
willmakethisclearer.InRomeandancient
Greecetheslavewaskeptwhollyoutsidethe"city,"
considered
asa
politicalbody,amoralcommunity.Hedidnotsharein
thenationaleducation.Hewasnotco-interestedeithermateri-
ally
or
spiritually
inthewelfareofthestate.TheIndianpariah
isregarded
asoutsideevery
caste.Heisnotallowedevento
havethesamegods
ashisoppressors. Isolatedcompletelyfrom
therestofthe
population,he
representsaclassofindividuals
thatis
spiritually
alientothesocialtypewithinwhichitlives.
TheHebrews,ontheotherhand,andother
peoples
oftheancient
Orient,regarded
thelaborerandtheslave,oncetheyhadbeen,
soto
say,nationalized,assharersinthesentimentsofthe
society
towhichtheybelonged.Theideaof
carefullycultivatingthe
sentiments, beliefsandcustomsofthelowerclassesbysuitable
catechizationwasoneofthe
great
meritsof
Christianityand
Islamism. These
religionshavebeenmoreorless
effectively
imitatedinthatrespectbymodernEuropeannations.
Asaruleitistheveryancient
politicalformulas,complexes
of
beliefsandsentimentswhichhavethesanctionofthe
ages,that
succeedinmaking
theirwayintotheloweststrataofhuman
societies.Ontheotherhand^^whenrapid
flowsofideas
agitate
the
higherclasses,orthemoreactiveintellectualcenters,which
are
generally
locatedin
largecities,thelowerclassesandthe
outlying
districtsofastateare
likely
tobeleftbehind,and
differing
socialtypestendtoforminsidethe
society.
p*/
Greaterorlesserspiritualunityamong
allsocialclasses
explainsthestrength
orweaknessthat
politicalorganismsexhibit
atcertainmoments.Howevergrievouslythe
governing
classin
Turkeymayhavesinnedonthesideof
corruption,inefficiency
and
negligence army,navy,andfinancewere
completely
dis-
organized
inthedomainsoftheSublimePorte nevertheless,at
certaindefinitemoments,whentheCrescentseemedtobein
danger,
theTurkishpeopledisplayedafierce
energy
thatgave
pausetoEurope'sstrongestmilitary
states.Thereasonwas
thatthepoornizam,raggedandbarefoot,who
fearlesslywentto
hisdeathinatrench,theredifwholefthishutatthesultan's

151. 108 RULINGCLASSANDSOCIALTYPE [CHAP.IV
summons,really
feltthe
politicalformulawhichtheywerecalled
upon
toserveandstoodreadyto
givetheirlastparaandeven
theirlivestosupport
it.TheTurkish
peasants
inRumeliaand
Anatoliabelievedsincerelyanddeeply
inIslam,intheProphet,
inthesultanasthe
Prophet'svicar,andthebeliefsforwhich
they
wereaskedtomaketheutmostsacrificeswerethebeliefs
thatordinarily
filledtheirlivesandmadeup
theirmoraland
intellectualworlds.
This
analysisbearsoneventsprior
to1895,yetwecannotsee
thattheyrequireanygreat
modificationinthe
light
oftheevents
of1912-1913,ortheeventsconnectedwiththeWorldWaror
theriseofKemalAtatiirk.TheTurkishdisastersintheBalkan
andWorldWarswereduetothe
disorganizationandincapacity
oftheTurkish
rulingclass,intensifiedbythirtyyears
ofHamidian
despotismandby
fouryears
ofruleby
theYoung
Turks.Butin
theWorldWar,Kut-el-AmarashowedthattheTurkishsoldier
could
fightanddieforthefaiththatwasinhim;andwesay
nothing
ofthetremendousTurkish
uprising
of190thatover-
threwtheTreaty
ofSevres,swepttheGreeksfromAsiaMinor
andsetupthepresentAngoraregime.
In
spite
ofthetalentsofmenlikeKutuzov,BarclaydeTolly,
Benningsen,DoktorovandBagration,noonecandenythat
the
averagetrainingand
capacity
oftheRussian
generals
with
whomNapoleonhadtodealwas
decidely
inferiortoAustrianof
Prussianstandards.ThefamousSuvarovknewhisRussian
soldierwellandhadaway
of
leadinghimtothemostdaring
enterprise.ButSuvarovwasafteralla
courageous
leader
ratherthananableone.TheRussiansoldierwastheadversary
thatNapoleonmostfeared.InthefamousMoscowcampaign
thefailureofthe
invadingarmywascausednotsomuchbycold,
hunger
ordesertionasbythehatredthatgatheredaboutthe
FrenchandharriedthemfromVitebskoninotherwords,from
thetimethey
entered
strictlyRussianterritory.
Itwasthis
hatredthat
inspired
thesinister
fury
oftheRussianstothepoint
of
destroying
allprovisionsalong
thepath
oftheenemy
and
burning
alltow*nsandvillagesbetweenSmolenskandMoscow.
ItgaveRostopchinthecourage
toburnMoscowitself.Forthe
RussianmuzhikGod,theczar,HolyRussia,formedan
integral
unitinthebeliefsandsentimentsthathehadbeguntoabsorbon

152. 3] UNITYANDSOCIALCLASSES 109
theday
ofhisbirthandwhichhehadlearnedbyhometradition
torevere.
Thissamemoral
unity
holdsthesecretofothersuccessfuland
quasi-miraculous
casesofresistance,just
aslackofit
yields
the
secretofcertainshamefuldemonstrations ofweakness.The
Vendeewas
strong
inthewarsoftheRevolutionbecausenobles,
priestsand
peasantshadthesamebeliefs,thesamedesires,the
same
passions. Spainwas
strong
in1808becausetheSpanish
grandeeandthelowliest
Spanishshepherdwerealikefilledwith
hatredfortheFrenchinvader(whomtheyregardedasagodless
unbeliever),with
loyalty
totheir
sovereign,
with
pride
inbeing
a
self-respecting,independent
nation.Thisunanimity
ofsenti-
ment,in
spite
ofthe
incapacity
oftheSpanishgeneralsandthe
utterworthlessness oftheSpanishregulararmies,accountsfor
themiraclesof
SaragossaandTarragonaandforthefinalvictory
thatcrownedtheSpanishwarsforindependence. Neverwould
themost
raggedpeasantconsent,underwhateverthreat,toshow
theroadstotheFrench.The
regularSpanisharmywascom-
posedlargely
ofrawrecruitsandithadno
experienced
officers.
ItsineffectualnessisattestednotonlybyFrenchwritersbut
by
lettersoftheDukeof
Wellingtonandother
English
officers.
1
Ontheotherhand,Spainshowedtheutmostweakness
during
theFrench
Legitimist
invasionof18.Atthattimeonlya
smallportion
oftheupper
classeshadanycomprehension of,or
devotionto,the
principle
ofconstitutionalmonarchywhichwas
atissue.That
principlewasincomprehensible tothemajority
ot4heupper
classesandtothevastbulkofthenation.
Thekingdom
ofNaplesshowedweaknessintheyears1798
and1799in
spite
ofmany
actsof
desperate
valoronthe
part
of
individualsor
groups.Themassofthe
population,
tobesure,
andamajority
ofthemiddleand
upper
classeshatedtheFrench
Jacobinsandrevolutionary
ideasin
general.Theywerefanati-
callyloyaltothe
legitimatemonarchyandstillmoresotothe
Catholicfaith.However,asmall
minority
intheupperclasses,
scantinnumberbutstrong
in
intelligence,enthusiasmand
daring,despisedthesentimentsoftheirfellowcountrymenand
hadwarmsympathies
fortheFrench
gospel
offreedom. Trea-
l
SeethehistoriesofThiers(bookXLVI,vol.XV)andToreno,andthe
M$moire9militoireaofO^nelVigo
deBoussillon.

153. 110 RULINGCLASSANDSOCIALTYPE [CHAP.IV
son,thereforeand,morethantreason,theunendingsuspicion
of
treason,paralyzed
allresistance,disorganized
theregulararmy,
whichwasapoorarmytobeginwith,anddiminishedtheeffec-
tivenessofaspontaneouspopularresistancewhich,savefor
treasonableunderstandings,
realor
imagined,withtheinvaders,
mighthavetriumphed. Asiswellknown,Championnet'sarmy
hadhaltedbeforeCapuabutwasinvitedandencouragedby
the
Neapolitanrepublicans
toattack
Naples.Thisattackwould
nothavebeenmade,andinany
casewould
probablyhavefailed,
haditnotbeenforthetreasonablesurrenderofCastelSant'Elmo
andarearattackonthedefendersoftheCapuangatebothacts
byNeapolitan republicans. Thoseactsexplaintheterrible
reprisals,notonlyroyalbut
popular,thatfollowedthecollapse
of
theephemeralParthenopeanRepublic,
4.Sofarwehavebeenthinkinglargely
ofdifferences in
religiousand
political
beliefsbetweenthevarioussocialstrata;
but
disparities
inintellectualcultivationanddifferencesinlan-
guage,
habitsandfamilycustomsalsohavetheir
importance.
Weareaccustomedtotaking
forgrantedthedistinctionsthat
existbetweentheclassthathasreceiveda
polishedliteraryand
scientificeducationandtheclassesthathavereceivednoneatall
orhavestopped
atthefirstrudiments betweenthe"socialset"
thathasthehabitsandmannersofgoodbreedingandthe
populousthrongsthatlackgoodbreeding.Wereadilyassume,
therefore,thatthesamedistinctions exist,equallysharpand
equallythoroughgoing,
inallhumansocietiesandhavealways
existedinourowncountries.Thatisnotatallthecase.In
theMohammedanEastnosuchdistinctions
appear,
orifthey
do,theyare
infinitely
less
conspicuousthanthey
areamong
us.
1
InRussiatheprofound
differencebetweentheclasscalledthe
"intelligentsia"andthemuzhiks,orbetweenthosesame"intel-
lectuals
"
andthelong-beardedmerchantsthatwereso
frequently
tobeseeninthedays
oftheczar,couldnothaveexistedin
theage
ofPetertheGreat,whentherewerenouniversities the
boyars
ofthatdaywerealmostascrudeandunletteredasthe
peasants.EveninwesternEuropehardlymorethantwocen-
1
Thisfact,whichisattestedbyRenanandotherwriters,isobvioustoanyone
whohashadanyexperienceatallwithMohammedan societiesandMohammedan
culture.

154. 4] CLASSDISTINCTIONS 111
turies
ago,disparitiesamongthevarioussocialclassesinintel-
lectualcultivationandin
publicandprivatemannerswerefar
less
strikingthanthey
are
today.Such
disparitieshavegrown
moreandmoremarked,butthetrenddatesfromnotearlierthan
the
eighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.
;InFrance,forexample,
Voltairedeclares,
1
thatwhenLouisXIV
actuallyassumedthe
throne,in1660,theFrench
nobilitywererichinnaturalintelli-
gencebut
ignorantandcrudeinmanners. In
England,toward
theendoftheeighteenthcentury,Cobbettpointed
tothediffer-
encebetweenthefarmersofthe
good
olddays
thatis,when
hewasaboyandthoseofthetimewhenhewas
writing.
Formerly,he
says,
farmershad
lodged
andfedalltheirpeasants,
satwiththemattheirgreatoakenboardsand,afteraprayer
fromthecurate,drunkthesamebeer.Thencustomschanged.
Thewage
earnerdrewhispayandwenttoeathismealalonein
sometavern.Thefarmerbecamea
"gentleman," usingglass
bottles,ebony-handled forks,ivory-handledknivesand
porcelain
dishes.Hissonswould,if
necessary,beclerks,copyists,shop-
boys,butinnocasefarmers.
Asimilarchangehastakenplaceduringthelasthundredand
fiftyyearsamong
thelandlords,greatandsmall,of
Sicilyand
thedistrictofNaples. Theirgreat-grandfathersmayhavebeen
richbutinany
casetheywerepeasants.Now,theymaybepoor
butinany
casetheyaregentlemen they
are
galantuomini
(thetermgalantuomo
inthelocaldialectsmeansaperson
of
quality,
of
politeup-bringing). Strange
asitmayseematfirst
glance,thetrendherein
question
coincideswiththebirthand
growth
ofthatcurrentofideasandsentimentswhich
generally
goesbythenameofdemocracy,anditconstitutesoneofthemore
curiouscontrastsbetweenthedemocratictheoriesthatarenowso
generally
invogueandtheir
practicalapplication.
Disparities
inupbringingamongthevarioussocialclassesare
likely
tobecomemoremarkedinbureaucratized societies. In
societiesoffeudaltype
theindividualmembersofthe
ruling
class
are
generallysprinkledaboutamong
theirfollowers.They
liveinconstantcontactwiththemandhavetobe,inasense,
theirnaturalleaders. ItmayseemsurprisingthatintheMiddle
Ages,whenthebaronstoodaloneinthemidstofhisvassalsand
dealtwiththemharshly,theydidnottakeadvantage
oftheir
1
SttcledeLouisXIV.

155. 118 RULINGCLASSANDSOCIALTYPE [CHAP.IV
numerical
superiority
tobreakfree.But
actually
thatcouldnot
alwayshavebeenan
easymatter.
Superior
astheymayhave
beenin
energyandin
familiaritywitharmstotherestofthe
subjectelements,thevassalsweremoreorlessboundtothelot
oftheirlords.But,independently
ofthat,anotherconsider-
ationofverygreatimportancemustnotbeoverlooked.The
baronknewhisvassals
personally.He
thoughtandfeltasthey
did.Hehadthesame
superstitions,thesamehabits,thesame
language.Hewastheirmaster,harshsometimesand
arbitrary.
Forallofthat,hewasamanwhomtheyunderstood
perfectly,
in
whoseconversationthey
couldshare,atwhosetable,beitina
humblerstation,they
oftensat,andwithwhomtheysometimes
gotdrunk. Itrequiresutterignorance
ofthepsychology
ofthe
lowerclassesnottoseeatoncehowmanythings
thisrealfamiliar-
ity,basedonanidenticaleducation,orlackofeducation ifone
prefer,enablesaninferiortoendureand
forgive.
Itmaybe
objectedthatasarulethepoor
dislike
servingthenewly
rich.
Thatistrue,butotherelementshavetobetakenintoaccountin
this
regard.Inthefirst
place
themanofrecentwealthis
likely
tobeenvied.Thenagainheisoftenharderand
greedierthan
themanwhohasbeenaccustomedtoeasefrombirth.
Finally,
insteadof
maintaining
acommunity
ofhabitsandsentiments
withtheclassfromwhichhehas
sprung,theupstartalmost
alwaysdoeshisbesttoadopt
thewaysandmannersofthehigher
class.Hischiefambitionandconcern,usually,
istomakepeople
forget
his
origins.
IntheMiddleAges
thefirstpeasant
revoltsbrokeoutnotwhen
feudalismwasharshestbutwhenthenobleshadlearnedto
associatewithoneanother,whenthecourtsofloveaconscious
quest
ofgoodmanners(thegaisaber)had
begun
to
givethem
polishandalienatethemfromtherusticways
ofthe
lonely
castle.
Mickiewiczmakesan
important
observationinthisconnection.
HefindsthatthePolishnobleswerepopularwiththepeasants
as
long
as
they
livedintheirmidst.Thepeasantswouldsuffer
theverybreadtobesnatchedfromtheirmouthsthattheirlord
mightbuy
horsesand
costlyweapons
forhuntingandfor
sabering
TurksandRussians.ThenFrencheducationgainedafoothold
amongthePolishnobles.They
learnedhowto
giveballsafter
themannerofVersaillesandbeganspending
theirtimein
learning
todancetheminuet.Fromthatdayon
peasantryand
nobility

156. 4] CLASSDISTINCTIONS 113
becametwopeoplesapart,andthepeasants
didnotsupportthe
nobleswithanygreat
effectivenessinthewarstheyfought
with
foreignerslateintheeighteenthcentury.
1
SoitwaswiththeCeltic
aristocracy
inIreland.According
to
Macaulayandotherhistorians,theancientnobility
ofthe"OV
andthe"He's"wasverypopularwiththepeasants,whose
labors
supplied
theheadoftheclanwithsuchluxuryashis
coarseandabundanttablecouldboastandwhosedaughterswere
sometimesleviedforhisrusticharem.Butsuchnobleswere
lookeduponvirtually
asmembersofthefamily.Theywereone
withthe
peasants,
itwasthought,
inblood.Theycertainly
wereonewiththeminhabitsandideas.Ontheotherhand,the
Englishlandlord,whosupplanted
theIrish,wasprobablya
gentler
sortof
person,andhewasbeyondanydoubtmorelaw-
abidingandmorescrupulous
inhisdemands. Allthesamehe
was
bitterly
hated.Hewasastranger
in
language,religionand
habits.Helivedfaraway,andevenwhenheresidedonhis
propertieshehadbytraditionacquiredthehabitofkeepingto
himself,having
nocontactswhateverwithhisdependents
exceptsuchaswere
strictlynecessary
totherelationofmaster
andservant.
AfollowerofGumplowiczmight
observethatinthecaseof
Irelandthehatredthatarosebetweenlandownersandpeasants
couldbeduetodifferencesinracetotheCelt'sfinding
himself
facetofacewiththeSaxon,touseoneofO'ConnelPsfavorite
expressions. But,thefactis,thefirstAnglo-Norman
families
thatsettledinIrelandduringtheMiddle
Ages,
forexample
the
Talbotsor
Fitzgeralds,
livedlong
inthatcountry,endedby
adopting
Celticways,andfought
intheranksoftheIrish
against
theEnglish
inthevariousinsurrections.
Butsupposeweconsider,rather,whathappened
inczarist
Russia. There,certainly,
therewerenoimportantracialdiffer-
encesbetweennoblesand
peasants,buttherewere
great
differ-
encesinsocialtypeand
especially
inmanners.Thecultured
class,poor
orrichasitmayhavebeen,had
adoptedEuropean
education.Therestofthe
populationclung,
asitstill
clings,to
Asiaticideasandcustoms. Tchernishevski, aRussianrevolu-
tionary
ofthe90*s,says,referring
tothe
possibility
ofapeasant
revolt:
1
Histoire
populaire
dePologne,

157. 114 RULINGCLASSANDSOCIALTYPE [CHAP.IV
Ignorant,
fullof
grossprejudices,andblindlyhating
allwhohave
forsakenprimitiveRussianways[antipathyspringingfromdifferences
insocial
type],thepeoplewouldmakenodistinctionbetweenindividuals
whodressedinGermanstyles[whohadabandonedthetraditionalRus-
siancostumeandweredressing
inwesternEuropeanfashion]. Itwould
treatthemallalike,deferring
neithertoscience,norto
poetry,
nortoart.
Itwoulddemolishourwholecivilization.
1
5.Thefactisthatthehumanbeing
hassentimentswhich,taken
individually,maybeimponderable,hardtoanalyzeandharder
stilltodefine,butwhichinsumareverypowerfulandmay
con-
tributeto
bringing
onthemostimportant
socialphenomena.
Thepersonwhowrotethatthehumanbeing
letshimselfbeguided
by
self-interestalonestateda
generalmaximthatisalmost
entirelydevoidof
practicalvalue,sinceitcantellusnothing
save
atthecostof
exceedinglyminute
analysesanddistinctions.
Anyonewhothinksthatinteresthastobesomethingthatcan
beexpressedmaterially
intermsofmoneyandmeasuredin
poundsandpence
isa
person
oftoolittleheartandtoolittlehead
tounderstandthepeopleabouthim.Interestissuitedineach
individualtotheindividual'sowntastes,andeachindividual
interprets
hisinterestinhisownindividualway.Formany
people,
to
satisfy
their
pride,
theirsenseof
personaldignity,
theirvanities
greatandsmall,tohumortheir
personalcaprices
andrancors, isworthfarmorethanpleasures
thatare
purely
material.Wemustnot
forgetsuch
things,especiallywhenwe
setouttoanalyzetherelationsbetweenrichand
poor,between
superiorsandinferiors, or,inshort,betweendifferentsocial
classes.Whentheelementary
needsoflifearetoanextent
satisfied,whatmostlycontributesto
creatingandmaintaining
frictionandill
feelingbetweenthevarioussocialclassesisnotso
muchdifferences intheenjoyment
ofmaterial
pleasures
as
membership
intwodifferentenvironments. Forapart
ofthe
lowerclasses,atleast,morebitterby
farthananyphysical
privation
istheexistenceofa
higherworldfromwhichthey
are
excluded.Nolaw,no
hereditaryprivilege,
forbidsthemtoenter
thatworld. Itisroped
offfromthembyasilkenthreadofthe
subtlestfiberadifferenceineducation,inmanners,insocial
habits.Onlywith
difficulty
isthatthreadeverbroken.
1
Leroy-Beaulieu, L*EmpiredestwrsetleaRusses,vol.II,pp.524f.

158. 5] CLASSANDSOCIALTYPE 115
Overandoveragain
sinceveryancienttimesithasbeenwritten
thatin
everycityandin
every
statetherearetwohostile
popula-
tionsthatstandeveronthealerttoharmeachothertherich
andthepoor.Nowthatdictumdoesnotappear
tousto
possess
an
unqualified,muchlessauniversal,applicability. Whatwe
have
just
saidmayserveto
explainthemanyexceptionsand
reservationsthatmustaccompany
itsacceptance. Asarule,
the
poor
followtheleadoftherich,orrathertheclassesthatare
ruledfollowtheleadoftherulingclasses,whenevertheyare
imbuedwiththesameopinionsandbeliefsandhavebeentrained
tointellectualandmoralbackgrounds
thatarenottoodissimilar.
The
plebs,moreover, isa
loyal
associateoftheupper
classesin
wars
againstforeigners,whentheenemybelongs
toasocialtype
soalienastoarouserepugnance
inrichandpoor
alike.Soin
Spain
in1808,andintheVendeeduringtheRevolution,peasants
andnoblesfought
sidebyside,andthepeasantsnevertook
advantage
ofthedisorder,ofthelawlessness,toplunderthe
housesofthenobles.Onemaydoubtwhetherthereisa
single
example
ofthepoorer
classesinaChristiancountryrisingto
support
aMohammedan invasionmuchlessofthepoorer
classesinaMohammedancountryrising
insupport
ofaChristian
invasion.
Socialdemocracy
incentralandwesternEuropeprofesses
indifferencetotheconcept
of
nationality,and
proclaimsthe
allianceoftheproletarians
ofallcountriesagainst
the
capitalists
ofthewholeworld.Thosetheoriesmighthaveacertain
practi-
cal
efficacy
intheeventofawarbetweentheGermansandthe
French,orbetweentheItaliansandthe
English,
sinceallthese
nationsbelong
toapproximately
thesamesocial
type.Butifit
werea
question
of
repellingaseriousTatarorChineseinvasion,or
merelyaTurkishorRussianinvasion,webelievethatthe
great
majority
of
proletarians,
evenincountrieswherethey
aremost
stronglyimbuedwithdoctrinesofworld-widecollectivism,would
eagerlycooperatewiththeruling
classes.
1
Anyonewhohasdoneanygreatamountof
travelingmusthave
beenstruckbyafactthatisnotwithout
significance. Very
often
thepoor
ofdifferentcountries,aswell,forthatmatter,astherich
ofdifferentcountries,morereadily
fraternizethantherichand
1
IntheUnitedStates,Negroes,and
especiallyChinese,aregenerallyexcluded
fromlaborunions.

159. 116 RULINGCLASSANDSOCIALTYPE
[CHAP.IV
poor
ofthesamecountry.Tobe
strictlyexactoneshouldnote
thatatthe
present
time"cosmopolitanism"
ismuchmore
strikingly
characteristic ofoneelementintheruling
classthe
elementthathasthegreatestwealthandthe
greatest
leisure
thanitisofthe
poor.Butthis
cosmopolitanfraternizing
arises
only
so
long
aspeoples
ofapproximatelysimilarcustomsarecon-
cerned. If
theygo
tofaraway
landswhereideasandways
are
altogethernew,therichandthepoor
ofone
country,
orevenof
merelyneighboringcountries, feelmore
closelydrawntoeach
otherthanto
foreigners
oftheirownclass.Thatisthecasewith
Europeans
inIndiaandChina,andin
general
inallcountries
wherethecivilization ismarkedly
differentfromtheEuropean.
Allthisis
justanotherway
of
sayingthatsoonerorlatera
point
isreachedwheredifferenceinsocial
type
asbetweenmembersof
differentcountriesbecomesgreaterthandifferenceinsocialtype
asbetweenclassesinthesame
country.
$.Psychologicalandintellectualisolationonthepart
ofthe
lowerclasses,aswellastoonoticeabledifferencesinbeliefsand
educationbetweenthevarioussocialclasses,give
risetosocial
phenomena
thatareveryinteresting
tothestudentofthe
political
sciences,dangerous
astheymaybetothesocietiesinwhich
they
occur.
//
Inthefirstpla,ce$saconsequence
oftheirisolation,within
thelowerclassesanother
rulingclass,or
directingminority,
necessarilyforms,andoftenthisnewclassis
antagonistic
tothe
classthatholds
possession
ofthe
legalgovernment.
1
Whenthis
classof
plebeian
leadersiswellorganized
itmayseriouslyembar-
rassanOfficialgovernment^
InmanyCatholiccountriesthe
clergy
isstilltheonlyauthoritythatexertsanymoralinfluence
overthe
peasantry,andthepeasantsextendtotheparishpriest
alltheconfidencethat
they
withholdfromthegovernment
official.Inothercountries,wherethepeople
lookuponthepublic
functionaryandthenobleman ifnotexactly
asenemies
certainly
asutter
strangers,themoreresoluteandaggressive
ofthe
ple-
beianssometimessucceedin
organizingwidespreadand
fairly
permanent associations,whichlevyassessments,administera
1THsphenomenon
issomething
liketheoneweobservedearlierinthis
chapter(2,lastparagraph)
inspeaking
ofcountrieswhere
differing
socialtypes,
inthestrictsenseoftheexpression,
existsideby
side.

160. 6] CLASSISOLATION 117
specialjustice
oftheirownandhavetheirownhierarchiesof
officials,theirownleaders,theirown
recognized
institutions. So
arealstatewithinthestatecomesintobeing,
agovernment
that
isclandestinebutoftenmorefeared,betterobeyed,andif
notbetterlovedcertainlybetterunderstood,thanthe
legal
government.
,
,
Inthesecondplac^wheneverandwhereverasectionofthe
ruling
classtriestooverthrowthe
legalgovernment,
whether
becauseofConversiontoanew
politicalformulaorforsomeother
reason,italways
seeksthe
support
ofthelowerclasses,andthese
readily
followitsleadwhentheyarehostileorindifferenttothe
establishedorder.Thisallianceissooftenstruckthatthe
plebs
becomesanessentialinstrumentinalmostallupheavalsand
revolutions,andtothesamealliancealsoisduethefactthatwe
sooftenfindmenfromthehigher
sociallevelsleadingpopular
movements*/
Yetthe
oppositephenomenon
alsoappears
at
times.The
portion
oftheruling
classthatis
holdingpowerand
resistingtherevolutionary
currentmay
finditsmainsupport
in
thelowerclasses,whichstill
clingloyallytooldideasandtothe
oldsocial
type.ThatwasthesituationinSpain
in18and
downto1830,andsoitwaswiththeKingdom
of
Naples
in1799
andmoreorlessdownto1860.Insuchcasestheremaybe
periods
ofgovernmentbyan
ignorant,ineptandvulgardema-
goguerywhichsomeonethought
of
defining
as"thenegation
of
God."
Butthemostdangerousamong
theconsequencesthatmay
resultfromdifferencesinsocialtypebetweenthevarioussocial
classes,andfromthereciprocal
isolationofclassesthat
necessarily
followsintheirwake,isadeclineinenergy
intheupperclasses,
whichgrowpoorerandpoorer
inboldand
aggressivecharacters
andricherandricherin"soft/*remissiveindividuals.Wehave
seenthatthatdevelopment
is
practicallyimpossible
inastateof
thefeudal
type.Inasocietythatisbrokenupinto
virtually
independentfragments
theheadsoftheindividualgroupshave
tobe
energetic,
resourcefulmen.Theirsupremacy
in
large
measuredepends
ontheirownphysical
ormoral
strength,which,
moreover,theyarecontinuallyexercising
in
struggles
withtheir
immediateneighbors.Associal
organizationprogresses
andthe
governing
class
begins
toreap
thebenefitsofanimproved
bureau-
craticmachine,its
superiority
incultureandwealth,andespe-

161. 118 RULINGCLASSANDSOCIALTYPE [CHAP.IV
cially
itsbetter
organizationandfirmercohesion,maycompensate
tosomeextentforthelackofindividual
energy;andsoitmay
comeaboutthatconsiderable
portionsofthegoverningclass,
especially
thecirclesthat
givethe
society
itsintellectualtoneand
direction,losethehabitof
dealingwith
people
ofthelowerclasses
andcommandingthem
directly. Thisstateofaffairs
generally
enablesfrivolousness,andasortofculturethatiswhollyabstract
andconventional, to
supplantavividsenseofrealitiesanda
soundandaccurateknowledge
ofhumannature.Thinking
loses
virility. Sentimentaland
exaggeratedlyhumanitarian theories
cometothefore,theoriesthatproclaimtheinnategoodness
of
men,especiallywhentheyarenot
spoiledbycivilization,or
theoriesthatupholdtheabsolute
preferableness,
intheartsof
government,
of
gentleand
persuasivemeanstosevereauthori-
tarianmeasures. Peopleimagine,
asTaineputsit,thatsince
sociallifehasflowedblandlyandsmoothlyonforcenturies,like
animpetuous
riverconfinedwithin
sturdydikes,thedikeshave
becomesuperfluous
andcan
readilybedispensedwith,nowthat
theriverhaslearneditslesson.
TacitusdescribedGermaniccustomsaseminentlysimple,
frugalandvirtuous.Morethanthreecenturieslater,duringthe
barbarianinvasions,SalvianofMarseillesattributedthevictories
oftheGoths,Vandals,Franksandotherbarbarians,totheir
moralsuperiority. AccordingtoSalvian,theinvaderswere
chaste,temperate,truth-telling,whereastheRomans,andespe-
ciallytheupper
classesamongtheRomans,werefornicators,
drunkardsandliars.Indescribingthemannersandcustomsof
theGermansofhisdayMachiavellievidentlywroteunderthe
influenceofTacitus. Inthecourseofthelasttwocenturies,
manyphilosophershaveraisedpaeans
totheholinessofsavage
moralsandtotherusticsimplicity
ofthe
plain,untutoredman.
Itwouldseemthereforethatthereisa
frequent,
ifnotauniversal,
tendency
inverymaturecivilizations,where
ruling
classeshave
acquiredhighly
refined
literarycultures,towaxenthusiastic,bya
sortofantithesis,overthesimpleways
of
savages,barbarians
andpeasants(thecaseofArcadia!),andtoclothethemwithall
sortsofvirtuesandsentimentsthatareas
stereotyped
asthey
areimaginary. Invariablyunderlying
allsuchtendencies isthe
conceptthatwasso
aptlyphrasedbyRousseau,thatmanisgood
bynaturebut
spoiledbysocietyandcivilization. Thisnotion

162. 6] CLASSISOLATION 119
hashadaverygreatinfluenceon
politicalthinkingduringthe
pasthundredand
fiftyyears.
A
ruling
classisthemorepronetofallintoerrorsofthiskind
themorecloseditis,actually
ifnot
legally,
toelements
rising
fromthelowerclasses.Inthelowerclassesthehardnecessities
oflife,theunendingand
carkingscrambleforbread,thelackof
literaryculture,keepthe
primordial
instinctsof
struggleandthe
unfailingruggedness
ofhumannature, alive.Inanycase,
whetherornotthefactorofintellectualandmoralisolationis
reinforcedby
thisfactorof,soto
gay,personalisolation,certain
itisthatwhentheruling
classhasdegenerated
inthemanner
described, itlosesitsabilitytoprovideagainst
itsowndangers
and
against
thoseofthe
society
thathasthemisfortunetobe
guidedby
it.Sothestatecrashesatthefirstappreciableshock
fromtheoutsidefoe.Thosewhogovern
areunabletodeal
withtheleast
flurry;andthechangesthatastrongand
intelligent
ruling
classwouldhavecarriedoutata
negligible
costinwealth,
bloodandhuman
dignity
takeontheproportions
ofasocial
cataclysm.
Oneshouldnote,asanexample,thatinthecourseofthe
nineteenthcenturyEnglandadoptedpeacefullyandwithout
violentshocksalmostallthebasicciviland
politicalreformsthat
Francepaid
soheavily
toachievethroughthegreatRevolution.
Undeniably,the
greatadvantage
ofEnglandlay
inthe
greater
energy,thegreaterpracticalwisdom,thebetter
politicaltraining,
thather
ruling
class
possesseddowntotheveryendofthepast
century.

163. CHAPTERV
JURIDICALDEFENSE
1.Wemightvery
well
dispensewith
defining
themoralsense.
Itissomething
thatweallfeelandunderstandwithoutadefinite,
carefullyqualifiedformulatodescribe it.Generally,however,
thephrase
istakentomeanthatmassofsentimentsbywhichthe
naturalpropensity
ofhuman
beings
todevelop
theiractivitiesand
capacities,to
satisfy
theirappetitesandimpulses,tocommand
and
enjoy,
iscurbedby
anaturalcompassion
forthe
pain
or
harmthatotherpeoplemayexperiencefroman
indulgence
of
thatpropensity. Sometimessuchsentimentsarecarriedtoa
pointwherethe
spiritual
satisfactiononederivesfrom
procuring
pleasure
oradvantage
foranotheris
greaterthanthematerial
satisfactiononederivesfromprovidingforone'sown
pleasure.
Whenourlimiting
thesatisfactionofour
impulses
atthecost
ofanother'ssacrificerestsonsentimentsofaffectionfor
people
whoarecloseanddeartous,itissaidtobebasedon
"
sympathy."
Whenitisinspiredsolelybytherespectthatisduetoothermen,
evenstrangers
orenemies,simplybecausetheyaremen,we
geta
sentimentthatisfarmoredelicateandnotso
generally
feltby
peoplethesentimentof
"justice."
Idealizationsand
exaggera-
tionsofthesemoralsentimentsare
crystallizedinthewell-known
formulas,"Lovethyneighbor
as
thyself,""Dountoothersasyou
wouldthatthey
shoulddounto
you."Thesemaxims,however,
expressanaspiration
toamoralperfectionthatcanneverbe
attainedratherthana
practicalcounselthatis
applicableinreal
life.Saveforexceptions
thatarisealmost
exclusively
inconnec-
tionwithparentallove,eachindividual isbetter
qualifiedthan
anyone
elsetolookoutforhimself;andifheistolookoutfor
himself
effectively
hemustlovehimselfalittlemorethanheloves
othersanddealwiththemotherwisethanhedealswithhimself.
Onemight
wellfeelthatallthesecautionsonour
partwere
hardlyrequired,
forthefactisthat,apartfromsome
exceptional
momentorsomeexceptionalindividual,peoplehavenevertaken
themaximsmentionedseriously.
120

164. fc] MORALEVOLUTION 121
Thequestion
astowhetherthemoralsenseis
progressive
or
stationary
hasbeenmuchdebated.Asiswellknown,Buckle,a
distinguishedEnglishwriterofthe
pastcentury,observedthat
thepurestandloftiestethical
principleshadbeenknownand
proclaimed
inremotely
ancienttimes,andhethereforemain-
tainedthat
progress
inhumansocieties isalmostexclusively
intellectualandscientific,nevermoral.
1
Themuchfollowed
evolutionistschoolofourdayreaches
essentially
differentcon-
clusions. According
totheevolutioniststhemoralsensecan,and
must,continuallyprogress
inviewofthestruggle
forexistence,
whichselectsforsurvivalin
everysociety
theindividualswhoare
richestinaltruisticsentiments,thesebeingthesentimentsthat
bestservetheinterestsofthesocial
body.Inthestruggle
for
existencebetweendifferentsocietiesvictoryregularlygoes
to
societiesinwhichthesamealtruisticsentiments are,onthe
average,strongest.
2
Wehadbetterexaminethesetwodoctrines
briefly,just
to
showthatneitherofthemcanbetakenasabasisforscientific
conclusions. Supposewebeginwiththesecond,whichhasso
farwonwideracceptance.
2JWehavealreadyprovedtoourownsatisfaction(chap.I,
13)that,inasocietythathasattainedanydegree
ofcivilization
atall,the
struggle
betweenindividuals isnota
struggle
for
existencebuta
struggle
for
preeminence. Buteven
ignoring
that,wefind
altogetherparadoxical
the
principlethatis
pro-
claimedbythese
self-styledpositivists,
totheeffectthatwithin
everysocialgroupthoseindividualswhoaremostmoraland
thereforemosthighlyendowedwithaltruisticsentimentsarethe
oneswhoaredestinedtosurvive
(inourterms,toattainthe
highest
social
rankings).
Allthatwecan
grant
inthatregard
andwe
grant
itverywillingly
isthatanindividualwhois
particularlydeficientinmoralsense,andisunabletoconcealhis
propensitiessufficiently,
willhavetoovercomegreater
difficulties
thanothersbecauseoftheantipathyand
repugnancethathewill
generallyinspire.!Butasfarasthatgoes,anindividualwhohas
an
unusually
delicatemoralsensewillbeata
disadvantagethatis
1
Historyof
CivilizationinEngland,
vol.I,chap.IV("Comparisonbetween
MoralandIntellectualLaws").
2
SeeLetourneau,Evolutiondelamorale,chap.I,15.

165. 122 JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
almostasserious.Inallthe
dealings,great
orsmall,oflife,he
willfindhimself
fighting
with
altogether
inferiorweapons.Most
menwilluseagainst
himtricksthathewillbethoroughly
familiar
withbutwillbecarefulnottouse;andhewillcertainly
sufferfar
greaterdamage
fromthatfactthanthe
sly
rascalwhoknowsjust
wheretostop
inhiscrookednesswilleversufferfromtheill-will
thathearousesabouthim.Really,onemaybegood
almost
unconsciouslythroughanaturalsimplicity
ofcharacter,orone
maybeconsciouslygoodthroughmagnanimity
ofpurpose,high
resolve,unconquerable
aversiontoevil,inflexibleintegrity
of
character;butcertainlyonecouldneverbecomegood
from
believing
thatbybeinggood
onecouldmore
easily
realizeone's
aims,orachievewhatiscommonly
calledsuccessinlife. Utili-
tarianisminterpreted
inthatsense,asthebasisofmorality,
could
onlybe,tospeakquiteplainly,
themaneuverofahypocrite
orthe
dreamofafool.
\Itfollowsthat,inallsocieties,so-calledevolution,theselection
ofthebest,ought
toeventuateinaperpetuationandmultiplica-
tionofindividualsofaveragemorality,whoare,inliteralfact,
thebestadapted
towhatiscalledthe
struggle
forexistence.
Survival,or,asweconsideritmoreaccurateto
say,preeminence,
oughtpreferably
toawaitthosecharacterswho,inwhateversort
ofsocialenvironment,representamoralmeanofthemosthighly
refined
gold.Andyettheevolutionarytheorydoesnotseemto
becomeacceptableevenwiththatbasicemendation, sinceit
assumesinanyeventthatthemoralelementisalwaysthemain
factorinthesuccessorfailureofanindividualinachieving
the
aimsthathesetsouttoachievein
lifey
In
practicethingsdonot
workoutthatway
atall.Tosaynothing
oftheinfluenceof
chance,whichisfar
greater
thaniscommonlysupposed,
the
possession
in
greater
orlesserdegree
ofcertainintellectual
qualities,
suchasreadinessof
perception
andkeennessofobserva-
tion,figuresveryconsiderably
inthedecisionastowhetheraman
istoreachthehigher
ranksinhissociety
oristostay
inthelower.
Butthereistheverygreat
influencealsoofother
qualities,which
dependupontheindividual'stemperament,
without
being,
strictlyspeaking,
eitherintellectualormoralsuch
qualities
as
tenacity
ofpurpose,
self-confidenceand,aboveall,activity.
If
wesetouttojudgewhetheranindividualwillorwillnot
get
onin
|j|ewhateverthetype
ofsocietywefindthatwecannotuse

166. 8] MORALEVOLUTION 128
anysingleWiterion,
tobesure,butthatifwewould
keepaneye
onthemainfactor,wemustwatchandseewhetherheisactive*
andwhetherheknowshowtomakegood
useofhis
activity.
Apartfrombriefperiods
ofviolentrevolution,personalquali-
tiesarealways
lessimportant,
as
regardsattaining
the
highest
positions
inlife,thanbirthor
family. \Inanytype
of
society,
whetherostensiblydemocraticorotherwise,being
borntoahigh
stationisoneofthebestclaimsapersoncanhavetostaying
there.Familiesthathave
occupied
the
highest
levelsinthe
socialscaleforanumberof
generations
oftenlackthe
qualities
thatarebestfittedtocarryamanfromthebottomtothetop,
whiletheypossessvery
different
qualities
inabundance/ Except
inunusualcasesthatareduetocarefuleducation,oldaristocratic
familiesarenotdistinguished
for
activity.Atthesametimea
realrefinementofthemoralsensemaybedetectedinpersonswho
havenothadto
fightfierce,shady,andoftendegrading
battles
inordertoreachthe
top.
|n
aword,thevirtuesanddefectsthat
help
a
plebeian
toforcetrie
gates
ofanaristocracyaresome-
thingvery
differentfromthevirtuesanddefectsofaristocrats
themselves.]
Wecanaccept
astrueonlyoneportion
oftheselectionist
theory.Onemaysafelygrantthat,other
thingsbeingequal,
ina
strugglebetweentwosocietiesthatsociety
willtriumph
inwhich
theindividualmembersareontheaverage
betterequipped
in
moralsenseandthereforemoreunited,moretrustfulofeach
otherandmorecapable
ofself-sacrifice. Butthatexception
hurtstheevolutionarythesisasawholemorethanithelps
it. If,
inagivensociety,a
higheraverage
ofmoralsensecannotbe
explainedbyanysurvivalofthebestindividuals,then,granting
thatthe
higheraverage
isthere,itcanbeascribedonly
tothe
better
organization
ofthesociety
tocauses,inotherwords,that
arehistoricalinnatureandthataretheworstenemiesofthose
who
trytoexplain
socialphenomenaprimarilybychanges
inthe
individualorganism
orintheindividual"psyche."
3.ThoughBuckle'stheoriesarenotaswidelyatvariancewith
ourpoint
ofviewastheabove,wefeelunabletoacceptthem
without
modifying
oratleastsupplementingthemtosome
extent. Itisofcoursetruethatinveryancientsocietieswefind
maximsandlawsthatdenotean
exquisitemoralsense.Inthe

167. 124 JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
ancientEgyptianBookoftheDead,forinstance,especiallyin
parts
ofitthat
gobacktoaveryremote
antiquity,preceptsvery
similartotheTenCommandments aretobefound
1
;andpapyri
datingfromthetwelfthdynastycontainmoral
principlesthat
areasgood
asanything
inChristianorBuddhistethics.The
PlatonistsandtheStoicsintheGreco-Romanworldandthe
EssenesintheHebrewworld
representedveryhigh
levelsof
morality,andnumeroustracesofthesameethicscan
easilybe
notedinChinese,IndianandPersiancivilizationslong
anteriorto
theChristianera.Butthoughtheprecepts
in
questiongoback
toveryremotetimes,theywereformulatedandacceptedby
peopleswhohadveryancientcivilizations,andwhosemoral
sense,therefore,hadundergonealong-protracted
elaboration.
Indeed,ifanycomparison
is
possiblebetweenthemorality
ofa
primitive
tribeandtheethicalsystem
ofa
relatively
civilized
people
thathasbeen
organized
for
longages
in
greatand
populous
politicalorganisms,
itisthecomparisonthatcanbemade
betweentheethicalsystems
ofachildandanadult.Theformer
isunconscious,thelatterconscious. Intheformergoodandbad
impulses
areroughlysketched. Inthelatterwefindthem
fully
developedandmature. Childand
savage
alikemaydoevil,and
greatevil,butinwhattheydoblindanimalimpulse
will
always
figuremore
largelythancalculationand
premeditation;andthey
mayevendogoodwithouteverachievingthat
exquisite
dis-
crimination,thatdeliberatesacrificeofself,ofwhichtheadult
humanbeingandthecivilizedhumanbeing
are
capable.
Makingdueallowances,ofcourse,ethical
feeling
inthecrude
personstandstoethical
feeling
inthewell-bred
personmuchas
thesenseof
morality
inthechildorthesavagestandstothe
ethicalsystem
oftheadultorthecivilizedman.Whatwecall
delicacy
of
feeling
is
justtheintuitionofahighermoralityapplied
toa
greaternumberofsocial
relationships. Europeantravelers
intheinteriorofAfricahave,in
general,
foundtheArabadven-
turerswho
foregathertherepreferable
tothenativeNegroes.
Thatisunderstandable. TheArabsareheirstoanancient
civilization.Thoughthey
are
perfectlycapable
of
treachery,
theftandmurder,theycan,whentheychoose,assumethe
mannersof
gentlemen.Theyhavesomeconceptionatleastofa
moralitythatis
higher,andsomorelikeourown.
1
Lenormant,Maspero.

168. 3] MORALEVOLUTION 125
Butitisnotonly
in
greaterrefinementofmoralandimmoral
impulses
thatcivilizedmandiffersfromthesavage.
Insocieties
ofancientculturethathaveforcenturiesenjoyedsound
political
organizations,
the
repression
ofimmoralimpulseswhatsome
criminologists
callthe
"
inhibition
"
thatcurbsimpulses
is
unquestionably strongerandacquires
alltheforceofinveterate
habit.Byalongandslow
process
ofelaborationsuchsocieties
graduallydevelop
theinstitutionsthatenableauniversalmorality
tocurbthe
expression
ofindividualimmorality
inacertain
numberof
publicand
privaterelationships.Whenthey
arenot
underthesway
ofinterestsand
passions,almostallindividuals
cometounderstandthatagiven
actisnotconsistentwiththe
sentimentsof
justicethatprevail
inthe
society
inwhichthey
live. Still,the
greatermajority
ofindividualsmightcommitthat
very
actunderstressofpassion
oratthe
bidding
ofan
engrossing
interest.
Now
publicopinion,religion,law,andthewholesocialmecha-
nismthatenforcesobservanceofthelaw,are
expressions
ofthe
massconscience,whichinthe
general
caseis
dispassionateand
disinterestedas
against
theone,orthefew,whoseperception
of
whatis
justandhonestiscloudedatthe
givenmomentbythe
violenceofselfish
impulses.The
judge
istheinstrumentofthe
massmoralsense,which,casebycase,curbsthepassionsand
evilinstinctsoftheindividualandholdstheminleash.
feoinahighlydeveloped
civilizationnotonlydomoralinstincts
andforthatmatterselfishpassionsbecomemorerefined,
moreconscious,more
perfect.
Ina
society
inwhich
political
organization
hasmade
greatprogress,moral
discipline
isitself
unquestionablygreater,andthetooselfishactsthatareinhibited,
orobstructed,by
the
reciprocal
surveillanceandrestraintofthe
individualswhocomposethesocietyaremorenumerousandmore
clearly
defined. Ineverysociety,
ofcourse,thereisa
relatively
smallnumberofindividualswhohavetendenciesthatare
definitelyrefractorytoany
sortofsocial
disciplineand,likewise,
acertainnumberofindividualsofsuperiorscruplesandsoundly
moldedcharactersforwhomanycurbfromwithoutwouldbe
superfluous. Butbetweenthesetwoextremescomethevast
majority
ofmen,whohaveaverageconsciences,forwhomfearof
harmor
punishment,
andthefactthatthey
aretobeheld
responsible
fortheirconductbyot^ierpeoplewhoareneither

169. 126 JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
theiraccomplices
northeirsubordinates,serveasmosteffective
meansforovercoming
thethousandtemptations
totransgress
the
morallawthateverydaylivingoffers)
(The
socialmechanismsthat
regulatethisdisciplining
ofthe
moralsenseconstitutewhatwecall
"juridical
defense"(respect
forlaw,governmentbylaw).Thesemechanismsarenotequally
perfect
inallsocieties. Itmayhappenthata
societythathas
advancedfurtherthansomeotherintheartsandsciencesremains
conspicuously
inferiortothatotherinthis
respect.Anditmay
alsohappenthat
juridical
defenseweakensandbecomesless
efficientinsocietiesthatare
traversingperiods
ofscientificand
economic
progress.
1
Greatcatastrophes,
suchaslongwarsor
greatrevolutions,everywhereproduceperiods
ofsocialdissolu-
tion,whenthe
disciplining
ofselfishimpulsesfalters,whenhabits
thathavelongcurbedthembreakandwhenbrutishinstincts
thathavebeendulledbutnoteradicatedbylongperiods
of
peac^
andcivilized
livingcometolifeagain
forif
greater
culturehas
succeededin
veilingthemithasalsosteeledandsharpenedthem.
po
fromtimetotimewesee
groups
ofadventurersfromcivi-
lizedcountries,oncoming
intocontactwithbarbarous
peoples
orpeoples
ofasocialtypemarkedly
differentfromtheirs,feeling
themselvesloosedfromordinarymoralrestraintsand
perpe-
tratingthesortofcrimesthatwoninfamy
fortheSpanish
conquerors
inAmerica,andfor
HastingsandCliveinIndia.
ThetremendousexcessesoftheThirtyYears'War,orofthe
FrenchRevolutionandothercivilwars,become
explainableby
referencetothesesamecriteria.!
Characteristic isthepicture
thatThucydidespaints
ofthe
demoralizationthatfelluponGreeceafterthe
strugglesbetween
differentcities,andthecivilwarswithinindividualcities,which
tookplaceduring
thePeloponnesianWar. Itis
interesting
to
notethatallsocialcataclysms
thatdestroymoral
disciplineare
followedbyperiods
ofrelaxationinthat
disciplineitself,sothat
thelevelofmoralsisreestablishedbutverygradually. Letour-
neauhaswellshownthatintellectualprogress
ismuchmore
rapidamong
barbariansand
sayages
thanmoral
progress.
2
This
1
Inhisarticle"Foulesetsectesaupointdevuecriminel"Tarde
expressesthe
opinion
thatoflatetherehasbeenarealdeclineinmoralsinmodernEuropean
societyandthatthedeclineisduetosocialcauses.
2
LaSodologied'aprdsVethnographie.

170. 4] ORGANIZEDMORALITY 127
phenomenon
isapparent
incivilizedsocietiesastheyemerge
from
periods
ofsocial
disorganization.
Itisduetothefactthat
moralhabitsareestablishedandreestablishedveryslowly,but
itcontributesto
lendingasemblanceoftruthtoBuckle'sdoctrine,
thatthemoralsenseis
absolutelystationary.
Wehavesofar
carefullyavoided,itwillbenoted,anyspecula-
tionastothe
origins
ofthemoraloraltruisticinstincts. For
ourpurposeshere,itissufficienttoobservethattheyareinnate
inmanand
necessary
tosocial
living.
Itwillfurtherbenoted
thatourviewis
contrary
tothedoctrineofRousseau,thatman
is
goodby
naturebutthatsocietymakeshimwickedandper-
verse.Webelievethatsocial
organization providesforthe
reciprocal
restraintofhumanindividualsbyoneanotherandso
makesthembetter,notbydestroying
theirwickedinstincts,
butbyaccustomingthemto
controlling
theirwickedinstincts.
4{Thechiefpeoples
thathavehadhistories,orarenowmaking
them,entrustthe
disciplining
ofthemoralsensenotto
religion
onlybuttothewhole
legislativesystem. Intheearlyperiods
of
all
peoplesthesecularenactmentandthe
religiouspreceptgo
absolutelyhandinhand,andthesanctionsthatupholdtheone
upholdtheotheralso.Thatisthecaseeventoday
insome
societies.Butinourtime,incountriesofEuropeanandChinese
civilization,secularorcivil
organizationand
religiousorganiza-
tionaremoreorless
distinctlyseparated,the
religiousorganization
becomingmoreeffectiveaccording
tothestrength
ofthefaith
thatitmanages
to
inspireandmaintain,whereasthesecular
organization
basesits
progress
onitssuccessinconforming
to
certainpsychologicaltendencies}
fjt
haslongbeendebatedwhetherthe
religioussanction,when
takenapartfromthe
politicalsanction,ismoreeffectivethanthe
latterwhether,inotherwords,fearofhellisworthmorein
actualpractice
thanfearof
jailandthe
policeman.]
Adefinite
answer,applicable
toallthecasesthatmight
ariseunderthe
question,canhardlybe
given.Evidentlyacountry
inwhich
politicalorganization
isslackandprimitivewhile
religious
faith
isardent isinanessentially
differentsituationfromanother
country
inwhich
religiousenthusiasmshavedeterioratedwhile
political,administrativeandjudiciarysystemshave
improved*
Both
religiouspreceptsandsecularlawsemanatefromthe

171. JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
collectivemoralsensethatis
indispensable
toallhumanassoci-
ations,anditisundeniablethatall
religionsdohave,asthey
couldhardly
failtohave,some
practical
influence.Butthereis
reasontofear,nevertheless,thattheimportance
ofreligioncan
easilybeoverestimated. If
religionweresoimportant,
itwould
seem,forinstance,thatthemoraldifferencebetweenaChristian
people
andanidolatrouspeople
shouldbevery
considerable.
NowofcourseifwecompareacivilizedChristianpeople
witha
barbarous,idolatrous
people,
themoraldiscrepancy
isenormous ;
butifwe
place
sideby
sidetwopeoples
ofthesamedegree
of
barbarism,oneofwhichhasembracedChristianityandtheother
not,itwillbefoundthatin
practice
theirbehaviorsarevery
muchthesame,oratleastthereisno
appreciable
difference
betweenthem.Themodern
Abyssinians
area
livingandnotori-
ousillustrationofthisfact.CardinalMassajawasamissionary
in
Ethiopia
for
thirty-five years.Hetestifiestothescant
practicalinfluenceof
ChristianityonthelivesoftheAbyssinians.
1
Ifwecomparethestillpaganbut
politicallywell-organized
society
oftheage
ofMarcusAureliuswiththeChristianbutvery
disorderlysociety
thatisdescribedbyGregory
ofTours,wevery
muchsuspectthatthe
parallelwouldprove
tobefavorabletothe
former.
litisconsistentwithhumannaturethatcertainandspeedy
piinishment,however
slightrelatively,shouldbe
generallymore
fearedthanafarsevererpunishment
thatisuncertainandremote.
For
averageconsciences, atthemomentwhengreed,
lustor
vengefulnessspursthemtotheft,rapeormurder,fearofprison
andthe
gallows
isamorepotentand,especially,amorecertain
deterrentthanthe
possibility
ofeternaltorment. Ifthatistrue
for
greatbreachesofthemorallaw,whicharecommittedonly
inmomentsofviolent
passion,
itistruerstillofthosepetty
violationsofthemoreobviousprecepts
offairnessand
justiceinto
whichhumanbeingsaremisledbythedailypressures
ofpetty
interestsandlittle
jealousies.j
Isthereamoralor
religiouslaw
thatdoesnot
recognizethattopay
one'sdebtsis,onthewhole,
ajustandproperthing?Yetonehastoconfessthatmanygood
believerswouldfailtopaytheirs,andwouldfindathousand
sophistriesand
pretenses
to
uphold
theirownconsciences in
doingso,if
they
werenotheldtotheir
obligationsbypublic
1
/miei
trentacinqueannidimissionein
Etiojria.

172. 4] ORGANIZEDMORALITY
disgraceand,above
all,by
the
process
server. Ittakesnoover-
delicateconsciencetounderstandthattopummelandbeat
anotherpersonis,atthe
verybest,notadecorousthingtodo;yet
thehabitof
layinghandsonone's
neighbor
inthemomentof
anger
is
effectivelycombattedinthemasses
onlyby
the
certainty
thatthemanwhodealsablowrunsthechanceofpromptly
receiving
anotherinreturnandthatthebusinessmayeasilygo
fartherthanthat.Astheweakestandmostdefenseless of
human
beings,womenandchildrenshouldbetheonesmost
entitledto
protectionfromthe
religiousandmoralsentiments;
butwesee
only
too
regularly,alas,thatinactualfact
they
are
themostfrequent
victimsofbrutalphysical
assaults. Invery
religiouscountries,wherethelowerclassesare
completely
atthe
mercy
ofthe
higher,
itisnounusual
thing
toseemasters
beating
theirservantsorothersubordinates.
Religiousfaith,like
patrioticenthusiasmsand
politicalpas-
sions,may
atmomentsof
extraordinary
exhilaration
produce
greatcurrentsofabnegationandself-sacrificeandspurthemasses
toactsandeffortswhich,toone
consideringman's
ordinary
natureonly,seemalmostsuperhuman. Catholic
jubileesand
Protestantrevivalsfurnishmorethanoneexample,andone
mightmentionascharacteristicthe
greatwaveof
charityand
brotherly
lovethatswept
overUmbriaintheday
ofSt.Francis
ofAssisiandanumberof
fleetingmomentsintheFrenchRevolu-
tionand
duringthedisturbancesof'48in
Italy.
Weare
speaking
hereofcollective,notindividual,acts.As
regards
thelatter,caseswhereisolatedindividuals,or
groups
of
individuals,giveproof
ofextraordinaryabnegationand
complete
self-sacrificearenotsoveryrareinanyage,
orin
any
civilized
nation.Theycometotheforein
everywarandin
every
serious
epidemic
onanyoccasion,inshort,whenitisdesirableand
necessarythatsomeonesufferorfacea
danger
intheinterestof
all.Onsuchoccasions,just
asasublimationofvirtueistobe
seeninsomeindividuals,soanexaggeratedcowardiceandself-
ishnessappears
inothers,whocastasidethemask
theyhavebeen
accustomedtowearthemomenttheyarefacedbyarealdanger
andarealneedofself-sacrifice. Itisequallytrue,ofcourse,
thatjustasthemasseshaveoccasionalspasms
ofexaltedabne-
gationandself-sacrifice,sotheyhavefeverishparoxysmsofthe
baseemotions greed,
lustforblood,panic.

173. 180 JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
Butthecapacity
thatcertainsentimentshavefor
exciting
ephemeralperiods
ofintoxicationshouldnotmisleadoneasto
theiractualefficacy
intheordinarydaily
livesofhuman
beings.
Inmomentsof
patrioticand
religious
exhilarationwholecities
havebeenknownto
despoilthemselvesoftheirproperty
inorder
todonateittostateorchurch.Butno
politicalorganization
canlong
subsistunlesstaxationhasitscompulsoryaspect,and
theCatholicChurchitself,wheneverithasbeenable,hasmade
thetithesobligatory.
The
patriotic,andstillmorethe
religioussentiment,andmost
ofallthetwocombinedina
singlepassion,
sufficetoproducegen-
eralandviolentinsurrections,andattimestheyhaveprompted
whole
populations
totakeuparmsandsetoutupon
distantand
veryperilousexpeditions
thiswasthecaseinthefirsttwoor
threeCrusades.Butsavein
peopleswholookuponwarasan
ordinaryoccupationandanormalsourceof
gain,thosetwo
sentimentsdonotprovideanadequate
basisforsoundand
dependable
armiesthatwillbeready
atamoment'snotice
whereverthey
areneeded.Amongpeoplewhonormallydepend
uponagriculture,industryandcommerce,armiesofthatsort
areproducts
ofasoundsocial
discipline,which
inexorably
forces
theindividualtodohisdutyandlendhisservicesatcertain
timesandin
specifiedways.
5.(Thepoliticalorganization proper,
the
organization
that
establishesthecharacteroftherelationsbetweenthe
governing
classandthegovernedandbetweenthevariouslevelsandvarious
sectionsofthe
rulingclass,isthefactorthatcontributesmore
thanany
othertodetermining
thedegree
of
perfection
that
juridicaldefense,orgovernmentbylaw,canattaininagiven
people.Theexistenceofanhonestgovernment,agovernment
thatisbasedon
integrityand
justice,
agovernmentthatis
truly
liberalinGuicciardini'ssenseoftheterm,isthebestguarantee
thatonecanhavethatthe
rightscommonlyknownasprivate
willbe
effectivelyupheld
inotherwords,thatproperty
willbe
protectedA
Guicciardinidefines
politicallibertyas
"
aprevalence
oflawanapublicdecreesovertheappetites
of
particularmen."
1
Ifwetake"particularmen"inthesenseof"individuals,"
meaning"singleindividuals," including
individualswhohave
1
Opereinedite,vol.II,p.160.

174. J5J LIBERTYANDLAW 131
power
intheirhands,itwouldbedifficulttofindamore
rigor-
ously
scientificdefinition. Ithas,too,thevirtueof
beingvery
ancient,since,unwittinglyperhaps,Guicciardiniwas
repeating
thesubstanceofanapothegmofoneofthefamousSevenWise
MenofGreece. Guicciardiniwascertainlynotaningenuous
soul.InhisPensieriandDiscorsiheoftenrevertstothe
opinion
that"menin
general
lovethegoodandthe
justwheneverlove
oftheirowninterestandtheinterestsofrelatives,orfearofthe
vengeance
ofothers,doesnotmisleadtheirunderstanding."
Thesewordscontaina
recognition
ofthe
psychologicallawthat
wehaveputforwardasthebasisof
juridical
defense.
A
corruptgovernment,
inwhichthepersonwhocommands
"makeshiswilllicitinhislaw"whetherinthenameofGod
orinthenameofthepeopledoesnotmatter will
obviouslybe
inadequateto
fulfilling
itsmissionin
regard
to
juridicaldefense.
Officially
itmayproclaimacceptableandeven
loftyprinciples
in
regard
to
legalprocess.
In
practicethe
principles
willnotbe
verystrictlyobserved. Intheoldkingdom
ofNaplesandtoan
extentinczaristRussia,lawenforcementbythecourts,andthe
lawitself,couldbenullifiedbya
police
official.Evenequality
beforethelaw,thoughofficiallyproclaimed,wasmoreorlessa
farce.Tochooseanancientexample,
asless
stirring
tomodern
emotions,theTheodosianCodelaysdown
1
thatthe
larger
propertyowners
(potentiorespossessores)shouldpay
theirtaxes
throughprovincialgovernors,because, itseems,themunicipal
magistrates,whowere
generally
entrustedwiththecollectionof
taxes,weretooweakascomparedwiththelandownersandtoo
deferentialtowardsthem.UnderArcadius,farmerswhowere
freemenhada
right,
intheabstract,tohalea
proprietor
before
the
imperialcourts,butsuchaprocedurewasstyledan"imperti-
nence"(audaciani).
2
[The
extenttowhichrelationsbetweenrulersandruled,and
betweenthevarious
cliquesamongrulers,are
inspiredbyprinci-
ples
ofmoralityand
justice,varies,ofcourse,moreorless
appreciablyaccording
tothecountryandtheperiod
in
history.
Readilyapparent
isthedifferenceinthisrespectbetweenthe
government,say,oftheChinesemandarinsandthegovernment
1
XI,7,1*.
s
FusteldeCoulanges,Reckerchessur
quelquesprobldmesd'htstoire,pp.100,120.

175. 138 JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
oftheTurkishpashasandviziersofthegood
olddaysmenof
thestamp
ofMohammedKuprilu,MustaphaBairakdar,orAli
Tebelen,whodisposed
offhandof
questionstouching
the
property,
persons,andlivesoftheraias,andsometimes ofbelievers.
Whatevertheirgoodintentions,theChinesemandarinswere
obliged
tofollowtheleadofbureaucratic
corruption
inorderto
supplement
theirmeagerstipendssomewhat,andtheyhadto
refer
capitalsentencestoPeking
forreviewandonoccasion
reversal,unlessaprovinceweresubjecttoemergency
laws.
UnderIvantheTerrible,whenmassconfiscations of
property,
massexterminations ofwhole
citypopulations,wereordinary
occurrencesinRussia,thatcountrywasruledverydifferently
fromtheway
itwasunderthelastczars;andtheczaristRussia
ofthenineteenthcenturywas,inturn,governedverydifferently
fromEngland,whereevery
arrestofanindividualhastobe
legalized
inearnestandverypromptly^
The
great
nationsof
centralandwesternEuropehavebeenruledverydifferently
fromthe
republics
ofSouthAmerica. InLatinAmerica itis
stillcustomary
fortheleadersofthewinningpartytoshootthe
leadersofthebeatenparty,and,notsoverylongago,
itwas
easiertocomputethetheftscommittedbythosewhoheldpower
foranylength
oftimeinhundredsofmillionsthaninmillions.
1
Somewritershaveno
difficulty
in
explaining
thesevariations
inthe
degreeofexcellenceof
politicalsystemsonthebasisof
racialdifferences.
2
Butracialdefectscanhardlybeappealed
to
insuchcases.Peopleswhoseembackward
todaymay
atone
period
oranotherintheirhistoryhavemanaged
tocreatevery
advancedtypes
ofcivilization,andhavehad
politicalorganiza-
tionsinwhich
respect
forlaw,or
juridicaldefense,was
relatively
excellentascomparedwiththesituation
prevailing
atthosetimes
innationswhichtodaysurpasstheminthat
regard.Even
todaysuch
peoplesdonotshowin
private
relationsthe
organic
inferiority
inthemoralsensethatseemstobemanifestintheir
public
affairs.The
SpaniardsandtheSiciliansarecommonly
regarded
as
peoples
of
low-grade politicalmorality.Noone
wouldclaimthattheyaremorally
inferiortootherEuropeans
in
theirfamilyrelations,orintheir
personaldealingsand
friendships.
1
ForthecaseofJuarea-Celman, apresident
ofthe
ArgentineRepublic,and
hisaccomplices,
seeEbelot,*'LaRevolutiondeBuenos
Ayres."
1Wehaveamplydiscussedthatviewearlierinthese
pages,chap.I, 10-16.

176. 5] LIBERTYANDLAW 1SS
Othersexplainthevariationsinquestionby
differences in
levelofcivilization,andinthatthey
areinameasure
right.
Asweshallseehereafter, itisverydifficult,
ifnotimpossible,
forpopulouswide-spreading
socialunits,suchasthemodern
nations,toperfectjuridicaldefensetoanyhighdegree
unless
theyhaveattainedfairlyhigh
levelsofintellectualandeconomic
development. Buttobe
partiallyright
isnottobewholly
right.Manypeopleshavehadperiods
ofmaterialandintel-
lectualsplendorand
yet,
asitwerebyasortoffatalcurse,have
neverbeenabletoridthemselvesofcertain
types
of
political
organization
thatseemtobeutterlyunsuitedtoensuringany
realprogress
inthemorality
oftheir
governing
classes.The
Arabiancaliphates
ofBagdad,C6rdobaandCairowereleaders
inworldcivilizationforsomecenturies.Theyneverachieved
anyappreciable progress
in
politicalorganization. What is
commonly
calledcivilization,therefore, isevidentlyanecessary
prerequisite
to
politicalprogressbutyetnotenough
toprovoke
orexplain
it.
Itmay,indeed,bemaintainedthathabits
figure
toa
very
large
extentindetermining
themaximumdegree
of
perfectionor
imperfection
in
juridical
defensethatapeople
is
capable
of
per-
manentlyenjoying
or
systematically tolerating.
Itmaybe
takenforgranted
thatthemodernPersianscouldnot
possibly
adaptthemselves inone
generation,
oreveninmany,tothe
systemthatistoday
inforceinEngland;
norcouldthe
English-
menofourdayeverbebroughttoacceptthesortofgovernment
thatisprovided
forthesubjects
oftheshah.Wehavealready
notedthatmoralhabitschange
farmoreslowlythanintellectual
habits;yethoweverslowlytheychange,theydo
change,andboth
forthebetterandfortheworse.Englishmenwouldnottolerate
todayaking
likeRichardIII,alordchancellor likeFrancis
Bacon,ajudge
like
Jeffreys,anarmygeneral
likethatJohn
GrahamofClaverhousewhocommandedinScotland,or,wemay
venture,alord
protector
likeCromwell. Sowemightreasonably
hopethataBarnaboViscontioraCesareBorgiawouldbe
impossibleamongtheItaliansof
today.Polybiusadmiredthe
politicalsystem
oftheRomansasthebestofallthegovernments
ofhis
day.Butwithinafew
generationsthosesameRomanshad
learnedto
accept
thetyranniesofTiberius,CaligulaandNero;
whilethedescendantsoftheGreeks.whohadlivedinthedays
of

177. 184 JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
Aristides,PericlesandEpaminondassubmittedoverlong
cen-
turiestotheruleofthedegenerateemperors
ofByzantium,
Nowtheremustbereasonswhycertainhabitsareformedin
preference tootherhabits.Even
granting, therefore,that
variety
in
politicalsystems
isdueinthemaintodifferencesin
politicalhabits,theproblem
ofwhy
differenthabitsarisestill
remainsunsolved. Inaword,wearehereconfrontedwitha
greatpsychologicallawwhichcanalone
explainwhy
themoral
instinctsofa
people
arenowmore,nowless,embodiedand
developed
inits
political
constitution.Andthatlawisonlyone
ofmanymanifestations ofanothermore
generallaw,whichwe
setforthearlierinthis
chapter,andwhichexplainsthe
greater
orlesser
efficacy
ofmoralrestraintsinallphases
ofsociallife.
6.Theabsolutepreponderance
ofasinglepoliticalforce,the
predominance
ofanyover-simplifiedconcept
inthe
organization
ofthestate,thestrictlylogicalapplication
ofanysingleprinciple
inall
public
lawaretheessentialelementsinanytype
ofdespot-
ism,whether itbea
despotismbasedupondivine
right
ora
despotismbasedostensiblyonpopularsovereignty;
for
they
enableanyonewhoisinpowerto
exploitthe
advantages
ofa
superiorpositionmorethoroughly
forthebenefitofhisown
interestsandpassions.Whentheleadersofthe
governing
class
aretheexclusiveinterpreters
ofthewillofGodorofthewillof
thepeopleandexercise
sovereignty
inthenameofthoseabstrac-
tionsinsocietiesthataredeeplyimbuedwith
religious
beliefs
orwithdemocraticfanaticism,andwhennoother
organized
social
forcesexistapartfromthosewhich
representthe
principleon
whichsovereignty
overthenationisbased,thentherecanbeno
resistance,noeffectivecontrol,torestrainanaturaltendency
in
thosewhostandattheheadofthesocialordertoabusetheir
powers.
(When
agoverning
classcanpermit
itselfanything
inthename
ofa
sovereignwhocandoanything,
itundergoesarealmoral
degeneration,thedegenerationthatiscommontoallmenwhose
actsareexemptfromtherestraintthattheopinionandthecon-
scienceoftheirfellows
ordinarilyimpose.When
responsibility
insubordinatesintheendisonewith
irresponsibilityandomni-
potenceinthemanorinthelittlegroup
ofmen
standingatthe
headoftheofficialhierarchy
asawhole callthatmanczaror

178. 6] BALANCEOPSOCIALFORCES 185
sultan,orthatgroupaCommitteeofPublicSafetythevices
thatabsolutismgenerates
initsleadersarecommunicateddown-
wardtothewhole
politicalstructure. Anythingmaybeventured
whenoneis
interpreting
thewill,realorimaginary,
ofa
person
whothinkshehasthe
right
tobendeverythingtohiswill,but
whocannot
possibly
see
everythingandwhodoesnothavefree
anddisinterestedconsciencesabouthimtocontrolhis
passions
andcorrecthismistakes.
Theeffectsofsuchasystemareinthe
highestdegreedeplor-
able,andtheyareswiftin
manifestingthemselves.TheRussian
novelistDostoevskilived
long
inalandofautocracyandspent
ten
years
inexileinSiberia.Hehasdescribedwithgreater
veracityand
feelingthananybody
elseamong
themodernsthe
degeneration
ofcharacterthatabsolutepowerproduces
inmen.
Wecannot
foregoaquotation:
Whenamanhasunlimitedpoweroverthefleshandbloodofhis
fellowman,whenamanisinaposition
todegradeanotherhuman
being
tothelimitsof
degradation,heisunabletoresistthetemptation
todo
wrong.Tyranny
isahabit.Intheenditbecomesadisease.The
bestmanintheworldbecomessobrutalizedastobe
indistinguishable
fromawildbeast.Bloodintoxicates,the
spiritbecomesaccessibleto
the
greatestabnormalities,andthesecancometoseemreal
joys.The
possibility
ofsuchlicensesometimesbecomes
contagious
inawhole
people;andyetsociety,which
despisestheofficialhangman,doesnot
despisethehangmanwhois
all-powerf
ulj
Nowthistype
ofmoralintoxicationhasbeenpointed
toby
notafew
psychiatrists
ofourday.
Itexplainstheexcessesof
thosewhoareomnipotent.
It
suppliesthekey
tothecriminal
folliesofsomeoftheoldRoman
emperors,
ofIvanIVandPeter
theGreat,ofmany
sultansoftheEast,of
Robespierre,Barere,
Carrier,Lebon.Asiswellknown,someofthoseindividuals
hadshownquitenormalcharactersbeforeachievingsupreme
power;theywere
utterly
alientotheexcessesinwhichthey
afterwardsindulged.The
failing
is
particularlycharacteristicof
individualswhoarenotdestinedtosupremepowerbyfamily
or
birth.NapoleonremarkedtoDr.O'MearaatSt.Helenathat
"noonebuthimselfhadeverdonehimanyharm,thathehad
beenhisownworstenemy,andthatschemesthatwere
altogether
hisowntheexpeditiontoMoscowandallthatfollowedfrom

179. 136 JUKIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
ithadbeenthesolecausesofhisdownfall."
1
So,then,not
Napoleon'sgenius,
noteventhelucidsensehehadofhisown
bestinterests,wasable,becauseofhis
despoticpower,
tokeep
himfrommaking
mistakesinwhichhisownfortunesfoundered
andthroughwhichhundredsofthousandsofhumanliveswere
lost.
I
Itmaybeobjectedthatsomeabsolute
sovereigns
havebeen
good,just
asothershavebeenbad,andthatincontinental
Europe,
beforethemodern
adoption
ofconstitutionalandpar-
liamentaryformsof
government,
absolutismdidnotproduce
resultsthatweredisastrousenoughto
justifytheviewthatwe
havehereputforward.Thereadyansweristhatafterthe
MiddleAges
theabsolutismsthat
prevailed
inEurope
werefar
from
beingcomplete,
thateventheauthority
ofaLouisXlVJhad
powerfulchecksinthetraditionsofadaywhenakingwas
just
thefirstamong
hisbarons,inthe
long-standingprivileges
ofthe
nobilityandtheprovincesand
especially
inthemoreorless
completeseparation
ofchurchandstate.Inanyevent,human
natureissorichandsovariedthatwemayreadilyadmita
thing
which,forthatmatter,historyproves:namely,thattherehave
beenindividualswhohavemanagedwholly
totametheir
passions
andtoremainpureandhonestevenafter
long
investiturewith
absolute
authority.Butthegood
thatsuch"luckyaccidents"
haveactuallyaccomplished
isnotas
great
asiscommonlysup-
posed.
I
Inacountrythatispermanentlyaccustomed toa
despoticregime,
the
rulingclass,takenasaclass,usuallybecomes
fawningandcravenbefore
superiors,and
inevitablybecomes
haughty, despoticand
overbearingtoward inferiors.Men,
unhappily,
aresomadethatthemoresubjecttheyaretothe
capriceandthewillofthepersonsabovethem,themore
likely
theyaretoforcetheir
capriceandwilluponthosewhoarebelow
themandintheirpower;
Anyonecanfind
examples
inthe
privateandeventhe
family
lifeheseesabouthimtocorroboratetherulewhichwehavehere
formulated. Inthemodernstate,whichis
spread
overavast
territoryandhasextremelycomplicated bureaucratic and
administrative systems,
theheadofthestatehasa
veryslight
influenceupontheordinary
lifeofthepeople,apartfroma
numberofimportantdecisions,suchaschoicebetweenwarand
1
0'Meara,Napoleon
inExile,conversationofApril6,1817.

180. 7] BALANCEOFSOCIALFORCES 137
peace.Often,therefore,abuseswillexisttowhichthesover-
eigns
are
personally
mostaverse.Alexander I,NicholasIand
AlexanderIIofRussiawerecertainlyverymuchopposed
to
administrative corruption,andsowasFerdinandIIofNaples.
Yetthe
practice
ofbribing
officialspersisted
totheendinczarist
Jlussia,andwasnevereradicatedinthekingdom
ofNaples.
1
Historyshowsanumberofcaseswheretheestablishment of
despoticgovernment
hasbeenadvantageous
to
peoples,
atleast
temporarily.
CesareBorgia
issaidtohave
givenRomagnaa
chancetocatchafreebreathbydestroying
thebanditsandpetty
tyrants
thatinfestedthat
region.SoMehemetAligaveEgypt
alittlepeacebyexterminatingtheMamelukes. Allthatsuch
examplesshowisthatdespotism,though
theworstofall
political
systems,
isneverthelesspreferable
toanarchy,theabsenceofany
government
atall]
7.Aristotle,Polybiusandanumberofotherwritersofancient
timesexpressed
a
preference
for"mixed"formsofgovernment
forms,thatis,whichcombinedtraitsofmonarchy,aristocracy
anddemocracy
incertainproportions
soclearlyintuitingthe
lawthatwehave
just
stated.IntheGreekstate,theancient
monarchy,restingonitssacredcharacterandontradition,the
aristocracy,whichalsorepresented
traditionand,asarule,
ownership
ofland,thedemos,basedonmoney,
mobilewealth,
numbers,mob
passions,
weresomanypoliticalforces,theinter-
play
ofwhich,solong
asanyoneofthemdidnotprevail
tothe
exclusionoftheothers,wassuchasto
provide
atype
of
political
organization
inwhichdueprocess
oflawwas,inordinarytimes,
relatively
secure.InRome
again,
inthedaywhenPolybiuswas
sogreatlyadmiring
herconstitution,wefindtheinfluenceof
great
landedproperty
inthehandsofthepatricians
andtheinfluenceof
smalllandedproperty
inthehandsofthe
plebeianstemperedand
balancedby
theinfluenceofmoneyandmobilecapital
inthe
handsoftheknights.Wefindthetraditionsofthegreat
families
ofoptimatesdescendedfromthegodsholding
theirpower
inthe
faceofpopularpassionsandthetalentsandnewlygotten
wealth
ofthe
greatplebeian
families.Andwefindthosedifferent
political
forcessoembodiedinthevariousauthorities,political,
1
Leroy-Beaulieu,
L*Empire
destzarsethsBusses;Nisco,FerdinandoII
eUsuoregno.

181. 188 JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
military,administrativeand
judiciary,andso
allyingwitheach
otherand
balancingeachotherasto
give
risetoastatethatwas
in
juridical
termsthemost
perfect
ofall
antiquity.
Intheeighteenthcentury,Montesquieu
studiedthe
English
constitutionandderivedfromitthedoctrinethatifacountry
wastobefree,powershouldcurbpower,theexerciseofthethree
fundamentalpowersthathefound
present
inany
statebeing
entrustedto
separatepoliticalorgans.Nowwritersonconstitu-
tionallawhaveshownthattherecanbenosuchthing
asthe
absoluteseparation
ofthethreepowers
thatMontesquieu
con-
ceivedandthatthereisnoreasonwhythepowers
inquestion
shouldbethreeratherthananyothernumber.Butthat,
probably,
isnotMontesquieu'smaindefect,which,forthat
matter,comesoutmoreprominently
inthemanywriterswho
havedrawnonMontesquieuthaninMontesquieu
himself.
Withtheireyes
fixeduponthemaster'stheory,suchimitators
havebeeninclinedtostressitsformalor,sotosay,legalistic
aspectratherthanitssubstantialorsocial
aspect.Theyhave
oftenforgotten
thatifone
political
institutionistobeaneffective
curbupon
the
activity
ofanotheritmust
representa
political
force ftmust,thatis,bethe
organizedexpressionofasocial
influenceandasocialauthoritythathassome
standing
inthe
community,
as
against
theforcesthatareexpressedinthe
politi-
calinstitutionthatistobecontrolled.
Thatiswhy,
incertainparliamentarymonarchies,in
spiteof
theletterofconstitutionsandfundamentalcharters,weseeheads
ofstates,whoaresupportedneitherbyancienttraditionsnorby
theallbut
vanishingprestige
ofthe
divine-right
doctrinenorby
theinfluenceofthe
bureaucracy,
thearmy
orthe
economically
superiorclasses,becomingpowerlesstocounterbalancetheinflu-
enceofelectiveassemblies,whoaresupportedbyabeliefthat
theyrepresentthe
totality
ofthecitizensand
actuallycomprise
withinthemselvesaconsiderablebody
of
capacities, interests,
ambitionsand
energies.Thatiswhy
inthosesamecountriesthe
courtsareproclaimedbywordofmouthtobefundamental
organs
ofthestate,whileinfacttheyaremerebranchesofa
bureaucracy,
dependinguponacabinetthatis
loyal
tothe
majority
inthe
electivechamber.Sotheycometolack
prestigeand
independ-
enceandarenevercapable
ofmusteringenoughmoralandintel-
lectualenergy
toasserttheirownimportance. Forthesame

182. 8] BALANCEOFSOCIALFORCES 189
reason,finally,anumberofsenatesandupperhouseshaveeasily
been
relegated
tosubordinate
positionsby
lowerhousesthatare
functioning
attheirsides.Thatisbecausetheyaremadeup
of
pensionedofficials,deputiesandassemblymen,whohaveretired
frommilitant
political life,alongwithafewrichmenwhose
vanitiestheministrieshavefounditexpedienttoflatter.Such
bodies,therefore,donotofferadequate
fieldseitherfor
aggressive
mindsorforambitioustalents.Theydonot
representimportant
socialforces.
8tIfa
politicalorganism
istoprogress
inthedirectionof
attaininggreaterand
greaterimprovement
in
juridicaldefense,
|the
primeandmostessential
requisite
isthatthesecularand
ecclesiasticalpowers
shallbeseparated, or,better,thatthe
principleonwhichtheexerciseoftemporalauthority
isbased
shallhave
nothing
sacredandimmutableaboutit.Whenpower
restsonasystem
ofideasandbeliefsoutsideofwhichitisfelt
thattherecanbeneithertruthnor
justice,
itisalmostimpossible
thatitsactsshouldbedebatedandmoderatedin
practice.
Social
progresscanhardlyreachapointwhere,insuchacase,thediffer-
entpowers
willharmonizewitheachotherandcheckeachother
effectivelyenough
topreventabsolutecontrolbytheindividual,
orindividuals,whostandattheheadofthesocial
orderi)The
relativeimmobility
ofcertainsocialtypesmustbeascribedto
failuresintherespects
here
suggested.Thesacredcharacterof
thecastehasformanycenturiespreventedany
social
progress
in
Hinducivilization. Initsbeginningsthatcivilizationmusthave
hadvery
brilliant
possibilities. Otherwisetherewouldbeno
way
toaccountforthe
greatmaterialandartistic
progresswhich
itactuallydidachieve.Thatleadstoasupposition,whichseems,
forthatmatter,tobeconfirmedbyrecentstudies,thatthedivi-
sionoftheHindupopulation
intocastes,andtheisolationofthe
variouscastes,cannotalwayshavebeenasthoroughgoingand
extremeaswefindthemtoday.
ItseemsthatBrahminismdid
notbecome
altogether rigid,stationaryandformalistic until
afteritsvictorious
struggle
withBuddhisminIndia.
1
"LaL6gendedeChrisna"and"LeBouddhaetsalegende";but
especially,Senart,
"
UnroideI'lndeaiitroisiemesiecleavantnotreere:Acokaet
leBouddhisme."

183. 140 JTJKIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
Mohammedan societiesareafflictedwiththesameweakness.
Thefacthasbeenremarkedbymanypeople,
butithasbeen
stressedwiththe
greatestpenetrationbyLeroy-Beaulieu. The
MohammedanTatarswhodweltintheRussiangovernments
of
Kazan,AstrakhanandtheCrimea,thatwriterdescribesas
prosperous,clean-livingand
given
totrade;butheadds:
The
great
viceofIslam,therealcauseofits
politicalinferiority,
lies
neitherinitsdogmanoreveninitsmorality,butinitshabitofcon-
fusingthe
spiritualwiththetemporal,the
religiouslawwiththesecular
law.TheKoranisBibleandCodeinone itisthewordoftheProphet
thattakestheplace
oflaw.Ordinancesandcustomsaretherefore
consecratedtoeternitybyreligion,andbecauseofthatfactaloneevery
Mussulmancivilization is
necessarilystationary.
1
Tosupplement
that
analysis,whichisbothkeenandexact,
onemightaddthatincountrieswhereMohammedan
populations
areindependent
the
sovereign
isalmostalwaysa
caliph,
orvicar
oftheProphet,
oratleastderiveshis
authoritynominally
or
actuallyfroma
caliph.Inviewofthat,nobelievercandenyhim
absoluteobediencewithoutimpugningthe
legitimacy
ofthe
caliphate'sauthorityand
initiatinga
religious
reform.Thatis
why,aswesawabove(chap.Ill,5),
civilwarsandrevolutions
amongMohammedanshaveasaruletakensome
religious
reform
astheir
pretext,
orsomeclaimtothevicarateoftheProphet.
ThatwasthecaseintheconflictsbetweentheOmmiads,the
AbbassidsandtheFatimids,whichdrenchedthe
earlyhistory
ofIslaminblood.Thatwasthecaseinthe
strugglesthatupset
northernAfricaandSpain
intheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies,
andinveryrecentmovementsthathavedisturbedthosecoun-
tries.Ofcourse,inallsuch
struggles,
considerations ofan
altogetherworldlycharacter
figured,alongwiththe
religious
motive.
Christianpeopleshavemanagedtoavoidthe
dangerouscon-
fusionthatLeroy-Beaulieu
refersto,andso,astheresultofa
numberof
favoringcircumstances,theyhavebeenabletocreate
thesecularstate.Inthefirst
place,theBible
luckilycontains
veryfewmaximsthatcanbe
directlyappliedto
political
life.
Inthesecondplace,thoughtheCatholicChurchhasalways
aspired
toapreponderantsharein
politicalpower,
ithasnever
1L
$
Empire
deatmrsetleaRwaes,vol.I,p.80,

184. 9] CHURCHANDSTATE 141
beenabletomonopolize
it
entirely,becauseoftwotraits,chiefly,
thatarebasicinitsstructure. Celibacyhas
generallybeen
required
oftheclergyandofmonks. Thereforenoreal
dynasties
ofabbotsand
bishopshaveeverbeenabletoestablishthemselves.
OnthisscorethewesternworldowesGregoryVIIa
greatdebt
of
gratitude. Secondly,
in
spite
ofnumerousexamplestothe
contrarysuppliedby
thewarlikeMiddleAges,theecclesiastical
callinghasby
itsverynatureneverbeen
strictlycompatible
withthe
bearing
ofarms.The
precept
thatexhortstheChurch
toabhorbloodshedhasnever
droppedcompletelyoutof
sight,
andin
relativelytranquiland
orderlytimesithasalwaysbeen
verymuchtothefore.Intheperiodbetweentheeleventhand
thefourteenthcenturyevenGuelph
writershadto
recognizethat
sideby
sidewithpapalsupremacyanemperorexistedasa
secularsovereignwhofunctionedastheinstrumentandsecular
armoftheChurch.Themostcompletedespotismstowhich
ChristianpeopleshaveeverbeensubjectaroseinByzantiumand
inRussia,wherethesecularrulerssucceededmostcompletely
in
bringing
ecclesiasticalauthorityundertheirdirectcontrol.The
English,
ontheotherhand,are
greatly
indebtedfortheirliberties
tothePuritansandtoothernonconformists.
9.
^ext
afterthe
separation
ofsecularandecclesiastical
authority,themostessential
requisites
foramoreorlessadvanced
type
of
juridical
defensearetobefoundintheway
inwhich
wealth isdistributed ina
societjj)
andm_
the
way
inwhich
military
forcesareorganized. Hereagain
adistinctionmustbe
drawnTtefween nationsthatarestillintheirfeudal
periodand
nationsthathavealreadydeveloped
abureaucratic
organization,
Inthefeudalstate,wealthand
militarypower
are
ordinarily
concentratedinthehandsofthe
ruling
classwealth
consisting
largely
intheownership
ofland,asisuniformlythecaseinrudi-
mentarystages
ofcivilization.Eveninafeudal
society
this
stateofaffairspresentsmanydrawbacks,butinthattype
of
society
itneverhastheeffectsithasinmore
highlyperfected
types
ofsocial
organization. Theheadofafeudalstatewillbe
abletowronganyoneofhisbarons,buthewillneverbeabsolute
masterofthemall.Theyhaveattheir
disposal
acertainamount
of
publicforce,ifonemayso
speak,andwill
alwaysbeableto
exercisedefactoa
right
ofresistancewhich,inbureaucraticstates.

185. 148 JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
onceitis
recognized,
iswrittenintotheconstitutionsandthecode
booksof
public
law.Theindividualbarons,intheirturn,find
thatthereisalimittothetyrannywhichtheycanexerciseover
themassesoftheirsubjects. Unreasonablenessontheirpartmay
provoke
adesperate
unrestwhichmayeasilybecomerebellion.
Soitturnsoutthatinall
trulyfeudalcountriestheruleofthe
mastersmay
beviolentand
arbitraryby
fitsandstarts,butonthe
wholeitis
considerably
limitedby
customs.The
Abyssinians,
forinstance,and
especiallythe
Afghans,owe
only
ahighlyquali-
fiedobediencetotheirrasesandtheiremirs.Wehave
already
seen(6,above)thattraditionsandotherremnantsofafeudal
systemmay
servetolimittheauthority
oftheheadofastate.
Noteveninthe
age
ofLouisXIV,orofFredericktheGreat,
couldEuropeanmonarchybecompared
tothe
politicalsystems
thatwereheadedbytheemperors
ofByzantium
ortheshahsof
Persia.
Amoreorlesscompleteseparation
ofthetemporaland
spiritual
powers
inFranceandPrussiamusthavecontributedtothat
result.Withtheexception
ofRussiaandTurkey,therehas
neverbeenacountry
inmodernEurope
inwhichtheheadofthe
government
exercised
greaterpersonalauthoritythandid
FredericktheGreatinPrussia,andhisfatherbeforehim.The
peculiarpersonalities
ofthose
sovereigns,thesmallsizeofthe
statetheyadministered,the
special
circumstancesthatprevailed
intheirday
in
history,combinedtomaketheiradministrations
therealfoundationofPrussian
greatness.
{Butwhentheclassthatmonopolizeswealthandarmsembodies
itspower
inacentralizedbureaucracyandanirresistible
standing
army,we
getdespotism
initsworstform
namely,
abarbarous
andprimitivesystem
ofgovernmentthathastheinstrumentsof
anadvancedcivilizationatits
disposal,ayoke
ofironwhichis
appliedbyroughandrecklesshandsandwhichis
veryhardto
break,sinceithasbeensteeledandtemperedbypracticed
artisans\
Thatanomnipotentstandingarmymakesoneoftheworst
formsofgovernment
isafactsowellrecognized
thatweshallnot
dwellupon
ithere.
1
\Also
wellknownisthefactthattoo
great
aconcentration ofwealthinthehandsofa
portionofthe
ruling
1
Seebelow,chap.IX.Thereweconsiderthecircumstancesthatmakean
omnipotentarmypossibleandthosethatservetolimitor
destroy
itspower.

186. 9] POWERSOFGOVERNMENT 148
classhasbroughtontheruinofrelativelyperfectpolitical
organisms,suchastheRoman
Republic.Lawsandinstitutions
thatguaranteejusticeand
protectthe
rights
oftheweakcannot
possiblybeeffectivewhenwealthissodistributedthat
we^get,
ontheonehand,asmallnumberof
personspossessing
landsand
mobile
capitaland,ontheother,amultitudeofproletarianswho
havenoresourcebutthelaboroftheirhandsandoweittothe
richiftheydonotdieofhungerfromoneday
tothe
next.]
In
thatstateofaffairstoproclaim
universal
suffrage,orthe
riglits
of
man,orthemaximthatallare
equal
beforethelaw,ismerely
ironical;,and
just
asironicalisittosaythateverymancarriesa
marshal'sbatoninhis
knapsack,
orthatheisfreesomedayto
becomea
capitalist
himself.Evengrantingthatsomefew
individualsdorealizethose
highpossibilities,they
willnotneces-
sarilybethebestindividuals,eitherin
intelligence
orinmorals.
Theymaybethemost
persistent,themostfortunateor,perhaps,
themostcrooked.Meanwhilethemassofthepeople
willstill
remain
just
asmuchsubjecttothoseon
high.
fThereisnouseeitherin
cherishing
illusionsastothe
practical
consequences
ofasystem
inwhich
politicalpowerandcontrolof
economicproductionanddistributionare
irrevocablydelegated
to,orconferredupon,thesame
persons. Insofarasthestate
absorbsanddistributesa
largerand
largerportion
ofthe
public
wealth,theleadersofthe
ruling
classcometo
possessgreaterand
greater
facilitiesfor
influencingandcommanding
theirsub-
ordinates,andmoreandmore.
easilyevadecontrolbyanybody)
Oneofthemostimportant
reasonsforthedeclineofthe
parlia-
mentarysystem
isthe
relativelyhugenumbersofoffices,con-
tractsfor
public
worksandotherfavorsofaneconomiccharacter
whichthe
governing
classisina
positiontodistributeeitherto
individualsorto
groups
ofpersons;andthedrawbacksofthat
system
arethe
greater
in
proportion
astheamountofwealththat
thegovernment
orlocalelectivebodiesabsorbanddistribute is
greater,andtheharder itbecomes,therefore,tosecurean
independentpositionandanhonest
livingwithout
relying
in
somerespect
orotheruponpublicadministration. If,then,all
theinstrumentsof
productionpass
intothehandsofthegovern-
ment,theofficialswhocontrolandapportionproductionbecome
thearbitersofthefortunesandwelfareofall,andwe
getamore
powerfuloligarchy,amore
all-embracijng"racket,**thanhasever

187. 144 JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
beenseenina
society
ofadvancedcivilization. Ifallmoraland
materialadvantagesdependonthosewhohold
power,
thereisno
basenessthatwillnotberesortedtoinordertopleasethem;just
asthereisnoactofchicanery
orviolencethatwillnotberesorted
toinordertoattain
power,
inotherwords,inorderto
belong
to
thenumberofthosewhohandoutthecakeratherthantothe
largernumberofthosewhohavetorestcontentwiththeslices
thataredoledouttothem.
IA
society
isbestplaced
todevelopa
relativelyperfectpolitical
organizationwhenitcontainsalarge
classofpeoplewhose
economicposition
is
virtuallyindependent
ofthosewhohold
supremepowerandwhohavesufficientmeanstobeabletodevote
a
portion
oftheirtimeto
perfecting
theircultureand
acquiring
thatinterestinthe
publicwealthataristocratic
spirit,weare
almosttempted
tosaywhichalonecaninduce
people
toserve
theircountrywithnoothersatisfactionsthanthosethatcome
fromindividualprideand
self-respect^ Inallcountriesthatever
havebeen,ornoware,intheleadas
regardsjuridicaldefense or
liberty,asitiscommonly
calledsuchaclasshasbeenprominent.
TherewassuchaclassinRome,whenRomehadateemingplebs
ofsmallpropertyownerswho,thetimes
beingmodestones,
managedtobeself-sufficientandtowin
stepbystep,withamaz-
ingpersistence,the
rights
offull
citizenship. Therewassucha
classinEngland
intheseventeenth
century,andthereisone
therenow.England'snumerous
gentry,whichwasmadeup
in
thosedayschiefly
ofmoderately
richlandownersandisnow
chieflymadeup
ofmoderately
richbusinessmen, isnow
supplying,
asitthensupplied,
thebestelementstothe
ruling
class.There
hasbeenandtherestillissuchaclassintheUnitedStatesof
America,andsuchaclasshasexistedinmostofthecountriesof
centralandwesternEurope.Wheretheclassis
inadequate
to
itstaskbecauseofdeficienciesincultivationorineducationorin
wealth,parliamentarygovernment
bearsitsworstfruits,as
wouldanyother
politicalsystem.
10.Ascivilizationgrows,thenumberofthemoralandmaterial
influenceswhicharecapable
ofbecoming
socialforcesincreases.
Forexample,property
inmoney,
asthefruitof
industryand
commerce,comesinto
beingalongside
ofreal
property. Educa-
tion
progresses. Occupationsbasedonscientific
knowledgegain

188. 101 BALANCEOFSOCIALFORCES 145
inimportance. Soanewsocialclassformswhich,up
toacertain
point,counterbalances thematerial
prestige
oftherichandthe
moral
prestige
ofthe
clergy.Notonly
that.Mutualtoleration
resultsfromadvancedculture,andtolerationenablesdifferent
religionsanddifferent
politicalcurrentstoexistsidebyside,
balancingandcheckingoneanother.
Specialization
of
public
functionsenablesmany
differentinfluencestoexpressthem-
selvesingovernmentandto
participate
inthecontrolofthe
state.Atthesametimepublicdiscussionoftheactsofthe
rulersbecomes
possible.FreedoAofthe
press,so-called, isa
very
recentinstrumentof
juridical
defense. Itwasnotestab-
lishedinEngland
tilltheendoftheseventeenthcentury,and
nottillthenineteenthcentury
diditmakeitsway
intothecon-
stitutionalandparliamentary
countriesofcontinental
Europe.
And
yet,
inordertogainaninfluenceproportionatetoitsreal
importanceeverypolitical
forcehastobe
organized,andbefore
itcanbewell
organized,
anumberoffactors,importantamong
themtimeandtradition,are
indispensable. Thatiswhy,
inone
country
oranotheratonetimeoranother,weseeanactual
disproportionbetweentheimportancethataclasshasacquired
insocietyandthedirectinfluenceitexertsinthegovernment
of
thecountry.OnethinksatonceoftheFrench
bourgeoisie
before1789,orofthe
Englishmiddleclassesbefore1832.There
isalmostalwayssomeone
politicalforce,furthermore, that
manifestsaninvincibletendency
tooverreachorabsorbthe
others,andsoto
destroy
a
juridicalequilibriumthathas
gradually
beenestablished. Thatistruebothof
politicalforcesofa
materialcharacter,suchaswealthand
militarypower,andof
forcesofamoralcharacter,suchasthe
greatcurrentsof
religion
orthought.Eachofsuchcurrentsclaimsto
monopolizetruth
and
justice,andalltypes
ofexclusivismand
bigotry,whether
Christian orMohammedan, whethersacredorrationalistic,
whether
inspiredby
the
infallibility
ofthepope
orbytheinfalli-
bility
ofdemocracy,areequallyperniciousfromthispoint
of
view.Everycountry,everyepoch,hasitsown
peculiarcurrent
ofideasandbeliefs,whichbeing
the
strongestcurrent,bears
downuponthe
politicalmechanismandtendstosubvert it.
Quitegenerallytheharmthathasbeendonebyweakening
cur-
rents,whicharegoing,
orhavegone,outoffashion,is
appreciated
verywell,andthedeepwoundsthattheyhaveinflictedonthe

189. 146 JUEIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
senseof
justicearestigmatizedwithhorror.Meantimethe
similarharmthatthecurrentin
risingvogue
hasdone,oris
threatening
todo,isnotdiscernedorelseiscondonedor,atthe
most,feeblyviewedwithalarm.Men
cry
aloudandproclaim
thatlibertyhasbeenwon,thatthestormisover.Actually
thestormhasmerelychangeddirection,or,
ifonemay
usethe
metaphor,merelychangedshapeandcolor.
(Anumberofmoralforceshave
long
striventoupset
the
juridicalequilibrium
inEurope^theChurch,socialdemocracy,
nationalism. In
spite
ofitsstrongorganization
theChurch
maybeconsideredtheleastviolentandmenacing
ofthemall,
anditwillcontinuetobesounlessdanger
of
proletarian
revolu-
tionforcestheupper
classestoturnagain
to
religious
beliefs
whichtheyhavenowabandonedorprofessbut
tepidly.
;Among
materialforces,aforcethatisableveryeasily
tooverrideall
thepowers
ofthestateandSometimestoviolate,letalone
thenormsof
justiceand
equity,
theliteraltextofthelaw,
ismobilewealth itismoney,
oratleastthatportion
of
moneywhich is
powerfully organized!The
greatdevelop-
mentofbankingsystemsandofcredit,thegrowth
of
large
corporations,whichoftencontrolthecommunication systems
ofvastterritoriesandentirestates,the
greatenlargement
ofpublicdebts,haveinthelasthundredyearscreatednew
structures,newelementsof
politicalimportance,sothatsomeof
the
greatest
statesintheOldWorldandtheNewhave
already
hadoccasiontolearnfrom
experiencehow
overbearingandhow
all-pervasive
theirinfluencecanbe.
(
Therelativeeasewithwhichmoney,ormobilewealth,canbe
organizedandthe
possibility
of
concentrating
controlof
large
amountsofmoney
inthehandsofafewindividualshelpto
explain
itsgrowingpreponderance
in
power.
Inthisphenomenon
wehaveoneofthemanyexamples
ofan
organizedminoritypre-
vailing
overa
disorganizedmajority.Avery
smallnumberof
individualscancontrolallthebanksofissueinacountryorall
thecompaniesengaged
intransportationbylandorsea.They
canownandcontrol
greatstockcompaniesandindustrial
corpo-
rationswhichdealincommoditiesthatare
indispensable to
nationaldefense,suchasironandsteel.Theycan
carryout
publicworksforwhichnoteventhefinancesoftherichest
governmentswouldbeadequate.Withhundredsofmillionsat

190. 11] GOVERNMENTALABSOLUTISM 147
theirdisposal,
such,individualspossessuthemostvariedresources
forthreatening
orcajoling
otherinterestshoweverfar-reaching,
andforintimidatingand
corruptingpublicofficials,ministries,
legislativebodies,newspapers. Meantime,thatportionand
undoubtedly
itisthe
largerportion
ofthenationalcapital
whichisinvestedinthehostsandhostsofsmallormedium-sized
industries,orscatteredaboutinmanyhandsintheformof
savings
inamountsmoreorless
large,
hasnopower
whateverto
react.Beitnotedthatthefar
largerpart
ofthe
capital
ofbanks
andindustrialcorporationsusuallybelongs
tosmallandmedium-
sizedstockholders,whonotonlyremaincompletelypassivebut
areoftenthefirstvictimsoftheirleaders,whosucceedinfounding
greatfortunesandbuildinguppowerfulpublic
influenceonthe
lossesthey
inflictonother^
Itisdifficultatthepresent
timeforrealpropertytofindthe
samefacilitiesforasserting
itselfthatmoney
finds.Though
landedpropertymaynotbeverymuchdivided, itisalways
dividedenough
tomakeitdifficultina
largecountry
forasmall
numberof
largelandownersworking
incoalitiontodictatetoa
market,ortoforcetheirwilluponagovernment. Sotrueisthis
thatindustrialprotectionismappeared
inadvanceof
agrarian
protectionism.
Thelattercameaboutasareactiontotheformer
andasasortofindirectcompensation
fortheconsequences
ofthe
former.Atemporarymonopolymaybeacquiredbythepro-
prietors
oflandsimmediatelyadjoininglarge
citiesthatareunder-
goingrapiddevelopment
inrealestate.Insuchcasesthesame
formsofcorruption
asarecharacteristicoftheinfluenceofmoney
arise.
11.Whenasystem
of
politicalorganization
isbasedupona
single
absoluteprinciple,
sothatthewhole
political
classis
organized
aftera
singlepattern,
itisdifficultforallsocialforces
toparticipate
in
public
life,andmoredifficultstillforanyone
forcetocounterbalanceanother.Thatisastruewhenpower
is
inthehandsofelectedofficialswhoaresaidtobechosenbythe
people
asitiswhenpower
isentrustedexclusively
toemployees
whoareassumedtobeappointedbya
prince.Thecheckswhich
bureaucracyanddemocracycanenforceuponthemselvesand
whichareappliedthroughtheagency
ofotherbureaucratsor
electedofficialsarealwaysinadequate.
In
practicethey
never
wholly
achievetheirpurposes.

191. 148 JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
Theadministrative history
oftheRomanEmpire
furnishesa
pertinent
instanceoftheincapacity
ofacentralizedbureaucracy
tocurbitselfeffectively.
Inthe
beginning,bothinthe
capital
andinthe
municipalities,
bothinthecoloniesandinthe
pro-
vincialcities,therewas,underthesupremacy
ofrepublican
or
imperialRome,whatthe
English
call
self-government;
thatisto
say,public
officeswerefilledwithoutsalariesbyalarge
classof
well-to-do
people.Butbeginningwiththeestablishment ofthe
Empire,
functionsinthe
city
ofRomewhichuntilthenhadbeen
delegated
toaedilesandcensorswereturnedoverto
special
salariedfunctionaries,andthesewereassistedintheirworkbya
largepersonnel
ofemployees,whoalsoreceivedcompensation.
Superintendence
oftheprovisioning
ofthecitywasentrustedto
a
praefectusannonae,publicworkstocuratoresviarum,aquarum,
operumpublicorum,riparum
etalveiTiberis,surveillanceover
lightingandfirestoa
praefectusvigilumand
police
functionsto
a
praefectus
urbis.Thesystemthathadbeenintroducedinthe
capitalvery
soonspread
tothe
municipalities,whichonebyone
losttheiradministrativeautonomy.DowntoA,D.80electoral
campaigning
fortheposts
ofduumvirandaedilewasstillvery
keeninsome
municipalities. NotafewPompeian
frescoesshow
candidatesbeingrecommendedand
eulogized. Butas
early
as
theendofthefirstcentury
oftheempire,
aconsiderablediminu-
tiontakes
place
intheauthority
oftheduumviri
juris
dicundo
andtheaediles,towhomlocaladministration oftheindividual
citieshadbeenentrusted,theseofficialsbeinggraduallyreplaced
byemployees
oftheempire juridiri,correctores,curatoresrerum
publicarum. Slowastheevolutionmayhavebeen,bythetime
ofNervaandTrajanelectedfunctionarieswere
periodically
suspendedfromtheirpostsandtheirdutieswereentrustedfor
specifiedperiods
tocuratoressomething
liketheItalian
"
royal
commissioners"
(regicommissari)
ofthe
presentday.Atthe
sametimetherewasaslowgrowth
inthe
inspectorialauthority
anddirective
jurisdiction
ofthecorrector
provinciae
inthiscase
somethingequivalenttothemodernFrenchorItalian
prefect.
Finally,
attheendofthesecond
century,municipalautonomy
wasextinctalmosteverywhere,anda
giganticall-embracing
bureaucraticnetworkextendedoverthewhole
empire.
1
,
1
Marquardt,Manueldes
antiquiUsromaines,vol.I,pp.115,158,214,225,
andvol.II,pp.187I.

192. 11] GOVERNMENTALABSOLUTISM 1*49
Atthesametimethewell-to-domunicipalbourgeoisiedeclined.
Thatclassmadeuptheordodecurionwnandparticipated
inthe
government
ofthecities.Themenwhoheldthe
posts
of
duumvirandaedilewereselectedfromit.Theofficeofthe
curialisinvolvedaheavy
financial
responsibility,
sincetheclass
ofcurialesasawholegavebondforthepayment
ofthewhole
taxlaidupona
givencity.
Thisburdencontributedbeyond
a
doubttotheeconomicruinoftheRomanmiddleclass.Now
whenfiscalismandbureaucraticcentralizationhadcreatedthe
Roman
society
oftheLowEmpire
a
societymadeup
ofavery
smallclassof
largepropertyownersandhigh
officialsand
anotherverypopulous
classofwretchedlypoorpeople,whohad
nosocialimportancewhateverand,thoughfreeborn,readily
sanktothestatusoftenantswewitnesstheappearance
ofa
veryoriginalinstitution,anewbureaucraticorganthatwas
designed
tosafeguardtheinterestsoftheneedyclasses,andof
suchremnantsofthesmalllandownersassurvived,and
protect
themfromabuseby
thebureaucracy. Theofficeof
defensor
civitatiswascreatedbyValentinian Iintheyear364.This
"publicdefender"was
justanemployeeappointedexpresslyto
sheltertheurbanplebsfromthetyranny
of
highofficials,orofthe
richwhomadecommoncausewiththehigh
officials. His
par-
ticularfunctionwastoseetoitthatthecomplaints
ofthepoor
wereadmittedtotrialinaccordancewiththelawandthattheir
appealsreachedthefootofthethrone. But,in
spite
ofthebest
ofintentionsonthepart
ofthe
legislator,
thiseffortofbureau-
craticabsolutismtocorrectandcontrolitselfcanhavehadno
veryappreciable
effects.Theoldabusescontinued,andthe
forcesthatwere
leading
theempiretoitsdestructioncontinued
tooperatewiththesame
potency.
Themethodchosentocuretheevilswasnotthe
aptestimagi-
nable.A
high
officialisverylikely
tohavethe
points
ofview,
thepassions,theprejudices,
oftheclasstowhichhe
belongs,and
hissentiments,aswellashisinterests,willinclinehimtodeport
himselfinsuchaway
astowintheapproval
ofhisownclass
ratherthantheapproval
ofanotherclasstowhichhefeels
morallyand
intellectually
alienandwhichhemayalreadyhave
learnedtoabuseand
despise.
BureaucraticabsolutisminRussiahaditsmostancientroots
intheinfluenceofByzantium,whichmadeitselffeltatKiev

193. 150 JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
fromthetimeofVladimirtheGreatandhissuccessors. Itwas
certainly
reinforcedby
theterribleMongoldomination,which
supervened
inthethirteenthcenturyandwastoweighuponthe
countrydownintothesixteenth. InRussia
again,
thefamous
secretchancellery
thatwas
organizedby
theczarAlexistoward
themiddleoftheseventeenthcenturywasnothingmorethana
specialpolice
forcethattapereddirectlyupward
tothesovereign
andwasdesignedtokeepan
eyeonabuses,butalsoonattempts
atrevolt,among
the
high
officialsandtheboyarswhoconstituted,
whenallwassaidanddone,a
single
class.Nowthe"Third
Section,"sodeplorablyfamousunderthelastczars,stemmedin
adirectand
legitimate
linefromthissecretchancellery
ofAlexis.
Therewere
periods
ofcalmand
periods
ofrecrudescence inthe
activity
ofthe"ThirdSection."Manytimesa-bolishedinname,
itwasalways
retainedinfact;and*itappearsthat
actually,
far
from
eradicating venalityand
corruptionfromtheRussian
bureaucracy,
itservedto
intensify
the
oppressionthatthe
bureaucracy
inflictedontherestofthe
country.
IntheUnitedStates,ontheotherhand,oneseestheinability
ofademocracy
tocontrolandlimititself. Itcannotbedenied
thattheframersoftheConstitution of1787took
greatcareto
embodythe
principle
ofchecksandbalancesinthatdocument
inordertoachievea
perfectequilibriumbetweenthevarious
powersandthevarious
politicalorgans.Giventhe
thoroughly
democraticbasisofthegovernment,theabsolutelackofany
powerthatdoesnotemanate
directlyfrom
popularsuffrage,
it
ishardtobelievethatanything
bettercouldhavebeen
imagined.
TheSenate,tobeginwith,has
greaterandmorereal
powersthan
theupper
housesinEuropeusuallyhave. It
actuallypartici-
pates
intheexerciseofexecutivepower,and,expressingastill
lively
senseoftheindependence
ofthe
separatestates,it
enjoys
greatpublicprestige.Butthenagainthe
presidenthasaveto
power,andheusesit
freely.Hecannotbecompelledto
resign
byavoteofthelowerhouse.Heconcentrates all
governmental
responsibility
inhisownperson
foraperiod
offour
years.Asan
organ
ofjuridicaldefensetheAmerican
presidency
isfar
superior
tothecabinetsinthe
parliamentary
countriesof
Europe,
since
European
cabinetshavelessauthoritythantheAmericanpresident
andmoreneedofkowtowing
toassemblymenand
politiciansthan
he.Sincethey
arecollectivebodies,theirmembersneverfeel

194. 11] SUFFRAGEANDSOCIALFORCES 151
thepressure
of
personalresponsibilitywhichtheAmericanpresi-
dentfeels.Tothisbreadthof
powers,andtothe
feeling
of
personalresponsibility
thatoftendevelopswithtenurein
high
office,isduethefactthatduringthelastcenturyanumberof
presidents,
forexampleJohnson,HayesandCleveland,have
stoodoutwithstubbornnessand
courageagainst
theworst
excessesofthe
partiesthatelectedthem.
Johnson(1865-1869)cametothepresidencyonthedeathof
Lincoln.Hesteadfastlyopposedhandingoverthedefeated
Southto
pillagingbythepettyRepublicanpoliticianswhocame
tobeknownas
"carpetbaggers." HayeswasalsoaRepublican.
Thoughhehadcomeintopowerthrough
a
questionablejuggling
ofvotes,whichwasupheldbyadecisionoftheSupremeCourt,
heatonceputanendtothe
reign
ofplunderandterrorthathad
continuedfor
eightyears
intheDemocraticstatesoftheSouth
duringthedoubletermofthe
greatlyoverestimated Grant.
Cleveland,aDemocraticpresident
electedin1884,among
other
highly
meritorious acts,hadthe
courage
toretaininofficea
numberofRepublican
officialswhomhispartisanswished^to
have
dismissed a
high-minded
efforttoabolishtheJacksoniansystem
wherebythepartythatwasvictoriousatthe
pollstookoverall
remunerativeposts.Asgovernor
ofNewYorkState,Cleveland
hadbecomefamousthroughasuccessful
fightwiththeTweed
Ring
thatwas"bossing"
thealdermanicchamberofNewYork
City.
But,this,soto
say,formal
perfection
ofmechanisminfederal
andstategovernments
has
only
toanextentmadeup
foradefect
whichisfundamentalinthewhole
politicalandadministrative
system
oftheAmericanUnion,andthatdefecthasbeen
greatly
aggravatedbyatendencywhichbegantomanifestitselfbetween
1820and1850andhasnowbecome
virtuallycountrywide.We
refertothefactthat
suffragehasbeenmadeequalanduniversal
inalmostalltheAmericanstates.
Intheearlydays
oftheUnionthe
righttovotewas
generally
subjecttoaman'sstatusasa
taxpayer. Indeedin
earlydays,
intheNewEnglandstates,aPuritansystemprevailedwhereby
the
righttovotewasconferredonmembersof
religiouscongre-
gations.Thenthe
propertyqualificationwasintroducedinthose
statesaswell.Highpropertyqualificationswerealso
required
for
eligibility
forelectiontolocalstate
legislaturesandtothe

195. JURIDICALDEFENSE [CHAP.V
governorship. Equalsuffragebegantobeintroduced inthe
earlynineteenthcentury
inthewesternstates,whereeverybody
wasarecentimmigrantandalandowner.Thenitwasadopted
forallwhitesinthesouthernstates,and
finally
itwasextended
tothestateofNewYorkandtoNewEngland.
Thisevolution
wascompletedaround1850,undertheinfluenceofnewimmi-
grantsandFrenchdemocraticideas.Negroes,
asiswellknown,
didnotreceivethevoteuntil1865.Simultaneouslywiththe
broadening
of
suffragecamethegrowth
invogue
ofthe
principles
ofdirectelectionandlimitedtenurefor
judges.Again
theold
statesofNewEnglandheldout
longestagainst
thiscurrent,
buttheytoowerecarriedawayby
itintheend.
1
Asaresultofthismovement,a
single
classofelectorsnow
castsitsvotesinallelections. Judges
inthevariousstateswere
onceappointed
forlife,andtheappointmentsweremadebythe
respectivegovernors.Theofficeofjudge
hasnowbecome
directlyelectiveandtemporary.
Inthiswaythesameelectoral
cliqueinvariablychoosesfederalandlocalauthorities. Gover-
nors,judgesandcongressmenareinthelastanalysisinstruments
ofthesameinfluences,whichbecometheabsoluteandirre-
sponsiblemastersofawholecountry
allthemoresincethe
American
politiciansmakeabusinessofelectionsandarehighly
skilledintheartofmanufacturing"machines"and
"rings."
Underthissystem,
inotherwords,allthepowersthatshould
balanceandsupplementeachotheremanatefroma
singlecaucus
orelectoralcommittee.
But,itmight
be
objected,underasystem
ofuniversal
suffrage
all
political
forcesandinfluencescanberepresented
inthe
governing
classin
proportion
totheirnumericalimportance,and
itthereforebecomesimpossible
foraminority
tomonopolize
power
inthestatetoitsownadvantageandsotomakethestate
aninstrumentofitsownviewsandpassions.
This
objection
reflectsatheorythatisstillmuchinvoguebut
whichwehavenotbeenacceptingandinfacthavebeen
indirectly
combatting
allalong
inthese
pages.Wehadbetterstop,there-
fore,anddealwithit
directly,
1
Seaman,TheAmericanSystemofOovernment, pp.160-164;Jannet,Le
istituzioni
politick
esociali
degli
StatiUnitid'America,partI,chaps.
IIand
VII.Tocqueville'sworthasanobserverhasprobablybeensomewhatexagger-
ated.Hesaw
only
thebeginnings
ofthisdemocraticmovementandhadno
meansofscrutinizinga
fullytriumphantdemocracy
intheUnitedStates.

196. CHAPTERVI
SUFFRAGEANDSOCIALFORCES
1.Many
doctrinesthatadvocatelibertyandequality,
asthe
lattertermsarestillcommonlyunderstood doctrineswhichthe
eighteenthcenturythoughtout,whichthenineteenthperfected
andtriedtoapplyandwhichthetwentiethwillprobablydispense
withormodifysubstantially aresummedupandgivenconcrete
forminthetheorythatviewsuniversalsuffrageasthefoundation
ofallsoundgovernment.
Itiscommonly
believedthattheonly
free,equitableand
legitimategovernment
isagovernment
that
isbaseduponthewillofthemajority,themajorityby
itsvote
delegating
itspowers
foraspecifiedlength
oftimetomenwho
represent
it.Downtoafewgenerationsagoandeventoday
intheeyesofmanywritersandstatesmen allflawsin
repre-
sentativegovernmentwereattributedtoincompleteormistaken
applications
ofthe
principles
ofrepresentationand
suffrage.
LouisBlanc,Lamartineandindeedallthedemocraticwritersin
Francebefore1848ascribedthe
allegedcorruption
oftheJuly
MonarchyandallthedrawbacksoftheFrench
parliamentary
systemtointerferencebythemonarchwiththeelectivebodies
and,especially,tolimitedsuffrage. Similarbeliefswerewidely
currentin
Italydownto
thirtyyearsago.Forinstance,they
formed,asthey
stillform,thegroundwork
oftheMazzinian
school.
f
A
following
so
large,
beliefssowidespread,arenottobedis-
creditedinapage
ortwo.Weshallnot,therefore,attempta
systematicrefutationofthetheoriesonwhichuniversal
suffrage
isbased.
1
Weshallsimply
refertosomeofthemainconsidera-
tionsthatmost
seriouslyunderminethefoundationsonwhich
universal
suffrage
asanintellectualedificerests.Wedeemit
sufficientforourpurposesheretodemonstratethattheassump-
1
Independently oftheallusionswehave
alreadymadetothismatterinthis
work,wehavediscussedthe
suffrageprobleminother
writings,notablyin
Teoricadeigoverni
e
governoparlamentareandLecostituzionimoderne.
158

197. 154 SUFFRAGEANDSOCIALFORCES [CHAP.VI
tionthattheelectedofficialisthe
mouthpiece
ofthe
majority
ofhiselectorsisasarulenotconsistentwiththefacts;andwe
believethatthiscanbeprovedby
factsofordinaryexperience
andby
certain
practicalobservationsthatanyonecanmakeon
themannerinwhichelectionsareconducted.
Whathappens
inotherformsofgovernment namely,thatan
organizedminorityimposes
itswillonthe
disorganizedmajority
happens
alsoandto
perfection,whatevertheappearances
to
thecontrary,underthe
representativesystem.Whenwesay
thatthevoters"choose"their
representative,weareusinga
language
thatisveryinexact.Thetruthisthatthe
representa-
tivehas
himself
electedbythevoters,and,ifthatphraseshould
seemtooinflexibleandtooharshtofitsomecases,wemight
qualify
itbysayingthathis
friends
havehimelected.Inelections,
asinallothermanifestations ofsociallife,thosewhohavethewill
and,especially,themoral,intellectualandmaterialmeansto
forcetheirwilluponotherstaketheleadovertheothersand
commandthem.
The
politicalmandatehasbeenlikenedtothepower
of
attorney
thatisfamiliarinprivatelaw.Butinprivaterelationships,
delegations
ofpowersandcapacitiesalwayspresupposethatthe
principalhasthebroadestfreedomin
choosing
his
representative.
NOTVin
practice,
inpopularelections,thatfreedomofchoice,
thougHcompletetheoretically, necessarilybecomes null,not
tosay
ludicrous. Ifeachvotergave
hisvotetothecandidateof
hisheart,wemaybesurethatinalmostallcasesthe
only
result
wouldbeawide
scattering
ofvotes.Whenverymany
willsare
involved,choiceisdeterminedbythemostvariouscriteria,almost
allofthem
subjective,andifsuchwillswerenotcoordinatedand
organized
itwouldbe
virtuallyimpossible
forthemtocoincidein
thespontaneous
choiceofoneindividual. Ifhisvoteistohave
anyefficacy
atall,therefore,eachvoterisforcedtolimithis
choicetoaverynarrowfield,inotherwordstoachoiceamong
thetwoorthree
personswhohavesomechanceof
succeeding;and
theonlyoneswhohaveanychanceofsucceeding
arethosewhose
candidacies arechampionedbygroups,bycommittees,by
organized
minorities. Inordertosimplifythesituationfor
pur-
poses
of
proof,wehaveassumedauninominal
ballot,whereone
nameonly
istobevotedfor.Butthe
greatmajority
ofvoters
willnecessarilyhaveaverylimitedfreedominthechoiceoftheir

198. 2] REPRESENTATIONANDSUFFRAGE 155
representative,andtheinfluenceofcommitteeswill
necessarily
bepreponderant,whateverthesystem
of
balloting.Whenthe
listballotisusedandthevotervotesforalistofcandidates, it
turnsoutthatthenumberofcandidateswithsomechanceof
succeeding
islessthandoublethenumberof
representatives to
beelected.
Howdothese
organized
minoritiesformaboutindividual
candidatesorgroups
ofcandidatesP
1
Asaruletheyarebasedon
considerations ofpropertyandtaxation,oncommonmaterial
interests,ontiesoffamily,class,religion,
sector
politicalparty.
Whethertheircomponentpersonnelsbegood
orbad,therecan
benodoubtthatsuchcommittees andtherepresentativeswho
arenowtheirtools,nowtheirleadersor"bosses"
representthe
organization
ofaconsiderablenumberofsocialvaluesandforces.
In
practice,therefore,the
representativesystem
resultsnotatall
ingovernmentbythemajority;
itresultsintheparticipation
of
acertainnumberofsocialvaluesintheguidance
ofthestate,
inthefactthatmanypoliticalforceswhichinanabsolutestate,
astateruledbyabureaucracy alone,wouldremaininertand
withoutinfluenceupongovernmentbecome
organizedandso
exertaninfluenceongovernment.
.In
examining
therelationsbetweenthe
representative sys-
temand
juridicaldefense,anumberofdistinctionsandobserva-
tionshavetobeborneinmind.
The
greatmajority
ofvotersare
passive,
itistrue,inthesense
thattheyhavenotsomuchfreedomtochoosetheir
representa-
tivesasalimited
right
toexerciseanoptionamong
anumberof
candidates. Nevertheless, limitedasitmaybe,that
capacity
hastheeffectof
obligingcandidatesto
try
towina
weight
of
votesthatwillserveto
tip
thescalesintheirdirection,sothat
theymakeevery
efforttoflatter,wheedleandobtainthegood
will
ofthevoters.Inthisway
certainsentimentsand
passions
ofthe
"commonherd"cometohavetheirinfluenceonthemental
attitudesofthe
representativesthemselves,andechoesofa
widely
disseminatedopinion,
orofany
seriousdiscontent,easilycometo
beheardinthe
highestspheres
ofgovernment.
1
ForadetaileddiscussionofthisproblemseeMosca,Lecostituzionimoderne,
chap.
III.

199. 156 SUFFRAGEANDSOCIALFORCES [CHAP.VI
Itmaybeobjected
thatthisinfluenceofthemajority
ofvoters
is
necessarily
confinedtothebroadlinesof
politicalpolicyand
makesitself-feltonlyonaveryfew
topics
ofaverygeneral
character,andthatwithinlimitsasnarrowasthateveninabso-
lutegovernments
the
ruling
classesareobliged
totakeaccount
ofmasssentiments. Infactthemost
despotic
ofgovernments
hasto
proceedverycautiouslywhenitcomestoshockingthe
sentiments,convictions or
prejudices
ofthemajority
ofthe
governed,
orto
requiring
ofthat
majoritypecuniary
sacrifices
towhichtheyarenotaccustomed. Butwarinessaboutgiving
offensewillbemuch
greaterwheneverysinglerepresentative,
whosevotemaybeusefulor
necessarytotheexecutivebranch
ofgovernment,
knowsthatthediscontentofthemassesmayat
almostanymoment
bringaboutthetriumph
ofarival.Weare
awarethatthisisatwo-edgedargument.Themassesarenot
alwaysany
wiserin
discerningand
protecting
theirinterests
thantheirrepresentatives are;andweareacquaintedwith
regions
where
public
discontenthascreated
greater
obstaclesto
desirablereformsthanthemistakesof
parliamentaryrepresenta-
tivesandministries.
Therepresentativesystem,furthermore,has
widely
different
effectsaccording
asthemolecularcomposition
oftheelectoral
body
varies. Ifallthevoterswhohavesomeinfluence,because
ofeducationorsocial
position,
aremembersofoneoranotherof
theorganizedminorities,andifonlyamassofpoorand
ignorant
citizensareleftoutsideofthem,itis
impossible
forthelatter
t^>
exercisetheir
right
ofoptionandcontrolinany
realoreffective
manner. Inthesecircumstances, ofthevarious
organized
minoritiesthatare
disputing
thefield,thatone
infalliblywins
whichspendsmostmoney
orliesmost
persuasively.
Thesamethinghappens
if
persons
of
abilityandeconomic
independencerepresentonlyaslenderminoritywithintheelect-
inggroupandsohavenowayofinfluencingthevoteofmajorities
directly.Then,asordinarilyhappens
in
largecities,the
majori-
tiesdonotfeelthemoralandmaterialinfluenceofthe"better
elements."Butwhenthe
**
betterelements"dosucceedin
withdrawingthemajorityfromtheinfluenceofcommitteesand
"wardheelers"andwinitsvote,theircontrolovertheconduct
oftheorganized
minoritiesbecomeseffective. Itfollows,there-
fore,thatthecomparison
ofthemeritsand
platforms
ofthevan-

200. 2] MAJORITYGOVERNMENT 157
ouscandidateswillbe
relatively
seriousanddispassionateonly
whenelectoralforcesarenot
entirelyunderthecontrolofmen
whomakea
regularprofession
ortradeof
electioneering.
Thereal
juridicalsafeguard
in
representativegovernments
lies
inthe
public
discussionthattakes
place
withinrepresentative
assemblies. Intothoseassembliesthemost
disparatepolitical
forcesandelementsmaketheirway,andtheexistenceofasmall
independentminority
isoftenenough
tocontroltheconductofa
largemajorityand,especially,topreventthebureaucraticorgani-
zationfrombecomingomnipotent. Butwhen,beyondbeing
organs
ofdiscussionand
publicizing,
assembliescometocon-
centrateallthe
prestigeandpower
oflegitimateauthority
intheir
ownhands,as
regularlyhappens
in
parliamentarygovernments,
thenin
spite
ofthecurbof
public
discussionthewholeadministra-
tiveand
judiciarymachinefallspreytothe
irresponsibleand
anonymoustyranny
ofthosewhowinintheelectionsand
speak
inthenameofthe
people,andwe
getoneoftheworsttypes
of
politicalorganization
thattherealmajority
inamodern
society
can
possiblybecalledupon
totolerate.
1
Ingovernmentsthatarebasedverylargelyonthe
representa-
tive
principle
thereferendum isinsome
respectsa
fairlyeffective
instrument.By
itthemassoflikesanddislikes,enthusiasms
and
angers,which,whenthey
are
trulywidespreadand
truly
general,
constitutewhatmayquiteplausiblybecalled
public
opinion,
isenabledtoreact
againsttheconductand
enterprise
ofthegoverningminority. Inareferendum itisaquestion
notofmakingachoice,oranelection,butof
pronouncinga
"yes"
ora"no"upona
specificquestion.No
singlevote,
therefore,islost,andeach
singlevotehasits
practicalimportance
independently
ofanycoordinationor
organizationalong
lines
ofsect,party
orcommittee. However,thedemocratic ideal
ofmajoritygovernment
isnotrealizedevenbythereferendum.
Governing
isnotaltogether
amatterof
allowing
or
prohibiting
modifications inconstitutions orlaws. Itis
quite
asmucha
matterofmanaging
thewhole
military,financial,judiciaryand
administrativemachine,orof
influencing
thosewhomanage
it.
Then
again,evenifthereferendumdoesservetolimitthe
arbitrarinessofthegoverningclass,itisnolesstruethatoftenit
seriouslyhampersimprovements
inthe
politicalorganism.
1
SeeSeamanandMosca;alsoSchSrer,LaDemocratic etlaFrance.

201. 158 SUFFRAGEANDSOCIALFORCES [CHAP.VI
Suchimprovements
willalwaysbemorereadilyappreciated
byagoverningclass,howeverselfishandcorrupt
itmaybe,
thanbytheill-informedmajority
ofthegoverned.
Inmany
countries,forinstance,ifincreasesintaxesweretobesubmitted
toreferendum,theywouldalwaysbe
rejected,
eventhough
theywereofthemost
unqualifiedurgencyandwouldbeofthe
mostobviousbenefittothe
public.
3.A
questionthatis
vigorouslydebatedamong
writersonthe
socialsciencesistheextenttowhichthestateshouldinterfere
inthevariousdepartments
ofsociallife,andmore
specifically
inbusiness. Thisprobleminvolves,really,notonequestion
butagroup
of
questions,andwehopethatbyapplying
the
theoriesthathavebeensetforthin
previouschapterswecan
help
todispelcertainambiguitiesandmisconceptions which
havesofarhamperedaclearandsound
understanding
ofthose
questions,
and
prevented,
incertaincasesatleast,the
reaching
of
satisfactory
conclusions.
Stillverywidespread
isthe
feelingthat
societyandthestate
aretwoseparateanddistinctentities,and
people
oftengo
so
farastoconsiderthem
antagonistic.Nowitis
necessary,
firstofall,todecideveryclearlywhatismeantby"society"
andwhatismeantby
"state." Ifwekeeptolegalcodesand
concepts
ofadministrative law,thestateis
certainlyadistinct
entitywhichis
capable
of
existing
ina
legal
senseandwhich
represents
theinterestsofthegroup
asawholeandadministers
the
public
demesne.Assuchan
entity,thestatehasinterests,
anditsinterestsmaycomeintoconflictwiththeinterestsof
private
individualsandwiththeinterestsofother
juridical
entities.
Politicallyspeaking,however,thestateis
jiothing
morethanthe
organization
ofallsocialforcesthathavea
political
significance.
Inotherwords,itisthesumtotalofallthe
elementsinasocietythataresuitedto
exercising political
functionsandhavetheabilityandthewillto
participate
in
them.Inthatsense,thestateistheresultantofthecoordina-
tionanddisciplining
ofthoseelements.
Thatisthepoint
ofviewfromwhichthestate"shouldbe
lookeduponby
studentsofthesocialsciences.The
legalistic
tendency
toconsider
politicalproblemspurelyand
exclusively
fromthe
standpoint
notsomuchoflawasofcourt
practice

202. 3] GOVERNMENTCONTROL 159
involvesanuglyanda
dangerouserror,whichstill
persists
in
ouragethough
ithasall
alonghamperedanadequateunder-
standing
ofsuch
problems.Fromourpoint
ofviewtherecan
benoantagonismbetweenstateandsociety.Thestateisto
belookeduponmerely
asthatpart
ofsocietywhich
performs
the
political
function. Considered inthis
light,
allquestions
touching
interferenceornoninterferencebythestatecometo
assumeanew
aspect. Insteadof
askingwhatthelimitsof
stateactivityought
tobe,wetrytofindoutwhatthebesttype
of
politicalorganization is,whichtype,
inotherwords,enables
alltheelementsthathavea
politicalsignificance
inagiven
society
tobebestutilizedand
specialized,bestsubjectedto
reciprocal
controlandtothe
principle
ofindividual
responsibility
forthethingsthataredoneinthe
respectivedomains.
Whenpeople
contraststatemanagementwith
private
initia-
tivethey
areoftenmerelycomparingworkdonebyabureaucracy
withworkthatmightbedoneby
other
directing
elementsin
society.Thelattermay,
infact,insomecases
actuallyhavean
officialstatuswithoutnecessarilybeingpaidemployees.
In
societiesofourEuropeantype,however
extensivelybureaucra-
tizedtheymaybe,thebureaucracy
isnotthestatebutonlya
part
ofit.When,therefore, itissaid,as
peoplecommonly
say,
thatin
Italy,FranceorGermanythestatedoeseverything
andabsorbseverything,thedictumhastobetakeninthesense
thattheFrench,ItalianorGermanbureaucracieshavemany
morefunctionsthanthebureaucracies ofothercountries of
England
ortheUnitedStates,letus
say.Inthesameway,
whenwespeak
ofthefamousEnglish"self-government,"
whenwesaythatthe
Englishpeople"governsitself,"wemust
notimagine,
aswemightbetempted
todoifwekept
tothe
literalmeaning
ofthephrase,thatontheContinenttheFrench,
theItalians,theGermansdonot"governthemselves"but
entrustthemanagement
oftheirrespectivepoliticalandadmin-
istrativeinstitutionstoothers.Wemustunderstand
simply
thatinEngland
certainposts
areentrustedtopersonswhoare
electedbypopular
voteorareevenappointedbythegovern-
mentbutwhoinanyeventarechosenfromamongtheprominent
people
ofthevariousdistricts,whoarenotpaid
fortheirservices
andwhoarenottransferableatwill,whereasthesamepostsare
filledinothercountriesinEuropebysalariedemployees.

203. 160 SUFFRAGEANDSOCIALFORCES [CHAP.VI
4.Aswehaveseen(chap.Ill, 8),statebureaucraciesand
theassembliesthatwieldsupremepoliticalpowerhave
partici-
patedandstill
participate,
inonecountry
oranother,inthe
management
ofcertainbranchesofeconomicactivity,
forexample
inbanking
orintheconstructionandmaintenance ofpublic
works;butmanagement
ofeconomicproductionhasneverbeen
completelybureaucratized inanysocietythathasattained
evenamoderatelyhigh
levelof
prosperityandcivilization.
Inthatbranchof
activitymanagementhasbeenandstillis
onthewholeentrustedtoelementswhodo,tobesure,forma
part
ofthe
ruling
forcesof
societyandsoarereal
politicalforces,
butwhodonotappearonthe
payrolls
of
public
administration.
In
general
theinterventionineconomic
enterprise
ofelements
thatexercise
strictly political,
inotherwords
legislative,
administrative, or
judiciary,
controlover
society,hasbeen
harmful,anda
large
shareinthepauperizationthatisafflict-
ing
anumberofmoderncountriesmustbeascribedtothat
interference.
1
In
general,
thosewhoinsiston
limitingtheactivitiesofthe
stateshouldtakeastheirguidetheverysimpleandverypractical
principlethatin
everybranchofsocial
activity
ineducation,
religion,poorrelief,militaryorganization
ortheadministration
ofjusticemanagement
isalwaysnecessary,andthatman-
agerial
functionshavetobeentrustedtoa
special
classthathas
theabilitiesrequired
for
performingthem.
Nowwhenonesetsouttowithdrawoneoftheabove-mentioned
functionsinwholeorin
partfrombureaucraticmanagement,
orfromcontrolby
electivebodies,itmustbeborneinmind
thattherehastobepresentwithinthe
societyaclassof
persons
whopossess
the
capacities,
inotherwordshavethemoraland
intellectual trainingand letusnot
forgettheeconomic
resources
required
for
performing
thenewtaskwhichistobe
turnedovertothem. Itisnotenough,oftentimes,thata
societycontainelementsthataresuitableforthe
givenpurpose.
Theseelementshavetobewellchosenandwellcoordinated
otherwisetheexperimentmay
failorresultin
positiveharm.
1
Seeagainchap.Ill, 8,wherewementionedsuchevilsastheexcessive
developmentofpublicworks,economicprotectionism,the
illegalorextralegal
influenceexercisedover
politicalauthoritiesby
directorsofbanksand
great
corporations,andtheresultsofgovernmentalinterferencein
banking,

204. 4] GOVERNMENTCONTEOL 161
Wesuspect,
forinstance,thatthathasbeentherealreasonwhy
thejurysystem
hasnotworkedsovery
wellinmanycountries
incontinentalEurope. Jurors,or"layjudges"
as
theyhave
beencalled,representtheintervention intheadministration
ofthepenallawofsocialelementsthatareforeigntothe
regular
magistracy. Butjurypanelsarefartooinclusiveforalljury-
mentobe
intellectuallyand
morallyequal
totheirtasks.Fur-
thermore,toolittledistinction
goes
totheofficeof
juror
tobring
jurymensuch
gratification
of
personalpride
astomakethem
acquirethat
publicspirit,thataristocratic sense,aswehave
calledit,whichis
necessarytoraiseabovetheaveragethe
charactersofthementowhomsuchdelicatedutiesareentrusted.
Thesamemightbesaidof
justices
ofthepeace,
citizenarbitrators
andreferees,charityandreliefcommissioners and,asregards
Italy
in
particular,theholdersofcertainotherofficesthatare
entrustedtopersonswhoarenotmembersofthebureaucracy.
Itmightbeobjected,
ofcourse,thatthechoicesofincumbents
fortheofficesin
question
areoftenmade,moreorless
directly,
by
localelectivebodies.
Ontheotherhand,thosewhofavorbroaderactivitiesonthe
part
ofthestateought
toconsiderthe
practicaland
positive
significance
oftheterm"state,"stripping
itof
everything
aboutitthatincommonparlance
is
vague,indeterminate or,
wemightalmost
say,magicaland
supernatural. Ofteninour
day
stateownership
orcontrolisinvokedasaremedy
forall
theevilsof
privatecompetition
for
greed,
forthepassion
for
power,
fortheexcessesofindividualism or,more
exactly,
of
selfishness.Thestate,itissaid,istheorgan
of
righteousness
andmoralprogress.
Itought
toexaltthehumbleandabase
theproud.
Freeofallvulgarpreoccupations
of
personal
interest,itought
tosuppress
all
iniquities,provide
forallmaterial
andmoralneedsandsetmankindontheflowerypathways
of
justice,peaceanduniversalharmony.
1
Howmuchofits
confidencethi^soaring
trustwouldloseif,insteadof
thinking
ofthestateasanabstract
entity,
assomethingforeigntothereal
world,oneweretobear
clearly
inmindthatin
realitythestate
is
just
theconcreteorganization
ofa
largenumberoftheelements
*Qf.Dupont-White,L'Indwidu etFStat,p.
17fc:"TheStateismanminus
passion,manatanaltitudewherehecomesintotouchwithtruthitself,wherehe
associatesonlywithGodandhisconscience."

205. 16 SUFFRAGEANDSOCIALFORCES [CHAP.VI
thatruleinagivensociety,
thatwhenwespeak
ofthestate's
influencewemeantheinfluencethatistobeexertedbygovern-
mentofficialsandgovernment
clerks!They
areallvery
fine
fellows,tobesure,buthowevermuchtheymayhavebeen
improvedorchastenedby
theirsenseofresponsibility,by
discipline
or
pride
ofoffice,theyneverthelesspossess
allhuman
capacitiesandallhumanfrailties.Likeallmen,theyhave
eyestheycanopen
orshutatwillandmouthsthatcanon
occasion
speak,besilentoreveneat.
1
Theytoocansinthrough
pride,sloth,cupidityand
vanity.Theytoohavetheirsym-
pathiesand
antipathies,
their
friendshipsandaversions,their
passionsandinterestsandamongtheirinterestsaninterest
inkeeping
theirjobsorevenin
slipping
intobetteronesifthe
occasionoffers.
1
[Ital.mangiare,toeat,take"graft'*].

206. CHAPTERVII
CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS
1.Buffonreportsthatifacertainnumberof
stags
areshut
up
inaparkthey
will
inevitablydivideintotwoherdswhichwill
alwaysbeinconflictwitheachother.Aninstinctofverymuch
thesamesortseemstomakeitsinfluence feltamongmen.
Human
beingshaveanaturalinclinationtoward
struggle,
but
itisonlysporadicallythatthe
struggleassumesanindividual
character,thatonemanisatwarwithanother.Evenwhenhe
fights,manremainspreeminentlyasocialanimal.
Ordinarily,
therefore,weseemenformingintogroups,eachgroupmadeupof
leadersandfollowers.Theindividualswhomakeupagroup
are
consciousofa
specialbrotherhoodandonenesswitheachother
andventtheirpugnacious
instinctsonmembersofother
groups.
Thisinstinctofherdingtogetherand
fightingwithotherherds
istheprime
basisand
original
foundationoftheexternalconflicts
thatoccurbetweendifferentsocieties;butitalsounderliesthe
formationofallthedivisionsandsubdivisions allthefactions,
sects,partiesand,inacertainsense,thechurches thatarise
withinagivensocietyandoccasionmoraland,sometimes,
physical
conflicts. In
very
smalland
primitivesocieties,where
thereis
greatmoralandintellectualunityandindividualmem-
bersallhavethesamecustoms,thesamebeliefs,thesame
superstitions,theinstinctmentionedmayalonesufficetokeep
discordantandwarlikehabitsalive.TheArabsandtheKabyles
inBarbarysharethesame
religious
beliefs.Theyhavethe
samedegreeandthesametype
ofintellectualandmoralculture.
Yet,beforethecoming
oftheFrench,whentheywerenotfighting
against
theinfidelsin
AlgeriaandTunis,againsttheTurksin
Tripoli
or
againstthesultaninMorocco,theywerefighting
amongthemselves. Eachconfederation oftribesstoodin
rivalry
oratopenwarwithitsneighborconfederation. There
wasdiscordwithineachconfederationandoften"gunpowder
wasmadetotalk"betweensistertribes.Withinthetribethe
168

207. 164 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
variousdouarswereatswords'
points,andoftenthedouarwas
splitbyquarrelsbetweentheseparatefamilies.
1
Atothertimes,whensocialenvironments areverycircum-
scribed,internalconflictsariseamongminutesectionsof
fairly
civilizedpeoples.Theremaybenomoralandintellectual
differencesbetweentheenemypartiesto
justifysuchconflicts,
orevenifsuchdifferencesexisttheyareusedasmere
pretexts.
Sotheterms"Guelph"and"Ghibelline"
suppliedpretextand
occasion,ratherthancause,forintestine
struggles
inthemedieval
Italiancommunes;andthesamemaybesaidoftheterms
"liberal," "clerical,""radical"and"socialist,"whichwere
bandiedaboutby
thefactionsthatusedtocompete
foradminis-
trative
posts
inthelittletownsofsouthern
Italy.Atmoments
of
exceptional intellectualapathy,pretextseventhemost
frivolouspretextsmayoccasionseriousconflictswithin
great
andhighly
civilizedsocieties. InByzantium,duringandafter
the
reign
ofJustinian,the
city
streetswereoftenstainedwith
bloodbystrugglesbetweentwo
parties,theGreensandtheBlues
(the"Prasinians"andthe"Venetians").Nowthose"gangs"
originated
inthecircus,thespectatorstaking
sideswiththe
charioteerswhoracedunderthetwodifferentcolors.Eventu-
ally,
tobesure,onefactionoranotheratcourtwould
try
to
makeuseoftheoneortheotherofthe
gangs.NowtheGreens,
nowtheBlues,enjoyedimperialfavor,sothatthe
partiescameto
acquireacertain
politicalimportance,withoutever
quitelosing
theirstatusaspersonal"sets,"or
gangs.Somethingremotely
similarwentoninanumberofItaliancitiesbefore1848,when
menofthe
youngergenerationwouldformhostile
cliquesand
factionsaboutthemeritsofsomeprimadonnaorballet
girl.
.Insmallsocietiesasin
large,whenthehunger
forconflict
findsaventin
foreign
rivalriesandwarsitistoanextentappeased
andsoless
readily
seeks
expression
incivildiscordsorinternal
strife.On
closelyscrutinizingthenatureofthe
politicalparties,
the
philosophical sects,the
religious
factionsthateverywhere
developwithincivilizedsocieties,oneseesthatthe
pugnacious
1
In
AlgeriaandTunistheconsolidation ofFrenchruleendedtheday
of
revoltsagainstforeignconquerors,andallbutstoppedinternalwarsbetweenthe
varioustribes.Thesame
thing,onemayventureto
predict,willeventually
happen
inTripoliandCyrenaicaand,perhapssomewhatlater,inMorocco.

208. 2] SECTARIANISM 165
instinctofherdingand
fighting,whichisthemostprimitiveand,
sotosay,
themost"animal"oftheinstincts,ismixedwithother
intellectualand
psychological
factorsthataremorecomplexand
morehuman. In
large,highly
civilizedsocieties,whichare
heldtogethernotonlybymoralandintellectual affinitiesbut
alsobystrongandcomplicated politicalorganizations,amuch
greaterspeculativeandaffectivefreedom ispossiblethanin
smalland
looselyorganized
societies. Ina
greatpeople,
there-
fore,politicaland
religious
conflictsarefurtherdeterminedby
the
largenumberofcurrentsofideas,beliefsandattachments
thatsucceedin
assertingthemselves bytheformation of
differentintellectualandmoralcrucibleswithinwhichthecon-
victionsandsentiments of
single
individuals are
variously
fusedand
alloyed.
SoweseeBuddhismdevelopingwithinBrahman
society;
prophetismand,lateron,thevariousschoolsoftheSadducees,
theEssenesandtheZealots,keepingthelifeofIsraelinferment;
Stoicism,Manichaeism, ChristianityandthecultofMithras
competing
forsupremacy
intheHelleno-Romanworld
;Mazdaism
amodification ofManichaeism withamarkedtendency
towardcommunism inwealthandwomen
sweepingthrough
thePersiaoftheSassanids;Mohammedanism
starting
inArabia
and
spreadingrapidly
intoAsia,AfricaandEurope.Phenomena
altogethersimilar,thoughmoldedtothemorerationalisticchar-
acterofmodernEuropeancivilization,aretheliberalismand
radicalism ofthenineteenthcenturyand,betteryet,social
democracy, whichstartedalmostcontemporaneously with
liberalismbuthasmaintained its
proselytingefficiencylonger,
so
thatitwillcontinuetobeoneofthemost
significant
historical
factorsinthetwentiethcentury
asitwasinthenineteenth.
Besidesthemovementswehavejustnamed,itwouldbe
easy
totracea
greatmany
otherminorcurrentsinthehistory
of
civilized
peoples,
doctrineswhichhavebeenmoreorlessfortu-
nateandhavehadmoreorlesswidespreadvogues,butwhich
inanyeventhavehelped
tofeedtheinstinctsforcontention,
struggle,
self-sacrificeand
persecution
thatareso
deeply
rooted
intheheartsofmen.
Allthesedoctrines, allthesecurrentsofideas,sentiments,
convictions,seemto
originate
insomewhatthesameway,and
they
allseemto
present
certainconstantcharacteristics intheir

209. 106 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VO
earlybeginnings.Thehuman
being
sofeebleacreaturein
dealingwithhisown
passionsandthe
passions
ofothers,often
moreselfishthanneed
requires,
asarulevain,envious,petty
veryrarely
failstokeeptwo
greataspirations
beforehis
eyes,
twosentimentsthatennoble,upliftand
purify
him.Heseeks
thetruth,heloves
justice;andsometimesheisabletosacrifice
tothosetwoidealssome
part
ofthesatisfactionhewouldother-
wise
give
tohis
passionsandhismaterialinterests. Farmore
complexandsensitiveabeingthanthesavageandthebarbarian,
civilizedmanmay
insomecasesrisetoamostdelicatecon-
ception
ofthesetwosentiments.
Atcertainmomentsinthehistory
ofa
givensociety,an
individualriseswiththeconvictionthathehassomethingnew
tosaywith
regard
tothesearchfortruth,oraloftierdoctrine
toteachwith
regard
tothebetterrealizationof
justice.Such
anindividual, ifhehascertainendowments ofcharacter,andif
environmentandanynumberofotherincidentalcircumstances
favor,istheseedthatmayproduce
atreewithbranchesspreading
farabroadover
largeparts
oftheworld.
3.Historyhasnotalwayspreserved
allthedetailsthatwe
mightwishtohaveaboutthelivesofthesefoundersof
religious
and
politico-social
schools thelatterareinasense
religions
too,though
shornof
strictlytheological
elements.Some
biographies, however, are
fairly
wellknown.Thelivesof
Mohammed,Luther,Calvinand
especiallyRousseau,wholeft
hismemoirs,canbeanalyzedwithrelativeadequacy.
Afundamental qualitythatallsuchpeoplemusthaveis,
itwouldseem,aprofoundsenseoftheirownimportance or,
better,asincerebeliefinthe
efficacy
oftheirwork. If
they
believeinGod,they
willalways
considerthemselvesdestinedby
theOmnipotent
toreform
religionandsavehumanity. Undoubt-
edly
itisnottosuchmenthatoneshouldlookfora
perfect
balanceofalltheintellectualandmoralfaculties.Butneither
cantheybeconsideredaltogethermadinsanity
isadisease
thatpresupposes
inthepatientanearlierstateof
sanity.They
arerathertobeclassedwithso-calledeccentrics,orfanatics,
inthesensethattheyattachanexaggeratedimportance
to
certain
phases
oflife,orofhumanactivity,andstaketheirvery
livesandalltheeffortofwhichthey
arecapableononecard,

210. 8] PROPHETSANDREFORMERS 167
striving
toattaintheirlife'sidealbyfollowingunwontedpaths
whichmostpeopleconsiderabsurdly
mistaken. Butitis
evident,ontheotherhand,thatthemanwhosefacultiesareall
in
perfectbalance,whohasanexactperception
oftheresults
thathecanachieve,ascomparedwiththeeffortandsacrifice
thatwillbe
required
for
achievingthem,whotakesamodest
andsensibleviewofhisownimportanceandoftherealand
abiding
effectsthathis
activitycanhaveontheworldinthe
ordinarycourseofhumanevents,whocalculates
exactlyand
coldlythe
probabilities
forand
against
his
succeeding,
will
neverlaunchoutonanyoriginalanddaringenterpriseandwill
neverdoanyverygreatthings.
Ifallmenwerenormaland
balancedthehistory
oftheworldwouldbevery
differentand,
wemustconfess,notalittlemonotonous.
Indispensable
intheleaderofaparty,
inthefounderofa
sectora
religion,or,onemightsay,
inany"pastor
ofpeoples"
whowouldmakehisown
personality
feltandforce
societyto
followhisviews,isacapacity
for
instilling
hisownconvictions
andespecially
hisownenthusiasmsintoothers,acapacity
for
inducingmanytolivethesortofintellectualandmorallifethat
hewantsthemtoliveandtomakesacrificesfortheidealsthat
hehasconceived.
Notallreformershavethe
gift
ofcommunicating
theirown
sentimentsand
passions
toothers.Thosewholackitmayhave
greatoriginality
ofthoughtand
feeling,buttheyareineffectual
in
practical
lifeandoftenendas
prophetswithoutbelievers,
innovators without followers,misunderstood andridiculed
geniuses.Thosewhodo
possess
itnotonlyinspire
their
apostles
andthemasseswiththeirenthusiasms,sometimestothe
point
of
frenzy,
butsucceedintheendinawakeningasortofveneration
fortheirpersons,
inbecomingobjects
of
worship,sothattheir
leastactacquires
itsimportance,
theireverywordisbelieved
withoutdiscussion,theireverynodis
blindlyobeyed.About
themanauraofexaltation
gathers.
Itis
highlycontagious
andspursconvertstoactsofdaringandsacrificethat
certainly
couldnotbeperformedby
individualsinanormalstateof
mind.
Thisexplainstheenormoussuccessofcertainpreachersand
certainteachers theextraordinary fortune,forinstance,of
types
sodifferentasSt.FrancisofAssisiandAbelard,sounlike

211. 168 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS fCHAP.VII
inmanyrespectsbutsoalikeintheartof
interesting
men. It
explainswhyMohammedwasheldinsuchvenerationby
his
initiatesand
disciplesthatthey
collectedhis
spittlereverently
andcherishedthehairsofhisbeardasrelics,andwhy
amerehint
onhis
partwasenough
toencompassthemurderofadangerous
adversary. Speaking
ofsomeonewhomheconsideredtobea
great
obstacletohis
designs,Mohammedwouldsay,
inthe
presence
ofsomeyoungmanofthemorefanaticaltype:
"Will
nooneeverfreemeofthisdog?"The
disciplewouldrushoff
andcommitthemurder. Afterwards, naturally,Mohammed
wouldcondemnthecrime,declaringthathehadorderednosuch
thing.Anynumberofleadersofsectsand
politicalparties
haveimitatedMohammed,consciously
orunconsciously,
inthis
respect.Andhowmany
ofthemaredoingthesamething
today!Plenty
of
peoplewerealwaysready
torushintothe
mosthazardousundertakings
atanodfromMazzini.The
variousenterprises
in
practicalcommunismthatwerelaunched
inthecourseofthenineteenthcentury,fromOwendownto
FourierandLazzaretti,neverfailedtofind
largenumbersof
personswillingandeager
tosacrificetheirworldlygoods.When
oneofthese
political
or
religious"founders"happens
tobea
fighter,
asJanZiskawas,hemanagesto
inspire
hisfollowerswith
anabsolutecertainty
of
victoryandhencewithuncommon
courage.
Norshouldweexpect
tofindan
altogetherexquisitemoral
sense
presidinguniformly
overallactsinthelivesofthese
eccentricswhoinitiatemovements ofideasandsentiments.
Anysuchexpectationwouldbe
disappointed. Absorbedinthe
pursuit
oftheirvisionstotheexclusionof
everythingelse,they
arealwaysready
tosufferthemselvesandtomakeotherssuffer
so
long
astheirendsbeattained. Generally,indeed,they
feel
a
highdisdainfor
everydayneedsandforthematerialand
immediateinterestsoflife,oratleastthey
are
largely
indifferent
tothem.Evenwhentheydonotsay
asmuchinwords,they
censureintheirhearts
peoplewhoarebusy
atsowing,reaping
and
storingawaytheharvests.They
seemtofeelcertainthat
oncetheKingdom
ofGod,orTruthorJustice,intheirsenseof
thoseterms,isestablished,humanbeings
willbeaseasilyfed
asarethefowloftheairortheliliesofthefield.Whenthey
liveinrationalisticandostensiblymorepositivetimes,they

212. 3] PROPHETSANDREFORMERS 169
takenoaccountofthe
depletion
of
public
resourcesthatamere
gesturetowardactuating
theiridealswouldoccasion.
Thereseemtobethree
periodsthroughwhichthelifeofevery
greatreformerpasses.
Inafirstperiodheis
conceiving
hisdoctrineandworking
itoutinhismind.During
that
stagehemaybeacting
ingood
faith.Hecanbecalledafanatic,butnotasyetacheatanda
charlatan. Inasecond
periodhe
begins
to
preach,andthenthe
needofmakinganimpressioninduceshiminevitably"tolay
on,"tooverstresscertain
colorings*
andsotobecomea
poseur.
Thethird
periodcomesifheisluckyenough
tobeabletomakea
practicalattempt
toput
his
teachings
into
practice.Once
thatstage
isreached,hefindshimselfat
gripswithalltheimper-
fectionsandweaknessesofhumannature,andheis
obliged
to
compromiseonthesideofmoralsifhewantstosucceed. All
reformers
agreedeepdownintheirheartsthattheend
justifies
themeans,thatifmenaretobeledtheyhavetobefooledtoa
certainextent. So,movingonfromcompromise
tocompromise,
theycometoapointwherethemostacutepsychologistwould
findithardtotell
exactlywheretheir
sincerity
endsand
acting
andchicanerybegin.
FatherOhrwalderwasforsome
yearsa
prisoner
oftheMah-
distsandwroteanaccountofhis
experiences. Atone
pointhe
describesMohammedAhmed,theslavetraderwhofounded
Mahdism,asaman
inspiredbyasincere
religious
zeal.At
another
pointhemakeshimoutahypocriteandacharlatan.
FatherOhrwalderwas
sharply
criticizedforthatinconsistency.
Forour
p^rtwefindnothingimplausibleaboutthetwo
judg-
ments,especially
sincethey
refertotwodifferent
periods
inthe
Mahdi'slife.
Certainly
themost
disparatemoralelementsmayfunction
simultaneously
inthesameindividual. Thatwasthecase
withEnfantin,thesecondhighpriest
ofSaint-Simonianism, to
whomadisciple
inthelatterdays
ofthemovementwrote:
"Otherscriticizeyou
for
trying
topose
allthetime. I
agree
withyou
inthinkingthatposing
isinyournature. Itisyour
mission,yourgift."
1
Mohammedundeniablyhadasincere
andhonestaspirationtowardareligionthatwaslesscrude,
lessmaterialistic,thananything
thathadbeen
practicedbythe
1
Thureau-Dangin,
HistoiredelaMonarchicdeJuillet,vol.I,chap.
VIII.

213. 170 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
Arabsbeforehistime.NeverthelesstheversesoftheKoran,
whichthe
archangelGabrielcommunicated tohimonebyone,
arrivedatmostopportunemomentstofreehimofirksome
promisesthathehadmadeorfromstrictobservanceofmoral
lawsthathehadlaiddownforothersinearlierverses. It
becameimportant
forMohammedatonetimetoincreasethe
numberofhiswivestoseven,inorderthathemightstrengthen
certain
political
tiesand
incidentallysatisfysentimentalfancies.
IntheKoranhehad
expresslylimitedthenumberof
legitimate
wivestofour,andtheprecepthadbeen
proclaimed
forall
believers.ButalongcamethearchangelGabrielwithamost
convenientverse,whichauthorizedtheapostle
ofGodto
ignore
hisown
injunction.
1
To
simplify
ourtaskwehavebeen
implicitlyassuming
thatthefounderofeverynew
religion
or
philosophical
doctrine
isa
single
individual. Thatisnot
strictly
true.Attimes,
whenareformismorallyand
intellectually ripe
inahistorical
senseandfindsanenvironmentthatis
perfectlyattunedtoit,
severalmastersmaycomeforwardsimultaneously. That
wasthecasewithProtestantism,whenLuther,Zwingliand
Calvinbegantopreachalmostatthesametime.Sometimes
thesuccessofafirstmasterbreedscompetitionand
plagiarism.
Moseilama,forinstance,andnotafewothers,triedtoimitate
Mohammed,proclaiming
themselvesintheirturnprophets
of
Allah.Morefrequent
isthecasewhereaninnovatordoesnot
succeedindeveloping
hisdoctrine
fully,muchlessin
putting
it
into
practice.Thenoneoradozencontinuatorsmayarise,and
FatetheUnfairmaynamethedoctrineafteroneoftheminstead
oftherealfounder.Thatseemstobehappening
inmodern
socialism,ofwhichMarxis
generallyproclaimedthefounder.
ItsfirstintellectualandmoralparentwasundoubtedlyRousseau.
Themasterormasterswhocontinuetheworkofthefirstfounder
mustnotbeconfusedwiththemere
apostles,
ofwhomweare
aboutto
speak.
4.Abouttheindividualwhofirstformulatesanewdoctrine
therealwaysgathersamoreorlesspopulousgroupthatreceives
theword
directlyfromthemaster's
lipsandis
profoundly
imbuedwithhissentiments. Everymessiahmusthavehis
1
Hammer-Purgstall, GemdldesaaL

214. 4] STRUCTUREOFPARTIES 171
apostles,since,inalmostallthemanifestations ofhismoraland
materialactivity,thehuman
being
needs
society;
thereisno
enthusiasmthatdoesnotwane,nofaiththatdoesnotfalter,
under
prolonged
isolation.Theschool,thechurch,theagape,
the
lodge,
the
"regularmeeting"anygrouping,
whatever it
chancestobecalled,of
personswhofeelandthinkthesameway,
whohavethesameenthusiasms,thesamehates,thesameloves
,
thesameinterpretation
oflifeintensifies,exaltsanddevelops
theirsentimentsandsoworkstheseintothecharacterofeach
individualmemberthatthestamp
oftheassociation isindelible
uponhim.
Withinthis
directinggroup,
asarule,the
originalinspiration
ofthemasteris
developed,refined,workedout,soastobecomea
real
political,religious
or
philosophicalsystem,unblemishedby
toomanyinconsistenciesandcontradictions,ortooobviousones.
Withinthis
group
thesacredfireofpropaganda
iskeptburning
evenafterthefirstauthorofthedoctrinehasvanished;andto
thisnucleus,whichisrecruitedautomaticallybya
process
of
selectionandsegregation, thefutureofthenewdoctrine is
entrusted.Howeverexceptional themaster's
originality
of
vision,hisstrength
of
feeling,
his
aptitude
forpropaganda,those
qualitiesarewithoutavailifhedoesnotsucceedinfoundinga
schoolbeforehismaterialor
spiritualdeath;whereas,whenthe
breaththatanimatestheschoolis
healthyand
vigorous,
allthe
inadequaciesandflawswhichmay
laterbedetectedinthework
ofthefoundercanbeoverlookedorcorrected littlebylittle,
andthepropaganda
willcontinueactiveandinfluential.
Outsidethe
directingnucleuscomesthethrong
of
proselytes.
Whilethisgroupconstitutesthe
strongerelement
numerically,
and
supplies
thechurchor
partywithitsmaterial
strengthand
itseconomicbasis,itisthemost
negligiblefactor
intellectually
andmorally.Anumberofmodern
sociologistsdeclarethat
themassesareconservativeand"misoneistic" chary
of
novelties.Thatmeansthatthemassesarehardtowintoanew
faith.However,oncethey
arewontoit,theyabandonitwith
the
greatestreluctance,andwhentheydodropaway,thefault
liesalmostalwayswiththepromoting
nucleus. Thislatter
group
is
always
thefirsttobeaffectedbyindifferenceand
skepti-
cism.Thebestway
tomakeothersbelieveistobeprofoundly
convincedoneselftheartof
arousingpas,
:
jnliesinone'sown

215. CfiURCHES,PAETIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
capacity
for
beingintensely
aroused.Whenthe
priest
doesnot
feelhisfaith,the
congregationbecomesindifferentandis
ripe
for
conversiontosomeotherdoctrinethatfindsamorezealous
minister. Iftheofficerisnotimbuedwiththe
militaryspirit,
if
heisnotready
to
give
hislifeforthe
dignity
ofhis
flag,the
soldierwillnotdieathis
post.
Ifthesectarianisnotafanatic,
hewillneversweepthecrowdsintorebellion.
Inthecaseofancientdoctrines,orbeliefsthathavebeen
establishedforsome
length
oftimeandsohave
acquired
tradi-
tionsandfixedandcircumscribed fieldsof
activity,birthgener-
allydeterminestheindividual'sacceptance
ofthemandhis
membership
inthe
orgaijizations
thathaveformedaroundthem.
InGermany
ortheUnitedStates,oneisalmostalwaysCatholic,
ProtestantorJew,dependingonthe
religion
ofthe
family
into
whichoneisborn.In
Spainand
Italy,anyonewhohasany
religion
leftisalmostalwaysaCatholic.Butifanumberof
differentdoctrinesarestillin
process
offormationinacountry,
haveactivepropagandasandarecompeting
foradherentsback
andforth,thenthe
personalchoiceoftheindividualof
average
intelligencedependsuponamassofcircumstances, partly
accidentaland
partlyresulting
fromtheskillwithwhichthe
propaganda
iscarriedon.InFranceayoungmanbecomesa
conservativeoraradicalaccording
astheideasofhisfather,his
teacheratschoolorhisschoolmateschancetoexercisethe
greater
influenceoverhimatthemomentwhenhisideasbegin
toform.
Atan
agewhenaboy'sgeneral
ideasarestill
plasticandheis
consciousmainly
ofaneedtobearoused
emotionally,
toloveor
tohatesomething
orsomeone,abookthatcomesintohishands,
anewspaper
towhichhehasdailyaccess,maydeterminethe
wholetrendofhisafterlife.Formanypeople,political,religious
or
philosophicalopinionsare,atbottom,verysecondarymatters,
especiallywhenthefirstflushofyouthhaspassedandthe
age
of
practical occupations,
of"business," comes. So,tosome
extentthroughindolence,tosomeextentthroughhabit,partly
againthroughmistaken
prideandrespect
forso-called
consistency
ofcharacter,amanoftenends,whenno
strong
conflictwithhis
interestsisinvolved,bykeeping
allhislife
longadoctrinethathe
embracedinamomentofyouthfulimpulse,devoting
toitsuch
littleenergyandactivityasthepracticalmaniswonttoset
apart
forwhatiscalled"theideal."

216. 5] PROPAGATIONOFCREEDS 173
However,fromthefactthattheindividual'schoiceofabelief
ora
politicalpartymaylargelybedeterminedbychance,itdoes
notfollowthatchanceisthemainfactorinthesuccessofany
given
schoolorchurch.Somedoctrinesarewellsuitedto
makingproselytes,
othersarelessso.Whethera
political
or
religiousteaching
istowinwideacceptancedependsalmost
exclusively
onthreefactors.Inthefirst
place
itmustbe
adapted
tothegiven
historicalmoment. Inthesecondplace,
itmustsatisfy
the
greatestpossiblenumberofhumanpassions,
sentimentsandinclinations,particularly
suchasaremostwidely
diffusedandmostfirmlyrootedinthe
public.
Inthethirdplace,
itmusthaveawell-organized directingnucleus,or"executive
committee,"madeup
ofindividualswhoconsecratetheirlives
tothemaintenanceand
propagation
ofthe
spiritthatanimates
thefaith.
5.Foradoctrinetobeadapted
toagiven
historicalmoment
inagivensociety,
itmustaboveallcorrespond
tothedegree
of
maturitywhichthehumanmindhasattainedatthatmoment
inthatsociety.Amonotheistic religion
will
easilytriumph
whenmindshaveprogressedsufficiently
tocomprehend
thatall
naturalphenomenamay
beascribedtoonecause,andthatthe
forcethatrulestheuniverseisone.Rationalismcanbetaken
asthebasisofsuccessfuldoctrineswhenfreeinquiryandthe
resultsofthenaturalandhistoricalscienceshaveundermined
beliefinrevealedreligions,andtheconception
ofaGodcreated
intheimageandlikenessofmanandinterveningarbitrarily
in
humaneventshascometoseemabsurdtotheruling
classes.
InthecenturieswhenChristianitywasspreadingthrough
the
RomanEmpire,
almosteveryone,pagansandChristiansalike,
believedinthesupernatural
andinmiracles;butthepagan
supernatural
hadbecometoo
grossandincoherent,whilethe
Christiansupernatural,
besidesbetteranswering
certainneeds
ofthehuman
spirit,
wasmoresystematicandlesschildish,and
sowasdestinedtotriumph.
Lucianwasanutter
skeptic,
laughing
ateveryonenowatthepagans,nowattheChristians.
Buthewasanexception
inthesecondcenturyofourera.The
meanintelligence
oftheeducatedpublic
ofthattimewasbetter
representedbyCelsus,whowasadeistandbelievedinthe
supernatural
andinmiraclesbutneverthelessridiculedtheOld

217. 174 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
andtheNewTestaments. ButsinceCelsushadstartedouton
thepathwhichisso
satisfactory
torationalistsandwhich,in
fact,sixteencenturieslaterandunderfardifferentconditions,
wastoturnoutsowellforVoltaire,heshouldhaveseenthatit
wouldhavebeenmucheasiertoprovokeridiculeand
disgust
forthe
disgraceful
licenseandchildish
squabblings
ofthegods
ofOlympusthanfortheChristianhistories. Itisevidentenough
tousinourdaythatclassicalpaganismhadforsometimebeen
incapable
of
satisfying
eithertheemotionsorthe
intelligence
of
the
people
ofthat
period.AsRenanwellobserves,
1
ifthe
Greco-RomanworldhadnotbecomeChristian, itwouldhave
beenconvertedtoMithraism,ortosomeotherAsiatic
religion
thatwasatoncemoremysticalthanclassicalpaganismandless
incoherent.
SoitwaswithRousseau.Heemergedandprosperedata
timewhenfirsthumanismandtheReformation,thenthe
progress
oftheexactandnaturalsciences,then
finallyVoltaireand
theEncyclopaedia, haddiscreditedthewholeChristianand
medievalworld,sothatanewrationalwedonotsayreason-
ableexplanation
of
political
institutionswasinapositionto
winacceptance.
IfweanalyzethelivesofLutherand
Mohammed itis
easy
toseethatatthetimewhentheyappeared
GermanyandArabiawerereadytowelcometheirdoctrines.
Whenthehumanbeing
hasacertaincultureandisnotunder
anyengrossingpressure
ofmaterialneeds,he
generallymanifests
atendency
toriseabovetheordinarypreoccupations
oflifeand
interesthimselfinsomethinghigherthanhimself,something
thatconcernstheinterestsofthe
societytowhichhe
belongs.
Itismucheasierforanewdoctrineto
prosper,accordingly,
in
placesandsituationswherethisidealistictendency
isnotable
tofindsatisfactioninthe
politicalsystem
inits
prevailingforms,
andwhere,therefore,aman'senthusiasmsandambitions,his
loveofcombat,hisinstinctsfor
leadership,donotfindaready
outlet.
Christianitywould
certainlynothavespreadso
rapidly
inRomeinthedays
ofthe
republic,whenthestatecouldoffer
itscitizenstheexcitements ofelectioncampaigns,
orwhenit
waswaging
itsterribleduelwittCarthage.Buttheempire
broughtpeace.
It
quieted
conflictsbetweenthenationsand
entrusted all
publicfunctionstosalaried
employees. That
1
Moreparticularly
inMarcAur&e.

218. 5] FAITHANDINTERESTS 175
preparedtheground
fora
longperiodofsecurityand
political
reposethatrenderedthenew
religionthebestpossibleservice.
Intheagejustpast,
theconsolidationofthebureaucraticstate,
theending
of
religiouswars,thegrowth
ofacultured,well-to-do
classthathadno
part
in
politicalfunctions,supplied
thebasis
firstfortheliberalandthenfortheradicalsocialistmovements.
Nationssometimeshaveperiods of,soto
say,psychological
exhaustion,whentheyseemtoneedrepose.Thatiswhatwe
meanwhenwe
say,withless
aptness
of
phrase,perhaps,thata
people
hasgrown
old.Atanyrate,ifasocietyhashadno
revolutionsandundergonenoseriouspoliticalchanges
forsome
centuries,whenit
begins
atlasttoemergefromitslongtorpor
itismuchmore
easilypersuadedthatthetriumph
ofanew
doctrine,theestablishment ofanewformofgovernment,
will
markthe
beginning
ofanewera,anew
goldenage,andthaton
itsadventallmenwillbecomegoodandhappy
inanewlandof
Cathay.Thatwasthecharacteristic illusioninFrancearound
1789. Itwastoanextenttheillusionin
Italy
in1848.
Ontheotherhand,afteraseriesofdisturbancesandchanges,
theenthusiasmandfaiththat
politicalinnovatorsand
political
noveltieshaveinspiredtendstofalloff
considerably,andavague
feeling
ofskepticismand
fatiguespreadsthroughthemasses.
However,capacity
forfaithandenthusiasm isexhaustedfarless
readilythanmightappear
atfirst
sight.Disillusionment has
littleeffect,onthewhole,uponreligiousdoctrinesthatarebased
onthesupernatural,thatsolveproblemsrelatingtotheprime
causeoftheuniverseorthatpostponerealizationoftheidealsof
happinessand
justicetoanotherlife.
But
strangelyenough,evendoctrinesthatare
apparentlymore
realisticandshould
yield
theirfruitsinthislifesucceedvery
well
in
survivingtherefutationsofthemthataresuppliedbyexperi-
enceandthefactsofeverydayliving.Afterall,illusionsendure
becauseillusionisaneedforalmostallmen,aneedthatthey
feel
noless
stronglythantheirmaterialneeds.Asystem
ofillusions,
therefore, isnot
easily
discrediteduntilitcanbe
replacedwitha
newsystem.Asweoftensee,whenthatisnot
possible,not
evena
sequence
of
sufferings,
ofterribletrialsbornof
experiences
moreterrible
still,isenough
todisenchanta
people;or,more
exactly,discouragement
ratherthandisillusionment settlesupon
thatpeopleandenduresaslong
asthe
generationthathasper-

219. 176 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
sonally
sufferedstilllives.Butafterthat,iftherehasbeenno
change
inthetrendofideasandintheeducationofsentiments,
themomentsocial
energieshavesomewhatrevived,thesame
illusionsproducenewconflictsandnewmisfortunesover
again.
Moreover itisinthenatureofmentoretainfavorablememories
ofthedaysduringwhichtheysuffered,andoftheindividuals
whocausedtheir
sufferings.Thatisthecase
especiallywhena
certain
length
oftimehas
elapsed.Themassesalwaysendby
admiringand
draping
in
poeticlegend
leaderslikeNapoleon,who
have
broughtuntoldpainandmisfortuneuponthembutwhoat
thesametimehavesatisfiedtheirneedfor
ennoblingemotions
andtheirfantasticcraving
fornoveltiesand
greatthings.
6.Thecapacity
ofadoctrineto
satisfytheneedsofthehuman
spiritdependsnotonlyuponrequirements
oftimeand
place
butalsouponconditionsthatareindependent
oftimeand
place
uponbasicpsychological
lawsthatmustnotbe
disregarded.
Infact,thissecondelementinthesuccessofambitious
political
and
religious
doctrinesisan
exceedinglyimportant
one.
Asa
generalrule,
ifasystem
ofideas,beliefs,feelings,
istobe
acceptedbygreatmassesofhuman
beings,
itmustaddressthe
loftiersentiments ofthehuman
spirit:
itmustpromisethat
justiceand
equality
will
reign
inthisworld,orinsomeother,or
itmustproclaim
thatthegood
willberewardedandthewicked
punished.Atthesametimeitwillnotgo
farwrong
ifityields
somesmallsatisfactiontotheenvyandrancorthatare
generally
felttowardthepowerfulandthefortunateandintimatesthat*-in
thislifeorinsomeother,therewillcomeatimewhenthelast
shallbefirstandthefirstlast. Itwill
help
ifsomephase
ofthe
doctrinecanmanage
tooffera
refuge
for
goodsouls,gentlesouls,
whoseekinmeditationand
resignationsomesolacefromthe
conflictsanddisappointments
oflife.Itwillbeuseful,also
onemightevensayindispensable
forthedoctrinetohavesome
meansof
utilizingthe
spirit
of
abnegationandsacrificethat
predominates
incertainindividualsandof
guiding
itinto
proper
channels,thoughthesamedoctrinemustalsoleavesomelittle
elbowroomfor
prideandvanity.
Itfollows,therefore,thatbelieversmust
alwaysbe"the
people"
or"thebetterpeople,"
or
"progressive spirits,"who
speak
forthevanguard
ofreal
progress.SotheChristian

220. 6] FAITHANDINTERESTS
mustbeenabledtothinkwithcomplacencythateverybody
notoftheChristianfaithwillbedamned.TheBrahmanmust
be
givengrounds
for
rejoicing
thathealoneisdescendedfromthe
headofBrahmaandhastheexaltedhonorof
readingthesacred
books.TheBuddhistmustbetaughthighly
to
prizethe
privi-
legehehasof
attainingNirvanasoonest.TheMohammedan
mustrecallwithsatisfactionthathealoneisthetruebeliever,
andthatallothersareiiffidel
dogs
inthislifeandtormented
dogs
inthenext.Theradicalsocialistmustbeconvincedthat
allwhodonotthinkashedoesareeitherselfish,money-spoiled
bourgeois
or
ignorantandservilesimpletons. Theseareall
examples
ofarguments
thatprovide
forone'sneedofesteeming
one'sselfandone'sown
religion
orconvictionsandatthesame
timefortheneedof
despisingandhating
others.
Fromhatredtoconflictisonlya
step.Infactthereisno
politicalparty
or
religious
sectthatdoesnot
envisagewar
bloody
ornot,asthecasemayturnoutupon
thosewhodonot
accept
itsdogmas.
Ifiteschewsconflict
altogetherandpreaches
compassionandsubmissioninallcases,thatis
justa
signthat
itisconsciousofweaknessandthinksitwouldbe
riskingtoo
muchinundertakingawar.In
struggle,besides,alltheless
noblebutnonethelesswidespreadappetites
ofthehumanheart
aretakenaccountofloveof
luxury,
lustforbloodandwomen,
ambitiontocommandandto
tyrannize.
Certainlynorecipecanbegiven
forfoundinganenduring
politicalparty
or
religious
doctrinethatwillcontaintheexact
dosagesrequired
for
satisfyingeveryhumansentiment.Butone
may
declarewithallassurancethattorealizethepurpose
mentionedtheremustbeafusion,incertainamounts,of
lofty
sentimentsandlow
passions,
of
preciousmetalandbasemetal-^-
otherwisethealloy
willnotstandthewearandtear.Adoctrine
thatdoesnottakesufficientaccountofthe
differingandcontra-
dictoryqualities
thathumannatureshowshaslittlepower
of
appeal,anditwillhavetoberevamped
inthat
respect
ifitisto
gainapermanentfollowing.The
mingling
ofgoodandevilisso
inborninhumannaturethatacertainamountoffinemetalmust
bepresenteveninthe
alloys
ofwhichcriminalgangs,
secret
societiesandmurderoussectsarecompounded;andalittleof
thebasemetalmustenterintothecomplex
ofsentimentsthat
inspirescompanies
ofheroesandasceticcommunitiesthatmake

221. 178 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS CHAP.VII
fetishofself-sacrifice. Too
great
a
deficiency, therefore, of
eitherthegood
orthebadelementsalwayshasthesameresults:
itpreventsanywidedissemination ofthedoctrine,orthe
special
discipline,thatthegiven
sectenforcesupon
itsmembers.
Therehavebeen,astherestillare,organizedgroups
ofbandits
thatpreachtheft,murderandthedestructionof
property.But
insuchcasesthe
perpetration
ofthecriminalactisalmostalways
coloredwithsome
speciouspolitical
or
religious
doctrinethat
servestodecoy
intothecompanysomemisguidedpersonwhois
not
whollycontemptible,whosecrumbofrespectability
renders
common
turpitudemorebearabletothepublicandintroduces
intotheassociationamodicumofmoralsensethatisindispensable
ifa
villainy
istosucceed.Bismarckiscreditedwiththeapo-
thegmthatamanneedsalittlehonesty
tobea
perfect
rascal.
TheSicilianMaffia,among
othercriminalassociations,hadits
rulesofethics,anditsmembersacertainsenseofhonor.The
Maffiusisometimeskept
theirwordwithnonmembers,andthey
rarelybetrayedeachother. Itismainlytothelimitations
they
settotheirwrongdoingthatcertaincriminalassociations
owetheir
extraordinarily long
lives.Macaulayobservesthat
murder
plotsalmostneversucceedinEnglandproper
because
Englishmurdererslackthe
grain
ofmoralsensethatisessential
tomutualtrust.Hemayhavebeen
right
orwrong
astothe
fact;the
corollaryhederivesfromitiscertainlysound.
Wehaveanexample
ofsocietiesofthetypementionedinthe
Assassins,whoravagedSyriaand
'Iraq
'ArabiintheMiddleAges.
TheAssassinswerea
degeneratewing
oftheIsmailians,arela-
tivelyinnocuoussectthathadawide
following
intheMoham-
medanworldabouttheyear
1100.Thedoctrineand
discipline
ofthesecthadmanypoints
incommonwithpresent-dayFree-
masonry
intheLatincountries.
1
TheThugs,or
Stranglers,
werefamousinIndiadowntothemiddleofthelast
century.
AlmostalltravelerswhohavewrittenaboutChinaspeak
of
secretsocieties.Someofthemarecountry-wideandhave,or
pretendtohave,strictlypoliticalobjectives.Tothelist
might
beaddedthe"underground" politicalmovementsthatarecom-
mon
today
in
Europe
andAmerica.
1
Ckvel,Qeschiedenwder
wijmdselarij;Amari,StoriadeiMusulmaniinSieilia,
vol.II,pp.
119f.;Hammer-Purgstall, Historyof
theAssassins.

222. 6] FAITHANDINTERESTS 179
Ontheotherhand,certainassociations ofhuman
beings
are
foundedupon
therenunciation ofeveryworldlyvanityand
pleasure,onthecomplete
sacrificeofthemember'spersonality,
eithertotheadvantage
oftheassociationortotheadvantage
of
all
humanity.ThebonzeconventsintheBuddhistworldand
theCatholic
religious
ordersintheWestarefamiliarexamples
of
this
type
ofinstitution. Theseassociations arein
general
recruitedfromamong
individualswhoare
specially
fitted
fortheir
calling,
eitherthroughpeculiarcircumstances in
their
personal
livesorthroughanaturalinclinationtowardself-
sacrificeand
resignation.Wecannot
say,however,thatthey
arewhollyexemptfromworldlypassions.Adesiretowinthe
admirationofthedevout,theambitionofmanyindividualsto
excelwithintheorder,andaneven
strongerambitionthatthe
ordershallsurpass
rivalorders theseareallpowerfulmotives
thathavecontributedtothelongand
prosperous
livesofsuch
associations.
Butinallthesecases,thoughweseethatabitofgood
is
alwaysfoundmixedinwiththeevil,andthatabitofevilalways
soursthegood,wearestillconfrontedbythefactthatsuch
associationsarestillnonetoo
large.Theyhaveneverembraced
allthemembersofa
greathuman
society. In
spite
ofallthe
speciousjustifications
ofcrimethathavebeendevised,sectsof
murderersandthieveshaveneverbeenmorethandiseasedsocial
excrescences. Theymayhavesucceededforatimein
terrorizing,
oreven
influencing,
wideareas.Theyhaveneverconverteda
greatpeople
totheir
principles.Themonasterytoohasalways
beenan
exception,andwhereverthemonasticlifehas
spreadand
becomethehabitual
occupation
ofanyconsiderablepart
ofa
population,
theorderhas
rapidlystrayedfromits
originalprinci-
ples.TheEbionitechurchesofearlyChristiandaysrequired
all
thefaithfulto
pool
their
earnings,andtheysought
toextendthe
monastic
type
overallChristian
society.However,thesectleda
hand-to-mouthexistenceandsoon
disappeared,
forifanyamount
of
abnegationmaybeobtainedfromasmallnumberofchosen
individualswhoaretrainedbyan
appositediscipline,thesame
thing
isnot
possiblewithawholehumanmass,inwhichthegood
is
necessarilymingled
withthebadandneedsand
passions
ofall
sortshavetobereckonedwith.Forthatreason,ifan
experi-

223. 180 CHUBCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
meatinsocial
regeneration
isto
proveanything
ithastobe
applied
toanentire
people,granted
thatonecanbefoundtolend
itselftosuchanexperiment
orcanbeforcedtodoso.
7.Forallthesereasonsa
religionwithtoo
loftyamoral
systemproduces
atthemostthosegood,andindeedfarfrom
disparageable,
resultsthatcomefromaman'smakinganeffortto
attainanidealthatliesbeyond
his
powers
ofattainment. Butin
practicesucha
religionmustendbybeingobservedwithscant
scrupulousness. Thecontinuousconflictbetween
religious
belief
andhuman
necessity,betweenthethingrecognized
asholyand
conformingwithdivinelawandthethingthatisdone,and
indeedhastobedone,constitutestheeternalcontradiction,the
inevitablehypocrisy,thatappears
inthelivesofmanypeoples,
andbynomeansofChristianpeoplesonly.Ashorttimebefore
Christianitybecame,thankstoConstantine,theofficial
religion
oftheRomanEmpire,thegood
Lactantiusexclaimed:
IfonlythetrueGodwerehonored[thatis,ifallmenwereconverted
toChristianity], therewouldbenomoredissensionsorwars.Men
wouldallbeunitedbythetiesofanindissolublelove,fortheywould
alllookupon
eachotherasbrothers.Noonewouldcontrivefurther
snarestoberidofhisneighbor.Eachwouldbecontentwithlittle,
andtherewouldbenomorefraudsandthefts.Howblessedthen
wouldbeman'sestate!Whatagoldenagewoulddawnuponthe
world!
1
Such,,infact,hadtobetheopinion
ofaChristian,forhewas
convincedthatevery
believershouldput
the
preceptsand
spirit
ofhis
religionintegrally
into
practiceand
thought
it
quite
possible
forawhole
society
toobservethemas
theywereobserved
by
thosechosen
spiritswho,atthecostoftheirlives,refusedto
deny
theirfaithinthefaceofDiocletian'spersecution. But
ifLactantiushadlivedonlyfiftyyearslongerhemighthave
perceived
thatno
religioncanofitselfraisethemorallevelofan
entirepeopleveryrapidly
ortoanygreat
extent.Hadhebeen
rebornintheMiddleAges,
hecouldhavesatisfiedhimselfthat
byadapting
itselfmoreandmoreto
shiftinghistoricalcircum-
stancesandtotheperennialdemandsofthehuman
spirit,
the
same
religion
thathad
supplied
themartyrandwas
supplying
1
QuotedbyBoissier,"LeChristianismeet1'invasiondesbarbares,"p.951.

224. 7] OBSERVANCEOFCREEDS 181
themissionarycouldjust
as
readilysupplythecrusaderaadthe
inquisitor.
Mohammedans in
generalobservetheKoranfarmorescrupu-
lously
thanChristiansobservetheGospel,butthatisduenot
only
toablinderfaith(which
inturnisduetoalowerscientific
level)butalsotothefactthatthe
prescriptions
ofMohammed
aremorally
less
lofty,andsoarehumanlymorerealizable,than
the
prescriptions
ofJesus.Thosewho
practiceIslamismin
general
abstainverystrictlyfromwineand
pork,butanindi-
vidualwhohasnevertastedwineorpork
feelsnoappreciable
discomfort ifheis
deprived
ofthem.Forthatmatter,itseems
thatwhenMussulmanshavelivedwithChristiansincountries
thatproduce
wine
extensively,theyhaveobservedtheprecepts
oftheProphetonthesubject
of
intoxicatingliquors
less
scrupu-
lously.Thehistory
oftheSaracensin
Sicilyshowsnotafew
casesofdrunkennessamongMohammedans. Ebn-ElTheman,
emirofCatania,wasinastateofcompleteintoxicationwhenhe
orderedtheveinsofhiswife,asisteroftheemirofPalermo,
tobeopened.AnArab
poet,Ibn-Hamdis,sangthe
praises
of
thegood
wineofSyracuse,
itsambercoloranditsrnusklike
fragrance.
1
Adultery,again,
ismuchrareramongadherents ofIslam
thanamongChristians,butdivorceismucheasieramongthe
formerandMohammedallowsamanseveralwivesanddoes
not
prohibit
relationswithslaves. Believers inIslamare
strongly
advisedto
give
almstomembersoftheirfaithandto
belavishwiththemin
every
sortofassistance,butthey
arealso
taughtthattoexterminate infidelsinwarandto
levytribute
onthemin
peace
aremeritoriousacts.Atbottom,therefore,the
Koranserves
prescriptionstosuitalltastesand,ifoneremains
faithfultoitintheletterandthe
spirit,onecan
get
to
paradise
byanynumberofbroadhighways.NotafewIslamicdoc-
trines,meantime,chancetoconflictwithsomeofthe
stronger
andmore
deeply
rootedinstincts ofhumannature.They
aretheonesthatleastinfluencetheconductofMussulmans.
Mohammed,forinstance,promisesparadise
toallwhofallina
holywar.Nowif
every
believerweretoguide
hisconductby
thatassuranceintheKoran,everytimeaMohammedanarmy
founditselffacedby
unbelievers itought
eithertoconquerorto
1
Amari,StonadeiMimtlmaniinSicilw,vol.
II,p,531,

225. 182 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
falltothelastman. Itcannotbedeniedthatacertainnumber
ofindividualsdoliveup
totheletterofthe
Prophet'sword,but
asbetweendefeatanddeathfollowedbyeternalbliss,the
majority
ofMohammedansnormally
electdefeat.
Buddhists, in
general,
arestrictin
observing
theoutward
precepts
oftheir
religion,yet
in
puttingthe
spiritoftheprecepts
into
practicethey
areasdeftastheChristiansatavoiding
embarrassmentbymaking,touseMoliere'sphrase,
theirarrange-
mentswithHeaven.Thenexttothelast
king
ofBurmawas
thewiseandcannyMeudoume-Men. Besides
governing
his
subjectswell,hehadanenthusiastic interestin
religiousand
philosophicaldiscussionandregularlysummonedtohis
presence
allEnglishmenandEuropeans
ofdistinctionwho
passedthrough
Mandalay,the
capital
ofhisdominions. Inhisdiscourseswith
themhe
alwaysupheld
the
superiority
ofBuddhistethicstothe
morals
preachedby
other
religionsandneverfailedtocallthe
attentionofhis
guests
tothefactthattheconductofChristians
didnot
alwaysconformtothe
precepts
ofChristiandoctrine.
Certainly
itcouldhavecosthimno
great
efforttoshowthatthe
behavioroftheEnglish
in
wrestingaportion
ofBurmeseterritory
fromhis
predecessorwasinnoway
consistentwiththeGospel.
He,onhisside,'hadbeenbroughtup
inabonzemonastery.He
conscientiously observedthe
prescriptions
ofBuddha.Athis
courtnoanimalwasever
slaughtered,andEuropeanswhostayed
thereforanylength
oftimefoundthevegetable
dietirksome
andwere
obligedsecretly
tofilloutbyhunting
birds'
eggs
inthe
woods.Notonly
that.Meudoume-Menwouldnever,forany
reasonintheworld,ordera
capital
execution. Infact,when
anybody'spresence
inconveniencedhimtooseriously,thewily
monarchwouldmerelyaskofhisprime
ministerwhetherSo-
and-sowerestillofthisworld.Andwhen,aftermanyrepetitions
ofthe
question,
theprimeministerwould
finallyanswerno,
Meudoume-Menwouldsmile
contentedly.Hehadviolatedno
precept
ofhis
religionbutstillhadmadehispoint:whichwasthat
acertainhumansoulshouldbeginsomewhatearlierthan
might
normallyhavebeen
expectedtheseriesoftransmigrations that
leadsatlast,astheBuddhistfaithassures,tofusionwiththe
universalsoul.
1
1
Plauchut,"UnRoyaumedisparu."

226. $7] COMPOSITIONOFPARTIES 18S
ThedoctrineoftheancientStoicswas
essentially
virileand
except,perhaps,
as
regards"pose"and
vanity,whichwere
commonfrailtiesamongthemmadelittle,
if
any,concessionto
the
passions,
weaknessesorsentiments ofmen.Butforthat
veryreasontheinfluenceofStoicismwaslimitedtoasectionof
theculturedclasses.Thepaganmassesremainedwholly
alien
toitspropaganda. TheStoicschoolmayhavehelped,
atcertain
periods,toformthecharacterofapartoftheruling
classinthe
Roman
Empire.Toit,undoubtedly,anumberofgoodemperors
owedtheir
training.Butfromthemomentthatitsmembersno
longer
clutteredthe
steps
ofathroneitwascompletely
ineffectual.
Powerlesstochange,becauseitsintellectualand
strictlyphil-
osophical
side
quiteovershadowed itsdogmaticandemotional
sides,itcouldnotcompetewithChristianity
forcontrolofthe
Romanworld,anditwouldhavesucceedednobetterin
competi-
tionwithJudaism,IslamorBuddhism.
Onecouldnotmaintainthatitmakesnodifferencewhethera
people
embracesone
religion
or
politicaldoctrineoranother. It
wouldbedifficulttoshowthatthe
practical
effectsof
Christianity
arenotdifferentfromthoseofMohammedanism orsocialism.
Inthelongrunabeliefdoes
giveacertainbenttohumansenti-
ments,andsuchbentsmayhave
far-reachingconsequences,
Butitseemscertainthatnobeliefwilleversucceedinmaking
the
humanbeinganythingessentially
differentfromwhatheis.To
statethesituationinotherwords,nobeliefwillevermakemen
whollygood
orwhollybad,wholly
altruisticor
wholly
selfish.
Some
adaptation
tothelowermoralandemotionallevelthat
correspondstothehumanaverage
is
indispensable
inall
religions.
Thosewhorefusetorecognizethatfactmakeiteasier,itseemsto
us,for
peoplewhousetherelative
inefficacy
of
religioussenti-
mentsand
political
doctrinesasanargument
to
provetheir
absoluteinefficacy. Therecomestomindinthisconnectionan
opinionthathasoftenbeen
expressed.Thebanditsofsouthern
ItalyusuallywentaboutintrueSouthItalian
style,ladenwith
scapularsandimages
ofsaintsandmadonnas.Atthesametime
theywereoften
guilty
ofmurdersandothercrimeswhencethe
conclusionthat
religious
beliefshadno
practicalinfluenceupon
them.Now,beforesuchaninferencecouldwith
justicebe
drawn,onewouldhavetoshowthatifthebanditshadnot

227. 184 CHUBCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
carried
scapularsandmadonnastheywouldnothavecommitted
additionalmurdersoractsof
ferocity.
Iftheimagessaveda
singlehumanlife,a
singlepang
ofsorrow,a
singletear,there
wouldbeadequategrounds
for
creditingthemwithsome
influence.
8.Aswehaveseen(4,above),athirdfactor
figures
inthe
spreadandsurvivalofanysystem
of
religious
or
political
ideas
namely,the
organization
ofthe
directing
nucleusandthemeans
itemploys
for
converting
themassesor
holdingthem
loyal
toa
given
beliefordoctrine.Aswealsohaveseen,thenucleus
originates
inthefirstinstanceinaspontaneousprocess
ofselec-
tionandsegregation. Thereafter itscohesion isbasedinthe
mainonaphenomenon
ofthehuman
spiritwhichwehavecalled
"mimetism," orimitation thetendency
ofanindividual's
passions,sentimentsandbeliefsto
develop
inaccordwiththe
currentsthatprevail
intheenvironmentinwhichheismorally
formedandeducated. Itis
altogethernaturalthatinacountry
thathasattainedsomedegree
ofcultureacertainnumberof
youngpeopleshouldhaveacapacity
fordevelopingenthusiasms
aboutwhattheyholdtobetrueandethical,aboutideaswhich,in
semblanceatleast,are
generousand
loftyandconcernthe
destinyofanationorofhumanityat
large.
Thesesentimentsandthe
spiritof
abnegationandself-sacrifice
thatresultfromthemmayremaininastateof
potentialityand
becomeatrophied,
ortheymayenjoyaluxuriant
blossoming,
accordingasthey
arecultivatedornot;andthefruitsthey
yield
differwidelyaccording
tothe
differingways
inwhichthey
arecultivated.
Inthesonofashopkeeperwhocomesintocontactwithnoone
except
thecustomersandclerksinhisfather'splace
ofbusiness,
thesentimentsmentionedwillprobablyneveramounttovery
muchorevenmanifestthemselvesatall,unlesstheboybeone
ofthoserareindividualsof
superiortypewhosucceedin
develop-
ing
allbythemselves.Ayoungmanwhoreceivesa
religious
trainingfromhisearliestchildhoddandthengoesontoaCatholic
seminarymaybecomeamissionaryandconsecratehiswhole
lifetothetriumph
ofhisfaith.Another,whoisbornintoa
familythathasacoatofarms,iseducatedina
militaryacademy
andthenbecomesalieutenantina
regiment,wherehefinds

228. 8] PARTISANSPIRIT 185
comradesandsuperiorswhoareallimbuedwiththesamesort
ofconvictions, willthinkithisfirstand
all-embracingduty
to
obey
theordersofhissovereign
allhislifelongand,ifneedbe,to
get
himselfkilledforhis
king.Another,finally,whoisborn
intoanenvironmentofveteran
conspiratorsandrevolutionaries,
whohasthrilledandshudderedfromhisearliestdays
attalesof,
politicalpersecutionsandriotsatthebarricades,andwhofcemind
hasbeenfed
largely
onthe
writings
ofRousseau,Mazzinior
Marx,willdeemithissacred
duty
to
struggletirelesslyagainst
oppressionbyorganizedgovernmentandwillbereadytoface
prisonandthegallows
inthenameofrevolution. Allthat
occursbecauseoncetheindividual'senvironment isformed
Catholic,ecclesiastical,bureaucratic, military,revolutionary,
as
itmaybethatindividual,especially
ifheisanormalyoung
mannot
altogethersuperior
inintellectnoryetutterlyvulgarand
commonplace,
will
give
tohissentimentalandaffectivefaculties
thebentthattheenvironment
suggests
tohim,sothatcertain
sentimentsratherthanotherswill
develop
inhimthe
spirit
of
rebellionand
struggle,say,
ratherthanthe
spirit
of
passive
obedienceandself-sacrifice. This
training,thisdressage*asthe
Frenchcallit,succeedsbetterwiththeyoungthanwithadults,
withenthusiasticand
impassionedtemperaments betterthan
withcold,deliberate,calculatingtemperaments,withdocilesouls
betterthanwithrebellious
spirits,
unlessthedoctrine,whether
inessenceorbecauseof
special
historicalcircumstances,makesa
point
of
cultivatingand
intensifying
therebelliousinstincts.
Onecondition
especially
isfavorable,notto
sayindispensable,
tothismimetic
process the
processbywhichtheindividual is
assimilated totheenvironment. Theenvironmentmustbe
closedtoallinfluencesfromoutside,sothatnosentiments,and
especiallynoideas,willever
get
intoitexceptsuchasbearthe
trade-markoftheenvironment.NobookthatisontheIndex
musteverentertheseminary. Philosophymustbeginandend
withSt.ThomasAquinas.Whenonereadsonemustread
theologyandtheworksoftheFathers.Thetalesthatare
offeredtothechild's
curiosityand
hunger
forromancewillbe
talesofmartyrsandheroicconfessors. Inthemilitaryacademy
onewillreadandtalkofthe
exploits
of
greatcaptains,
ofthe
glories
ofone'sownarmyandone'sown
dynasty. Education
and
training
willbesuchasare
strictlyrequiredfor
learningthe

229. 186 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
soldier'sprofessionandforcoming
to
prizehighly
thehonorof
beinganofficer,agentleman,
a
loyalchampion
of
kingand
country. Intherevolutionary"studyhour"thetalkwillbe
allonthevictoriesand
glories
ofthesinlessmasses,onthenefari-
ousdoings
oftyrantsandtheir
hirelings,onthegreedandbase-
nessofthebourgeoisie;andanybookwhichisnotwrittenin
accordancewiththewordand
spirit
ofthemasterswillbemerci-
lesslyproscribed.Anyglimmer
ofmentalbalance,anyray
of
lightfromothermoralandintellectualworlds,thatstrays
into
oneoftheseclosedenvironmentsproducesdoubts,falterings
and
desertions. Realhistory,thatearnest,objective
searchfor
facts,the
disciplinewhichteachesustoknowmenandappraise
themindependently
ofcaste,religion
or
politicalparty,
which
takesaccountoftheirweaknessesandvirtuesforwhattheyreally
are,whichtrainsandexercisesthefacultiesofobservationand
thesenseof
reality,mustbecompletelybanned.
Nowallthat,atbottom,meansnothingmoreorlessthana
realunbalancing
ofthe
spirit,andeveryenvironment inflictsthat
unbalancingupontherecruitwhoisdrawnintoitsorbit.He
isofferedonlya
partialpicture
oflife.Thatpicturehasbeen
carefullyrevised,circumscribedandcorrected,andtheneophyte
musttakeitasthewholeandreal
picture
oflife.Certain
sentiments areoverstressed, certainothersareminimized,
andanideaof
justice,honesty,duty,
ispresentedwhich, if
notfundamentally wrong,
is
certainly grosslyincomplete.
Thisthoroughgoing
identification oftheconcept
of
justice
andrightwiththegivenreligious
or
politicaldoctrineevena
morallyloftyonesometimesdrivesuprightbutviolentsouls
toextremefanaticismand
politicalcrimes,andmayevensucceed
in
extinguishing
allgracioussentimentinachivalrouspeople.
According
toananecdote
relating
toMohammed, abattle
wasbeingfought
atOneinbetweentheProphet'sfollowersand
hisopponentsduring
hislifetime. Intheranksofthedissidents
wasoneDoreid-Ben-Sana, theBayard
ofhisageand
people.
Thoughninetyyearsold,hehadhadhimselfcarriedtothe
battlefieldonalitter.AyoungIslamite,oneRebiaa-ben-Rafii,
managed
toreachthe
spotwhereDoreidwasandstruckhim
withawell-aimedblowofhissword.Buttheweapon
fellto
pieces."Whatawretchedswordyourfathergaveyou,boy,"
saidtheoldhero."My
scimitarhasareal
temper.Takeit,

230. 9] PRINCIPLESANDPRACTICE 187
andthengoandtellyourmotherthatyouhaveslainDoreid
withtheweaponwithwhichhesomanytimesdefendedthe
libertyandgoodright
oftheArabs,andthehonoroftheir
women/'RebiaatookDoreid'sscimitarandslewhim,andthen
wentsofarinhis
cynicalrage
asinfactto
carry
themessage
tohismother.Lessfanaticalthanhersonaboutthenew
religion,perhaps
becauseshewasawomanoftheoldschool,
sheseemstohavereceivedhimwiththecontempt
hedeserved.
1
Andyet
aswehaveseen(3,above),perfectlybalanced
individuals,whoknowandappreciate
alltheirdutiesandgive
toeachtheimportance
thatit
reallyhas,arenot
likelytodevote
alltheirlivesand
energiestoachievingoneparticularand
definite
thing.Massexaggerations,
orifone
prefer,mass
illusions,arethethings
thatproducegreateventsin
history
andmaketheworldmove. IfaChristiancouldgrant
that
a
personcouldbe
just
asvirtuouswithout
baptism,
orthat
onecouldbewithoutthefaithandstillsaveone'ssoul,the
Christianmissionariesandmartyrswouldhavelosttheirenthu-
siasmandChristianitywouldnothavebecomethefactorthat
itbecameinhumanhistory.
Ifthepromotersofarevolution
wereconvincedthatthestatusof
societywouldnotbevery
muchbetteredthemorning
aftertheir
victory,
iftheyeven
suspectedthattheremightbeachanceoftheirmakingthings
worse,itwouldbehardtosweepthemindrovestothebarricades.
Nationsinwhichthecritical
spirit
is
strong,andwhichare
skeptical veryproperlyskeptical
astothe
practical
benefits
thatanynewdoctrinecan
bring,
nevertaketheleadingreat
socialmovementsandendbybeingdraggedalongby
others
whoseenthusiasms aremorereadilyaroused.Thesame is
trueoftheindividualswithinanation.Themoresensible
endveryfrequentlybybeingswept
offtheirfeetbythemore
impulsive.Notalways
isitthesanewholeadthemad.Often
themadforcethesanetokeepthemcompany.
9.Butoncetheheroicperiod
ofamovement isover,once
thestageofinitialpropaganda
comestoanend,thenreflection
andself-interest claimtheirrightsagain.Enthusiasm, the
spirit
ofsacrifice,theone-sidedview,areenoughtofound
religious
and
politicalparties.They
arenotenough
tospreadthemvery
1
Hammer-Purgstall, QemSldesaal.

231. 188 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VU
farabroadandassurethemofapermanent
existence.Sothe
methodof
recruiting
the
directing
nucleusismodifiedor,better,
completed. Membershipamongtheindividualswhomakeup
thenucleusmay
stillbewonon
purely
idealisticgrounds,
but
theagewhenidealism is
everythingsoon
passes
inthegreat
majority
ofhuman
beings.Theymustthenfindsomething
to
satisfy"ambition,vanityandthe
craving
formaterial
pleasures.
Inaword,alongwithacenterofideasandsentiments,one
musthaveacenterofinterests.
Here
againwecomeuponthetheory
ofthe
alloy
ofpure
metalwithbasethatweformulated
previously.Aruling
nucleusthatis
really
well
organizedmustfinda
placewithin
itselfforallsortsofcharacters forthemanwho
yearnsto
sacrificehimselfforothersandthemanwhowantstoexploit
hisneighbor
forhisown
profit;
forthemanwhowantstolook
powerful,andthemanwhowantstobepowerfulwithoutregard
tolooks;forthemanwhoenjoyssufferingand
privationsand
themanwholikestoenjoythegoodthings
oflife.Whenall
theseelementsarefusedand
disciplined
intoa
strongly
knit
system,withinwhicheveryindividualknowsthatas
long
ashe
remains
loyal
tothepurposesand
policy
oftheinstitutionhis
inclinations willbe
gratified,andthatifherebels
against
it
hemaybemorallyandevenmateriallydestroyed,we
getone
ofthosesocialorganismsthatdefythemostvariedhistorical
vicissitudesandendureforthousandsof
years.
OnethinksatonceoftheCatholicChurch,whichhasbeen
andstillisthemostrobustand
typical
ofallsuch
organisms.
Wecanonlystandin
rapt
admirationbeforethe
complexity
andtheshrewdnessofits
organization. The
seminarystudent,
thenovice,thesisterof
charity,
the
missionary,thepreacher,the
mendicant friar,the
opulentabbot,thearistocratic
prior,the
rural
priest,
thewealthyarchbishop,sometimesalsothe
sovereign
prince,
thecardinal,whotakesprecedenceoverprimeministers,
thepope,whowasoneofthemostpowerful
oftemporalrulers
downtoafewcenturiesago
allhavetheir
place,
allhavetheir
raisond'etre,intheChurch.Macaulay
has
pointed
toa
great
advantage
thatCatholicismhasoverProtestantism. When
anenthusiastic,unbalanced spirit
arisesinsidetheProtestant
fold,healwaysendsbydiscoveringsomenew
interpretation of
theBibleand
foundingonemoreofthemany
sectsintowhich

232. 0] PRINCIPLESANDPRACTICE 189
theReformationhas
split.Thatsameindividualwouldbe
utilizedtoperfectionbyCatholicismandbecomeanelementof
strength
ratherthanof
dispersion.Hewoulddonafriar's
robe,hewouldbecomeafamouspreacher,and,ifhehada
really
originalcharacter,a
trulywarmheart,andifhistorical cir-
cumstancesfavored,hewouldbecomeaSt.FrancisofAssisior
aSt.IgnatiusLoyola.Cogent
asthisexampleis,however, it
showsonlyoneofthecountlessways
inwhichtheCatholic
hierarchymanages
to
profitby
allhumanaptitudes.
Itissaidthatthecelibacy
rulefortheclergygoescontrary
tonature,and
certainly
forsomementobedeprived
ofa
legal
familywouldbeaverygreat
sacrifice.Butitmustberemem-
beredthatonlyatthat
price
canamilitiathatisfreeofall
private
affectionsandstandsapartfromtherestof
society
beobtained;and,meantime,forcharactersthathaveaninclina-
tiontoward
celibacy,
thatinstitution itselfdoesnotpreclude
certainmaterialsatisfactions. Inthesameway,manypeople
believethattheChurchhasdegeneratedandloststrengthand
influencebecauseithasdeviatedfromits
originsandceasedto
be
exclusivelyahandmaidentothepoor.Butthattooisa
superficialandthereforeerroneousjudgment.
Perhapsnowadays,
inthisage
ofours,when
everybody
is
talkingaboutthedisinherited classesandisinterested, or
pretends
tobeinterested,inthem,itmightbebecoming
inthe
Supreme
Pontifftorememberalittleoftenerthatheistheservant
oftheservantsofGod.Butexcept
forcertain
fleetingperiods
in
history,theCatholicChurchwouldnothavebeenwhatit
hasbeen,anditwouldnothaveenduredso
long
in
gloryand
prosperity,
ifithadalwaysconfineditselfto
beinganinstitution
forthesolebenefitofthepoorandhadbeen
popularonlyamong
beggars. Instead,
ithasshrewdlyfoundwaysto
enjoythe
approval
ofboththepoorandtherich.Tothepoor
ithas
offeredalmsandconsolation. Therichithaswonwithits
splendorandwiththesatisfactions ithasbeenableto
provide
fortheir
vanityand
pride.Sowellchosenhasthis
policyproved
thatiftheenemiesoftheChurchhave
alwaysreproached
it
forits
luxuryandworldliness,theyhave
always,
if
theyhavebeen
shrewd,takencaretoderiveasmuchinfluenceandwealthfrom
itaspossible.Oflate,inanumberofEuropeancountries,
anotherinstitutionhasbeendevoting
alHts
energies
to
combating

233. 190 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
theCatholicChurch.Butforitsown
part,
itdoesnotfailto
procureforitsadherentsasmanypersonalsatisfactionsand
materialadvantages
as
possible.
10.Oncetherulingnucleusis
organized,themethodsthatit
usestowinthemassesand
keepthem
loyal
toitsdoctrinemay
bewidelyvarious.Whennoseriousexternalobstacles,orobsta-
cles
arising
fromthenatureofthe
political
or
religioussystem
itself,areencountered,bothmethodsof
propaganda
thatare
baseduponthegradualpersuasionandeducationofthemasses
andmethodsthatinvolvetheresorttoforceyieldgood
results.
Force,infact,isperhaps
the
quickestmeansof
establishing
a
convictionoranidea,thoughnaturallyonlythestrongercan
useit.
Inthenineteenthcentury
itbecameawidespread
beliefthat
forceand
persecutionwerepowerlessagainstdoctrinesthatwere
foundedupontruth,sincethefuturebelongedtosuchdoctrines.
Theywereregarded
as
equally
uselessagainstmistakenbeliefs,
sincepopulargood
sensewouldattendtothemonitsown
account.Now,tobequitefrank,itishardtofindanotionthat
involvesagreatersuperficiality
ofobservationanda
greater
inexperience
ofhistoricalfact.Thatsurely
willbeoneofthe
ideasofourtimethatwill
giveposterity
theheartiestlaughs
at
ourexpense.Thatsuchatheoryshouldbepreachedbyparties
andsectswhichdonotasyet
holdpower
intheirhandsis
easily
understandable theirinstinctsofself-interestand
self-preserva-
tionmight
leadthemto
professsuchviews.
Stupiditybegins
whenitisacceptedby
others."Quid
estveritas?"askedPilate,
andwecanbeginbyaskingwhatatruedoctrineisandwhata
falsedoctrine is.Scientificallyspeaking,
all
religious
doctrines
arefalse,regardless
ofthenumberofbelieverstheymayhaveor
mayhavehad.Noone,certainly,
willmaintainthatMoham-
medanism,forinstance,whichhasconquered
solargeaportion
oftheworld,isfoundedupon
scientifictruth. Itismuchmore
accuratetosaythattherearedoctrinesthat
satisfysentiments
whicharewidespreadandveryDeeplyrootedinthehumanheart
and,accordingly,
have
greaterpowers
ofself
-propagation;and
thattherearedoctrinesthatpossess
thequalitymentionedtoa
lesserdegree
andtherefore,thoughtheymaybemoreacceptable
ontheintellectual side,haveafarmorelimited
appeal.
If

234. 10] PROPAGANDAANDPERSECUTION 101
onewill,adistinctioncanbedrawnbetweendoctrineswhich
itistotheinterestofcivilizationand
justicetohavewidely
accepted,andwhich
producea
greatersumof
peace,morality
andhumanwelfare,anddoctrineswhichhavethe
opposite
effectsandwhich,unfortunately, arenotalwaystheonesthat
showtheleast
capacity
for
self-propagation.Webelievethat
socialdemocracythreatensthefutureofmoderncivilization,yet
weare
obliged
to
recognizethatitisbasedonthesentimentof
justice,onenvyandonthecraving
for
pleasures;andthose
qualitiesareso
widespreadamongmen,especially
inourday,
thatitwouldbea
greatmistaketodenythatsocialistdoctrines
haveverygreatpowersofself-propagation*
Peoplealwayspoint
tothecaseof
Christianity,whichtri-
umphed
in
spite
of
persecutions,andtomodernliberalism,which
overcamethetyrantswhotriedtorepress
it.Butthesec&ses
merelyshowthatwhen
persecution
isbadlymanaged
itcannot
do
everything,andthattheremaybecaseswherepure
force
doesnotsufficetoarrestacurrentofideas.The
exception,
however,cannotserveasabasisfora
generalprinciple.
Ifa
persecution
isbadlymanaged,tardilyundertaken, laxlyand
f
alteringlyapplied,
italmostalwayshelpstofurtherthetriumph
ofadoctrine;whereasa
pitilessand
energeticpersecution,which
strikesatthe
opposing
doctrinethemomentitshowsitshead,is
theverybesttoolforcombatting
it.
Christianitywasnotalwayspersecutedenergetically
inthe
RomanEmpire.
Ithad
longperiods
oftoleration,andoften-
timesthe
persecutionsthemselveswereonlypartialthey
were
confined,thatis,toafewprovinces.
Itdidnot
definitely
triumph,however, untilanemperorwhoheldconstituted
authority
inhishandsbegan
tofavorit.Sotoo,liberalpropa-
gandawasnotonlyhampered,
itwasalsofurthered,bygovern-
mentsfromthemiddleoftheeighteenthcenturydowntothe
FrenchRevolution, Lateronitwas
foughtintermittentlyand
neversimultaneously through
alltheEuropean world. It
triumphedwhenthegovernments
themselveswereconvertedto
it,orelsewereoverthrownbyforce,internalorfromabroad.
Ascomparedwiththosetwodoubtfulexamples,howmany
otherstherearetothe
precisecontrary! Christianity
itselfinits
earlydayshardlyspreadbeyondtheboundariesoftheRoman
Empire.
Itwasnotaccepted
inPejrsia,notonlybecause it

235. 10 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
metanobstacleinthePersiannational
religionbutbecauseit
was
energeticallypersecuted. CharlemagneplantedChristianity
among
theSaxonsby
fireandswordandwithinthespace
ofa
generation.Theevangelization
oftheRomanEmpiretook
centuries.Afew
years
sufficedtocarrytheGospel
tomany
barbariancountries,becauseoncea
kingandhisnobleswere
converted,the
peoplebenttheirneckstobaptism
enmasse.
Thecrosswassetup
inthatverysummarymannerinthevarious
Anglo-Saxondominions, inPoland,inRussia,intheScandi-
naviancountriesandinLithuania. Intheseventeenthcentury,
theChristian
religionwasalmostwipedoutinJapanbya
pitiless
andthereforeeffectivepersecution. Buddhismwaseradicated
bypersecutionfromIndia,itsmotherland;Mazdaismfromthe
PersiaoftheSassanids;BabismfrommodernPersiaandthe
new
religion
oftheTaipingsfromChina.Thanksto
persecution,
the
AlbigensesdisappearedfromsouthernFrance,andMoham-
medanismandJudaismfromSpainand
Sicily.TheReformation
triumphed,
afterall,only
incountrieswhereitwassupportedby
governmentsand,insomecases,by
avictoriousrevolution.The
rapid
riseofChristianity itself,whichisascribedtoamiracle,is
nothing
ascompared
withthefarmore
rapid
riseofMohammed-
anism.Theformerspreadoverthe
territory
oftheRoman
Empire
inthreecenturies.Thelatterin
justeightyyears
expandedfromSamarkand tothePyrenees. Christianity,
however,workedonlybypreachingand
persuasion.Theother
showedadecided
preference
forthescimitar.
Thefactthatall
politicalpartiesand
religiouscreedstendto
exertaninfluenceupon
thoseinpowerand,whenevertheycan,
tomonopolizepoweritself,isthebestproofthateveniftheydo
not
openly
confessitthey
areconvincedthattocontrolallthe
moreeffectiveforcesinasocial
organism,and
especially
ina
bureaucratic state,
isthebestway
tospreadandmaintaina
doctrine,
11.Asregardstheothermeans,apartfrom
physicalforce,
whichthevarious
religionsand
politicalpartiesusetoattract
themasses,maintainascendancyoverthemand
exploit
their
credulity,wemaysayverylargelywhatwesaidofthe
obligation
thatfoundersofdoctrines,anddoctrinesthemselves,areunder
toadaptthemselvestoa
fairlylowmorallevel.The

236. 11] PROPAGANDA 193
ofeverypolitical
or
religioussystem
arewont
carefully
tolist
thefaultsoftheiradversariesin
respect
ofmoral
practices,
while
claiming
tobefreeofanyreproachthemselves. Asamatterof
factallofthem,withdifferencesindegreetobesure,aretarred
withthesamebrush. Itisour
privilege
tobe
perfectlymoral
solong
aswedonotcomeintocontactwithothermen,and
especially
solong
aswemakenopretensions
to
guiding
them.
Butoncewesetouttodirecttheirconduct,weare
obliged
to
playupon
allthesensitive
springs
ofconductthat
we,
cantouch
inthem.Wehavetotakeadvantage
ofalltheirweaknesses,
andanyonewhowouldappealonly
totheirgeneroussentiments
wouldbe
easilybeatenbysomeoneelsewhowaslessscrupulous.
Statesarenotrunwith
prayerbooks,saidCosimodeiMedici,the
fatherofhiscountry.Andindeeditisveryhardtoleadthe
massesinagiven
directionwhenoneisnotableasneed
requires
toflatter
passions,satisfywhimsand
appetitesand
inspire
fear.
Ofcourse,
ifaman,howeverwickedhemightbe,triedtorulea
state
strictly
onblasphemy,
thatisto
saybyrelyingexclusively
upon
materialinterestsandthebasersentiments,hewouldbe
just
as
ingenuous
asthemanwhotriedtogovernwith
prayer
booksalone. IfoldCosimowerealivehewouldnothesitateto
callsuchamanafool.Byasufficient
display
of
energy,
self-
sacrifice,restlessactivity,patienceand,where
necessary,superior
technicalskill,themanatthehelmofastatemay
feellessin
needofexploiting
thebasersentiments,andmayplacegreat
dependenceuponthe
generousandvirtuousinstincts ofhis
subjects.Buttheheadofastateis
onlyaman,andsodoesnot
alwayspossessthe
qualitiesmentionedinanyeminent
degree.
Onenotes,onclose
inspection,thattheartificesthatareused
towheedlecrowdsaremoreorlessalikeatalltimesandinall
places,
sincetheproblem
isalways
totake
advantage
ofthesame
humanweaknesses. All
religions,eventhosethatdeny
the
supernatural,
havetheir
specialdeclamatory style,andtheir
sermons,lecturesorspeechesaredeliveredinit.Allofthem
havetheirritualsandtheir
displays
ofpomptostrikethe
fancy.
Someparadewithlighted
candlesandchantlitanies. Others
marchbehindredbannerstothetuneofthe"Marseillaise" or
the"International."
Religionsand
politicalparties
aliketake
advantage
ofthevain
andcreateranks,officesanddistinctionsforthem.Alikethev

237. 194 CHUBCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
exploit
the
simple,theingenuousandthose
eager
forself-sacrifice
orfor
publicity,
inordertocreatethe
martyr*
Oncethemartyr
hasbeenfound,they
takecareto
keep
hiscultalive,sincethat
servesveryeffectively
to
strengthen
faith.Onceuponatime
itwasapractice
inmonasteriestochoosethesilliestofthefriars
andaccredithimasasaint,even
ascribing
miraclestohim,all
withaviewto
enhancingtherenownofthebrotherhoodand
henceitswealthandinfluence,whichwerestraightwayturned
togoodaccountbythosewhohaddirectedthe
staging
ofthe
farce.Inourday
sectsand
politicalpartiesare
highly
skilled
atcreating
the
superman,
the
legendaryhero,the"manof
unquestionedhonesty,"whoserves,inhisturn,tomaintainthe
lusterofthegangandbrings
inwealthandpower
forthe
sly
ones
touse.When"my
uncletheCount"remindedtheCapuchin
FatherProvincialofthe
scalawag
tricksthatFatherChristopher
hadplayed
inhis
youth,
theFatherProvincialpromptlyreplied
thatitwastotheglory
ofthecloththatonewhohadcaused
scandalintheworldshouldbecomequiteadifferentpersonon
taking
thecloth.
1A
typicallymonkish
reply,withoutdoubt!
Butworsethanmonksare
politicalpartiesandsectswhich
concealandexcusetheworstrascalities oftheiradherentsso
long
asthey
are
loyal
tothecolors.Forthem,whoevertakes
theclothbecomesonthespotaquite
differentperson.
Thecomplex
ofdissimulation, artificeand
stratagemthat
commonlygoesbythenameofJesuitism isnot
peculiar
tothe
followersofLoyola.Perhaps
theJesuitshadthehonoroflend-
ing
ittheirnamebecausetheysystematized
the
thing,perfected
itandinawaymadeanartofit;but,afterall,theJesuitical
spirit
is
just
aformofthesectarian
spiritcarriedtoitsultimate
implications.
All
religionsandall
partieswhichhavesetout
withmoreorlesssincereenthusiasms toleadmentoward
specifiedgoalshave,withmoreorlessmoderation,usedmethods
similartothemethodsoftheJesuits,andsometimesworseones.
Theprinciplethattheend
justifiesthemeanshasbeenadopted
forthetriumph
ofallcausesandallsocialand
poEticalsystems.
All
parties,
aUcults,makeita
ruje
to
judgeonlythatman
great
who
fights
intheparty
ranks allothermenareidiotsor
rogues.
Whenthey
candonothingmore
positive,theymaintainobstinate
silenceonthemeritsofoutsiders. Allsectarians
practice
the
1
Manzoni,/promessisposi,chap.XIX

238. }11] PROPAGANDA 195
artofholding
totheformandletteroftheirwordwhile
violating
itinsubstance. Allofthemknowhowtodistortarecitalof
factstotheiradvantage.
Allofthemknowhowtofind
simple,
timidsoulsandhowtocapture
theirloyaltyandwintheir
assistanceandtheircontributionsfor"thecause"andforthe
personswhorepresent
itahdareitsapostles. Unfortunately,
therefore,eveniftheJesuitsweretodisappear,Jesuitismwould
remain,andwehaveonlytolookaboutustobeconvincedofthat
truth.
Themoreblatantlyunscropuhlitsmeansareoftenestusedin
associationsthatareinconflictwithconstitutedauthoritiesand
aremoreorlesssecretincharacter.Among
theinstructions
thatBakuninsentouttohisfollowers,wefindthisone:
Toreachthegloomycity
ofPandestruction, thefirst
requisite
isa
seriesofassassinations,aseriesofboldandperhapscrazyenterprises
whichwillstriketerrortotheheartsofthepowerfulanddazzlethe
populace
intobelieving
inthetriumph
oftherevolution.
Couchedincruderlanguage,Bakunin'smaximsremindoneof
the"Be
agitatedandagitate"ofanother
greatrevolutionist.
Inthesamepamphlet,PrinciplesofRevolution,Bakunin
goes
on:
Withoutrecognizinganyactivityotherthandestruction,wedeclare
thattheformsinwhichthatactivity
shouldmanifestitselfarevariety
itself:poison,dagger,
knout.Revolutionsanctifies
everythingwithout
distinction.
AnotherRussian,whocametohold
principlesverydifferent
fromBakunin's,describesinanovelthemethodsbywhichthe
wilyattracttheingenuousintorevolutionary societies. Says
Dostoevski :
Firstofallthebureaucratic baitisnecessary. Therehavetobe
titlespresidents,secretaries,andsoon.Thencomessentimentality,
whichisamosteffective
agent,andthenregard
forwhatpeoplemay
think.Fearof
beingaloneinone'sopinionandfearofpassingforan
antiliberalarethingsthathavetremendouspower.
Then[addsanotherinterlocutorinthe
dialogue]thereisthetrickof
embroilingunsuspectingneophytes
inacrime*Fivecomradesmurder
asixthonthepretextthatheisa
spy.
...Murdercementsevery-
thing.Thereisnoescapeevenforthemostreluctant.
1
1
ThePossessed,partII,chap.VI
(pp.302-393).

239. 196 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
12,Thedaycan
hardlycomewhenconflictsandrivalries
among
different
religionsand
parties
willend.Thatwouldbe
possibleonly
ifallthecivilizedworldwereto
belong
toa
single
socialtype,toa
singlereligion,andifthereweretobeanendto
disagreements
astotheways
inwhichsocialbettermentcanbe
attained.Nowanumber ofGermanwritersbelievethat
politicalpartiesarenecessaryas
corresponding
tothevarious
tendenciesthatmanifestthemselvesatdifferent
ages
inthe
human
being.Withoutacceptingthattheorywecan
readily
observethatanynew
religion,anynew
politicaldogma
that
chancestowinsomemeasureofsuccess,straightway
breaksup
intosects,under
pressure
oftheinstinctfor
disputing
and
quarreling;andthesesects
fightoneanotherwiththesamezest
andthesamebitternessthattheparent
faithformerlydisplayed
against
rival
religionsand
parties.Thenumerousschismsand
heresiesthatareforeversprouting
in
Christianity,Moham-
medanismandthemanyotherreligions,thedivisionsthatkeep
emerging
inourday
withinsocialdemocracy,
whichisstillfar
fromatriumphthatitmayneverattain,provehowextra-
ordinarilyharditistoachievethatunifiedanduniversalmoral
andintellectualworldtowhichsomanypeopleaspire.
Even
granting
thatsuchaworldcouldberealized,itdoesnot
seemtousadesirablesortofworld.Sofarin
history,freedom
tothink,toobserve,to
judgemenand
thingsserenelyanddis-
passionately,
hasbeen
possible alwaysbeitunderstood,fora
fewindividuals only
inthosesocietiesinwhichnumbersof
differentreligiousand
political
currentshavebeen
struggling
for
dominion. Thatsamecondition, aswehavealready
seen
(chap.V, 9),
isalmostindispensable
fortheattainment of
whatiscommonly
called
"politicalliberty" inotherwords,
thehighestpossibledegree
of
justice
intherelationsbetween
governors
and
governed
thatiscompatiblewithourimperfect
humannature.Infact,insocietieswherechoiceamonga
numberof
religiousand
political
currentshasceasedtobe
possible
becauseonesuchcurrenthassucceededin
gaining
exclusive
control,theisolatedand
original
thinkerhastobesilent,and
moralandintellectualmonopoly
isinfalliblyassociatedwith
politicalmonopoly,
totheadvantage
ofacasteorofavery
few
socialforces.

240. 1*] WARANDPROGRESS 197
ThemodernMasonicdoctrineinEurope
isbasedonthebelief
thatmantendstobecome
physically,intellectuallyand
morally
sanerandnobler,andthatonlyignoranceandsuperstition,which
havegenerated
thedogmaticreligons,havepreventedhimfrom
following
thatroad,whichishisnaturalroad,anddrivenhimto
persecutions,
massacresandfratricidalstrife.Suchaviewdoes
notseemtoustenable.Therevealed
religions*whichmany
peoplearenow
callingsuperstitions,werenottaught
tomanby
anextrahuman
being.Theywerecreatedbymenthemselves,
andtheyhavealwaysfoundtheirnourishmentandtheirraison
d*treinhumannature.They
areonly
in
part,
andsometimes
in
very
small
part,responsible
for
struggles,massacresand
persecutions. Theseareduemoreoftentothe
passions
ofmen
thantothedogmas
that
religions
teach.Infact,inthe
light
of
impartialhistory,
theexcuseof"thetimes,"andof
religiousand
politicalfanaticism,takesawayonly
asmallfractionofindividual
responsibility
for
outrages
of
every
sort.Whateverthetimes
maybe,ineveryreligion,
in
everydoctrine,eachofuscanfind
anddoesfindthetendency
thatbestsuitshischaracterand
temperament. Mohammedanism didnotprevent
Saladinfrom
beingahumaneandgenerous
soulevenin
dealing
withinfidels,
anymorethanChristianitymitigatedthe
ferocityofRichardthe
Lionhearted. That
king,
socelebratedforhis
chivalry,was
responsible
forthemassacreofthreethousandMohammedan
prisoners,takenafterthestrenuousdefenseatAcre,anditwas
duetothegenerosity
ofSaladinthatthatterribleexamplewas
notfollowedona
large
scalebytheMohammedanarmy.The
same
religionthatgavetheworldSimondeMonfortandTor-
quemadaalsogavetheworldSt.FrancisofAssisiandSt.Theresa.
Theyear
1793sawthelivesandfeatsofMarat,Robespierreand
Carrier
(theConventionist Carrier,whohadthechildrenofthe
Vendeansdrownedby
thethousandatNantes).Butthatsame
yearknewBonchamps,
theleaderofthe
loyalists
intheVendee,
who,ashelaywoundedonhisdeathbed,pleaded
forthelivesof
fourthousand
republicanprisonerswhomhisfellowsoldiers,
were
intending
toshootdownandwontheirrelease.Asa
matteroffact,inthecourseofthepastcentury
thebitterest
struggleshavebeen
fought,
theworst
persecutionsandmassacres
havebeen
perpetrated,
inthenameofdoctrineswhichhaveno

241. 198 CHURCHES,PARTIESANDSECTS [CHAP.VII
basisatallinthesupernatural,andwhichproclaim
the
liberty,
equalityand
fraternity
ofallmen.
The
feeling
that
springsspontaneouslyfromanunprejudiced
judgment
ofthehistory
ofhumanity
iscompassionforthecon-
tradictoryqualities
ofthispoorhumanraceofours,sorichin
abnegation,
soreadyattimesforpersonalsacrifice,yetwhose
everyattempt,whethermoreorlesssuccessfulornotatall
successful,toattainmoralandmaterialbetterment, iscoupled
withan
unleashing
ofhates,rancorsandthebasest
passions.A
tragicdestiny
isthatofmen!Aspiringevertopursueand
achievewhattheythinkisthegood,theyeverfindpretexts
for
slaughteringand
persecutingeachother.Oncetheyslaughtered
and
persecuted
overtheinterpretation
ofadogma,
orofa
passage
intheBible.Thentheyslaughteredandpersecuted
in
ordertoinauguratethekingdom
of
liberty,equalityandfra-
ternity.Todaytheyareslaughteringandpersecutingand
fiendishlytorturingeachotherinthenameofothercreeds.
Perhapstomorrowthey
willslaughterandtormenteachother
inanefforttobanishthelasttraceofviolenceandinjusticefrom
theearth!

242. CHAPTERVIII
REVOLUTION
1.Wehave
justexaminedtheways
inwhichthecurrentsof
ideas,sentiments,passions,
thatcontributeto
changing
trends
inhumansocietiesariseandassertthemselves. Butitisalso
observablethatattimesthesecurrents
gaintheupperhandby
force,replacingtheindividualswhoareinpowerwithother
individualswhorepresentnew
principles. Insocietiesthathave
attaineda
fairlycomplicatedtype
of
organization,suchchanges
mayoccurontheinitiative,oratanyratewiththeconsent,of
thenormallyrulingclass,which,in
ordinarycases,holdsexclu-
sive
possession
ofarms.Thenagaintheymaybebroughtabout
byothersocialelementsandforces,whichsucceedin
defeating
thepreviouslyruling
element.Thenaphenomenonthathas
beenratherfrequent
inthehistory
ofourtime
appears,the
thing
thatiscommonly
called"revolution."
Upheavals
insmallstates,whereabureaucraticorganization
doesnotexistorisessentiallyembryonic,bear
onlya
superficial
resemblancetoupheavals
in
largestates,and
especially
states
likeourmodernnations. Inclassical
antiquitywhena
tyrant
becamemasterofa
city,
oranoligarchysupersededademocracy
andoften,too,whenatyranny
or
oligarchywasoverthrown
itwasalwaysatbottomaquestion
ofone
clique,moreorless
numerous,supersedinganotherclique
inthemanagement
ofthe
commonwealth. WhentheGreekstatewas
functioning
nor-
mallythewholegoverningclass,inotherwordseverybodywho
wasnotaslaveoraresidentalienoramanuallaborer,hada
sharein
political
life.Whenatyrannical
or
oligarchicalregime
wasestablished,orevenadegenerateformofdemocracythat
wascalled"ochlocracy,"oneelementinthe
governing
class
usurped allpower
tothedetrimentofotherelements,which
werein
part
killedoff,inpartdespoiled
oftheir
propertyand
exiled.Thevictors,intheirturn,hadtofearreprisalsfromthe
vanquished,
forifthelattereversucceededin
getting
theupper
190

243. 00 REVOLUTION [CHAP.VIII
handagain,theytreatedtheirformer
despoilers
inthesame
manner.
The
strugglewasthereforeconductedonabasisofforceand
cunning,withmurdersandsurprises,andthe
parties
tothe
struggle
oftensoughtthesupport
ofoutsidersorofsomefew
mercenaries. Oncevictorious,theyusually
seizedthecitadeland
deprived
allwhowerenotoftheirfactionoftheirweapons.
Armswererather
costly
inthosedaysandcouldnot
easily
be
replaced.Onrareoccasions,aswasthecasewiththecoup
d'6tat
ofPelopidasandEpaminondasatThebes,andthatofTimoleon
atSyracuse,someonewouldusea
victory
toestablishaless
sanguinary
andlessviolentregime.Buteventhensucha
beneficentinnovationwouldlastonly
aslong
asthepersonal
influenceorthelifeofitsauthorlasted.Sometimes,again,
the
usurping
factionwouldsucceedinkeeping
itselfinpower
for
morethana
generation. ThatwasthecasewithPisistratus
andhissons,andwiththetwoDionysiuses,tyrants
ofSyracuse.
Agathocles,oneoftheworsttyrantsknowntoGreek
history,
died
anoldman,andhehadseizedpower
asayouth.Poisonalone
seemedabletocutshorthislifeandhisrule.
Theusages
oftheancientHellenicstatewerereborninthe
Italiancommunes oftheMiddleAges,wherethe
political
organizationwasverymuchlikethatofclassicGreece.A
factionwithsomenoblemanatitsheadwouldseizepowerand
banishallitsenemiesormurderthem.Ineithercasetheir
propertywouldbeconfiscated. Oftenonehadtocrushifone
didnotcaretobecrushed.Asarulethetworichestand
strongest
familiesofthecommunewouldcontendarmatamanu
forsupremacy.Theytoo,liketheheadsoftheoldGreek
parties,usedoutsideaidandmercenarieswheneverthey
could.
SotheTorrianiandtheViscontidisputedpossessionofMilan,
andthescene,withfewvariations,wasrepeated
insmaller
Italiancities. Peaces,truces,tearfulreconciliations, religious
repentances,
weresometimesengineeredbymonksandhonest
citizens.DinoCompagni
inhisChronicles
1
relateshowhe
tried,andapparentlywithsuccess,toreconciletheheadsofthe
WhiteandBlack
parties
inFlorence,bringingthem
together
inchurchandinducingthem,withappropriatewords,toembrace
eachother.Butsuchmaneuvers,howeverwell-intentioned,
8
(p.00).

244. fl] MEDIEVALREVOLUTIONS 01
had
onlymomentary
effects.Worsestill,theywereoftenmere
stratagemsby
whichthe
bigger
rascalswould
get
thebetterof
thesmalleronesbystriking
atthemwhentheywereofftheir
guardandunabletodefendthemselves.
WiththeadventoftheRenaissance,waysbecamelesswarlike
andopen
conflictrarer,butperfidyandbetrayalgrew
stillmore
subtle,andlongpractice
liftedthemalmosttotherankof
sciences. Insomecitiesso-called"civilizedmanners"prevailed.
InFlorence,forinstance,thepowerfuldrew
togetherbykinship
andmaintainedacertain
balanc^,keeping
theirpredominance
by
"
stuffingthe
purses*
5
theequivalent
ofmodernEuropean
electionlistswiththenamesoftheirhenchmen. Thatpolicy
wasfollowed,as
long
asNiccolod'Uzzanowasalive,bythe
mercantile
oligarchythathadtheAlbizziatitshead. Itwas
the
policy
alsoofCosimodeiMediciandhis
colleagues,though
Cosimowasadept
at
usingotherdevicesonoccasion.
1
Else-
where,inBomagnaandUmbria,warsthatweremere
struggles
between
gangs
and
gangstersdragged
onuntilafter1500.
In
Perugia,
theOddiweredrivenoutbythe
Baglioni,butcame
backbysurpriseone
night.The
Baglionifought
intheir
shirttailsandcame offbest. Victorious,theyturnedand
exterminatedeachother. OliverottodaFermo,attheheadofa
bandofcutthroats,won
lordshipoverhis
citybymurdering
hisuncleandothernotablesofthetown,whohadinvitedhim
toa
friendly
dinner.
Inthecivilconflictsthattookplace
intheGreekcitiesandin
theItaliancommunes,moderationandhumanenesswerenot
usefultraitsofcharacter.Powerwentasaruletothe
quickest
andthe
slyest,
tothosewhocoulddissemblebestandhadthe
toughest
consciences. Chance,too,played
a
greatpart
inthe
successfuloutcome ofan
undertaking,andmanyromantic
episodes
arerecounted inthisconnection.A
barkingdog,
a
drinkingboutanhourearlieroranhourlater,aletterread
intimeorleftunopened
tillthenextday,determinedtheout*
comeofa
surprise,
aswhenEpaminondasandPelopidasgained
controlofThebes,andAratusof
Sicyon.
Itisalso
interesting
tonotethatneitherthecivilstrifethattormentedtheGreek
statesnorthefactionalwarsthatkepttheItaliancommunes
inturmoilmadeanyperceptible
contributions tocivilization.
1
Capponi,StoriadeUaEepubUica
diF4renze,vol.II,pp.108,38$.

245. 202 REVOLUTION [CHAP.VIII
Rulers
changed,butwhoevertriumphed,societyalwayskept
thesamesocialphysiognomy. Thegreatphenomena
in
history
theriseofHellenicscienceandart,theemancipation
of
serfs,therebirthofartsandlettersattheendoftheMiddle
Agesdevelopedindependently
ofthebloodystruggles
that
torturedGreeceand
Italy,Atthemost,thesecivilconflicts
helped
toretardthematuring
ofsuchmovements,functioning
inthat
respect
like
foreignwars,faminesor
pestilences,which
impoverishand
prostrateacountryandsorarely
failtohamper
itseconomicandintellectual
progress.
A
political
sciencebased
exclusivelyuponobservation of
thehistorical
periods
towhichwehavereferredcouldnothelp
beingincompleteand
superficial,andthosearethetraitsofthe
methodembodiedinMachiavelli's celebrated
essayonThe
Prince.Thatworkhasbeentoomuchreviledandtoomuch
praised.
Inanyevent,whetherin
praise
orinblame,too
great
animportance
hasbeenattachedtoit.Ifsomeobserverin
ourdayweretonotetheways
inwhich
privatefortunesare
madeandunmadeonourstock
exchanges,
inourcorporations
orinourbanks,hecould
easily
writeabookontheartof
getting
richthatwouldprobably
offer
verysoundadviceonhowto
looklikeanhonestmanand
yetnotbeone,andonhowtothieve
androbandstillkeep
clearofthecriminalcourts.Sucha
bookwould,onemaybesure,makethe
preceptsthattheFloren-
tineSecretarylaysdowninhisessaylooklike
jests
forinnocent
babes.Evenso,aswehavealreadysuggested(chap.I, 1),
suchaworkwouldhavenothingtodowitheconomicscience,
just
astheartof
attainingpowerand
holding
it-has
nothingto
dowith
political
science.Thatsuch
thingshaveno
bearing
onscience,inotherwordsonthediscovery
ofthe
greatpsy-
chological
lawsthatfunctioninallthe
largehumansocieties, is
easilyproved.
Machiavelli's suggestionsmighthaveserved
LouistheMoororCesareBorgia,just
astheymighthaveserved
Dionysius, AgathoclesandJasonofPherae.Theymight
haveservedthedeys
of
Algiers,
orAliTebelen,orevenMehemet
AliwhenheexclaimedthatEgyptwasup
forsaleontheauction
blocktothemanwhomadethelastbidindollarsorsabercuts.
ButonecannotbesurethatthearttaughtbyMachiavelli
hasanypractical
valueinitself,orthateventhestatesmen
mentionedwouldhavederivedanygreatprofitfromit.When

246. 1] MACHIAVELLI 80S
the
question
ofwinningpowerandholding
itisinvolved,knowl-
edge
ofthe
general
lawsthatmay
bededucedfromastudy
of
humanpsychology,
oroftheconstanttendenciesthatare
revealedby
thehumanmasses,doesnothelpverymuch.The
importantthingatsuchtimesis
quicklyandreadilytounder-
standone'sownabilitiesandtheabilitiesofothers,andtomake
good
useofthem.Such
thingsvary
so
widelythattheycannot
becoveredbygeneral
rules.A
piece
ofadvicemaybegood
for
oneman,
ifheknowshowtotakeproperadvantage
ofit,and
verybadforanother.Thesame
personacting
inthesameway
intwoapparently
identicalcaseswillfarenowwellnowbadly
accordingtothedifferentpeople
withwhomhehappens
tobe
dealing. Guicciardiniwellsays:"Theory
isonethingand
prac-,
ticeanother,and
many
understandtheformerwithoutbeing
abletoput
itinto
operation.Nordoesithelpmuchtoreasonby
examples,
sinceevery
littlechange
inthe
particular
case
brings
on
greatchanges
intheconsequences/'
1
CertainlyMachiavelli's
preceptswouldhavebeenoflittleusetothestatesmenofthe
RomanRepublic,andtheywouldservethestatesmenofmodern
Europeverybadly
indeed.However,toavoidanymisunder-
standing,wehadbetter
agree
thatrectitude,self-sacrifice,good
faith,haveneverbeenanywhere
oratanytimethe
qualities
thatbestservefor
attainingpowerand
holding
itnoristhe
situationany
differenttoday.
Itneedhardly
bepointedoutthatinmodernstates,which
arefar
larger
insizethantheancientandhavetheircomplicated
organization,
theirbureaucracies, theirstandingarmies,no
revolutioncanbeachievedwithadagger
thrustin
somebody's
back,withawell-laidambush,withawell-planned attack
onapublicbuilding.Whenmodernrevolutioniststaketheir
cuefromthepractices
oftheirancientpredecessors,they
fall
into
gross
errorsofanachronism. Classical reminiscences,
tobesure,arenotwholly
useless.They
firethesoulsofthe
youthfulandservetomaintaina
revolutionary atmosphere.
Theywerecleverlyexploited
inthatsenseawaybackinthe
Renaissance,forinstance,inthepreparation
ofthe
conspiracy
of
1476,whichencompassed
theassassinationofGaleazzoSforza,
Tokilla
kingmaynotbeenoughtooverturnagovernment
today,but
politicalassassinations still
help,sometimes,to
inspire
1
Penswri>no.85.

247. 804 REVOLUTION
[CHAP.VIII
leadersofa
governing
classwithhesitationorterrorandsomake
themless
energetic
inaction.Almost all
political
assassins
losetheirlivesintheexecution oftheir
enterprises.Many
ofthembecomemartyrstoanideain
consequence,andthe
venerationthatis
eventuallypaidthemisoneofthelesshonor-
ablebutnotleasteffectivemeansof
keepingrevolutionary
propaganda
alive.
.Ofalltheancientstates,republicanRomewastheonein
which
juridicaldefensewasmost
solidlyestablished, ancfin
whichcivilstrifewas,therefore,leastbloodyandleastfrequent.
Duringthe
protracted
conflictsbetweenpatriciansandplebeians
therewasnolackofdisorders intheForum.Sometimes
daggersweredrawnand,onafewoccasions,gangs
oftrouble-
makersmanaged
toseizetheCapitolbysurprise
attacks.But
forwholecenturiestherewasnocaseofafaction
violently
usurpingpowerand
massacring
or
exiling
itsadversaries. At
thetimewhentheGracchiwereslain,the
legalprocedure
of
votingwastwice
interruptedbybloodshed;andlateron,when
thevoteofthecomitiatoentrustcommandofthewarinAsiato
Sullawasannulledbyviolence,Sullasetanewexampleby
entering
the
cityattheheadofanarmy.The
legionshad
long
been
fighting
outsideof
Italy,andsohadbecomereal
standingarmiessuitablefor
acting
asblindinstruments in
thehandsoftheir
generals.Thecivilwarsthatensuedwere
fought
between
regulararmies,andtheleaderofthelastarmy
towinsuchawarwasOctavianusAugustus.Hechangedthe
formofgovernmentpermanentlyandfoundedabureaucratic
militarymonarchy.Fromthenon,the
regulararmyarrogated
toitselfthe
right
to
change
nottheformofthegovernment
buttheheadofthegovernment.
InfeudalEurope
civilconflictsandrevolutionsassumed,
astheyquiteregularlyassumeamongpeoples
thatare
feudally
organized,
thecharacterofwarsbetweenfactionsofbaronsor
localleaders.SoinGermany,ontheelectionofanew
emperor,
thebaronsandthefreecitieswouldoftendivideintotwo
parties
thatfought
eachotherbackandforth,each
following
the
sovereign
ofitschoiceandpronouncinghim
legitimate.
Else-
where,asin
Sicily
intheperiod
oftheconflictsbetweentheLatin
andCatalannobilities,the
contendingpartiesdisputedpossession

248. 2] TYPESOFCIVILSTRIFE 205
ofthe
physicalperson
ofthe
king,
orofthe
prince
orprincess
whowasheirtothecrown.Such
possession
enabledafaction
totakeshelterunderthewing
oflegitimacyandproclaim
its
adversaries rebelsandtraitors.Forthesamereasons,the
BurgundiansandArmagnacs
inFrancefought
for
possession
oftheperson
ofkingordauphin(seebelow, 6).Atother
timesthebaronswould
alignthemselvesunderthestandardsof
tworival
dynasties,
ashappened
inEnglandduring
theWarsof
theRoses.Wheneverthewholeofa
nobility,
or
virtuallythe
whole,roseunanimouslyagainstasovereign,
therevolutionwas
sooncomplete,thekingbeingeasilyoverthrownandreducedto
impotence.
Thislattercasewasnotrareinany
oftheoldfeudal
regimes.
Itwas
especiallyfrequent
inScotland.
AsincivilconflictsintheGreekstatesandtheItaliancom-
munes,sointhesedomesticconflictsbetweenthebaronsofa
givenkingdom,thevictoriouspartywaswont,whenever
possible,
to
dispossess
thevanquished
oftheirfiefsanddistributethese
among
itsownfollowers. Assassinationand
especiallypoisoning
were
fairlyrare;butifthevanquished
didnotfallonthefield
ofbattletheexecutioner'saxwasoftenwaiting
forthem. All
thenoblefamily
oftheChiaramonti
perishedonthescaffold
atPalermo;andthefloweroftheold
Englishnobilitywas
exterminatedonthescaffold,oronthefieldofbattle,during
thesuccessivevictoriesanddefeatsofthetwohousesofYork
andLancaster. InFranceanumberofArmagnacswereassassi-
nated.Otherswerelynchedby
Parismobs.Inhisturn,John
theFearless,DukeofBurgundy,
diedbyanassassin'shand.
As
regardsMohammedan countries,onemayignoremere
court
intrigues
thatoccasionthe
depositionanddeathofone
sultanandtheelevationofanother.Butifrevolutionsproper
showacertainresemblancetotheconflictsthatwerewaged
betweencliques
ofnoblesinfeudalEurope,they
alsoshow
traces,often,ofamovementwhichwewouldnowadays
call
socialistic,though
itusually
isobscuredand
disguisedas
religious
reform.TheeffortsofmanyLevantineandAfrican
sovereigns
tosurroundthemselveswith
regulartroopsserving
forpayhaveprovedfairly
successfulatonetimeoranother.
Allthesame,amongmostMussulmanpeoples,especiallyamong
peoples
thatdonottaketocitiesbutlead
pastoral
ratherthan
agricultural lives,a
very
ancienttribal
organization
hasbeen

249. 206 REVOLUTION [CHAP.VIII
preserved,anduprisings
oftribalchieftains, likethoseofthe
Europeanbarons,insupport
ofsomepretender
toathroneorof
theclaimsofsomenewdynastyhavealwaysremained
possi-
bilities.Among
thetribesthemselves,furthermore,someinno-
vatorisalwayscomingalong
topreacha
religious
reformand
claimtobe
leadingIslambacktoits
pristinepurity.
Ifsuccess
smilesuponthe
agitation
ofsucha
person,we
geta
religiousand
socialrevolution.
InNearEasterncountries,andinNorthAfricatoo,there
isnotthatclass
struggle
between
capitalistsand
proletarians
thatischaracteristic ofmodernEurope,butforhundredsand
hundredsofyearsanundercurrent ofantagonism
has
persisted
betweenthepoorbrigand
tribesofthedesertsandthemountain
regionsandtherichertribesthatinhabitthefertile
plains.
Hostility
isstillmoreovertbetweenthefarmersandthewealthy,
unwarlikepopulations
ofthecoastal cities. Itcanhardly
besaidthatIslamoffersno
pretext
forrevivalsoftheold
equali-
tarian
spirit,
theoldcontempt
forrichesandenjoyments,that
wefindinanumberoftheearlyHebrew
prophets
inIsaiah,
forinstance,andinAmos,theherdsmanofTekoa. IfMoham-
meddidnotsaythatitwaseasierforacameltopassthroughthe
eye
ofaneedlethanforarichmantoenterthekingdom
of
heaven,henonethelesslovedsimpleways,andamongthe
joys
ofthisworldhe
prizedonlywomenand
perfumes.Once
eighty
horsemen oftheBeni-Kende,atriberecentlyconvertedto
Islamism,presented
themselves beforehimasambassadors,
in
magnificentarrayandcladinsilken
garments. Straightway
heremindedthemthatthenew
religiondidnotadmitof
luxury,
andtheyatoncetoretheirrichraimenttoshreds.
1
Omar,the
second
caliph,conqueredmanylandsandendlesstreasure,but
heate
frugally,sittingontheground,andwhenhediedhis
personalestateconsistedofonetunicandthreedrachmas.
ThatmakesiteasiertounderstandhowtheoldArab
dynasties
inNorthAfrica,during
theeleventhandtwelfthcenturies,
cametobeconqueredanddispossessedbythe
religiousreform
oftheAlmoravides,whointheirturnwereoverthrownbya
similarmovement theReformoftheAlmohades, so-called.
Inbothcasesthedesertandmountaintribescoaxedthereform
doctrinesalongandusedthemto
get
thebetterofthewealthier
1
Hammer-Purgstall,
Gemaldesaal.

250. 3] CHINESEREVOLUTIONS 207
andmoreculturedpopulations
oftheTell,orzonealong
the
sea.Likemotivesmayreadilybedetectedinthegrowth
ofthe
WahabisectinArabiaandinthelaterfortunesofMahdism
alongtheupper
Nile.Intheold
days,oncetheSaracenswere
mastersoftherichlandsof
Syria,PersiaandEgypt,theyforgot
the
frugality
oftheSahabah
(themenwhohadknownthe
Prophet),andsomeofthelatter,intheirold
age,hadoccasion
tobescandalizedatthe
luxurydisplayedbytheOmmiad
caliphs
ofDamascus,whoweretobefaroutdoneinthat
respectbythe
Abbassid
caliphs
of
Bagdad.
Itgoeswithoutsaying,therefore,
thatintheAlmoravidesandAlmohades,too,humannaturesoon
triumphedoversectarianardors.Oncetheyfoundthemselves
inthe
palaces
ofFezandC6rdoba,theyforgotthe
simple
life
thattheyhadpreachedandpracticedonthetablelandsbeyond
Atlas,andadoptedtherefinements ofOrientalease. Ifthe
Wahabi,theMahdistandotherMohammedanreformsdidnot
achievethesameresults,thatwasbecausetheyenjoyedsuccess
infarsmallermeasure.
3.Revolutionsandviolentupheavalshavenotbeenrarein
China.However,itishardforustodivinethesocialcausesof
theveryancientones.WeknowthattheCelestialEmpire
passedthroughanumberofdifferenteconomicand
political
phases,andthatitchangedfromthefeudalstatethatitonce
wasintoabureaucratic state.Themotivesandformsofits
rebellionsmustcertainlyhavechanged
inaccordancewiththose
changes.
Ofthismuchonecanbesure.Wheneveradynastyhad
greatly
declinedin
efficiency,when
corruption
of
public
officialsover-
steppedthelimitsofendurance,whenweak
princesallowed
womenandeunuchstoruleintheirplaces
orwastedtoomuch
timein
quest
oftheelixirofeternal
life,someunrulygovernor,
orsomeintrepidadventurer,wouldplacehimselfattheheadof
insurgentbands,defeatthegovernmenttroopsandthen,abetted
bythe
generaldiscontent,dispossesstheold
dynastyandfound
anewone.Thenewdynastywouldshowanimprovedenergy
forsome
generations. Thenittoowouldweaken,andtheold
abuseswouldcometothefore
again.
InvasionsofnorthernbarbariansandTibetansoftenprovoked
andfacilitatedsuchoverturns,and,infact,thewhole
country

251. 208 REVOLUTION [CHAP.VIII
fell
eventuallyunderthedominionofthe
Mongols.Thengradu-
ally
apowerfulpatriotic
reaction
ripened. (Such
outburstsof
national
spirit
arenotrareamongpeoplesthat
possess
ancient
civilizations.WehavetracesofoneinancientEgyptonthe
expulsion
oftheHyksos.Almostwithinourmemorycamethe
uprisings
inGreeceand
Italy
inthenineteenth
century.)Toward
thecloseofthefourteenthcentury
ofoureraagroup
ofenthusi-
asticand
energeticmenraisedthestandardofrevoltagainst
the
Mongols,
withabonze,oneHungWu,attheirhead. Itisnote-
worthythatthebonzes,orBuddhistmonks,havealwaysbeen
recruited
largelyfromthelowestclassesoftheChinesepopulation
and,inourday
atleast,areheldinverylowesteeminallChina.
Onthecrestofawaveofnational
feeling
thismovementswept
thecountry.Thebarbariansweredrivenbeyond
theGreat
WallandHungWubecamethefounderoftheMingdynasty,
whichgoverned
theempiredowntothemiddleoftheseventeenth
century(1644).Chinameantimebecameanalmost
completely
bureaucratized state.
Duringthenineteenthcenturythecountryhadanotherrevo-
lution.Though
itdidnotsucceed,itisworthy
ofmentionin
viewoftheanalogy
itofferstotherevolutionthathadseta
bonze,HungWu,onthethrone.Awarwiththe
English,ending
inthe
disadvantageous
treatiesof1842and1844,hadproduced
great
disorderthroughouttheempire. Inconsequence,arevolt
against
the
foreigndynasty
ofManchuTatarsbrokeoutinthe
neighborhood
ofNanking,theancientMingcapitalandthe
heartofChinesenationalism. Theplatform
oftherevolution
calledfortheexpulsion
of
foreignersandtheestablishment ofa
new
religion,
inwhichdogmas
of
Christianitywerecuriously
intermingledwith,andadaptedto,the
philosophicalideasand
popularsuperstitions
oftheChinese.Aschoolmaster,anedu-
catedmanofverylowbirth,asortoffishoutofwateranswering
tothenameofHungHsiuCh'iian,wasthesupreme
chiefofthe
rebellion.A
group
of
energetic, intelligent,
ambitiousmen
gatheredabouthim,financedhis
agitationandhelpedhimboth
in
formulatinghis
religiousandphilosophicalcreedandindirect-
ing
hisfirstactsofinsurrection.
TheChinesebureaucraticmachinehadbeen
profoundly
shaken
atthetimebythesetbacksithadreceivedandby
theinferiority
thatithadexhibitedwith
respect
totheEuropeans, Supported

252. 3] SECRETSOCIETIES 809
bypublicdiscontent,therebelswon
rapidsuccessatfirst.Enter-
ingNanking
in1853,theyproclaimedtheT'ai
P'ing,
orEraof
UniversalPeace,inthat
citytherebels,infact,werecommonly
knowntoEuropeans
as
"Taipings," AtthesametimeHung
HsiuCh'tian,who
certainlywasno
ordinaryman,wasexalted
totherankofCelestialEmperorandbecameheadofanew
national
dynasty.ButinChinatoothebruteforcetb^tis
required
forasuccessfulrevolutionwastobefound
largely
inthe
dregs
of
society.Therankandfileofthe"armyofuniversal
peace"hadtoberecruited
largelyfrdmamongdeserters,fugitives
from
justiceand,in
general,
fromthemassofvagrantsand
vaga-
bondswhoaboundinallgreatcities,inChinaaswellasin
Europe.
Soontheleadersfoundthemselves
powerless
tocontroltheout-
rages
oftheirfollowers.TheTaipingbandscarried
pillage,
desolationand
slaughtereverywhere. Theinsurrection lostall
sight
ofits
political
idea.Lustforlootandbloodgainedthe
upperhand,andterritoriesthatfellintothehandsoftherebels
experienced
allthehorrorsofrealanarchy.
AnewwarwithEnglandandFrancebrokeoutin1860,and
therewasaMohammedan revoltinthenorthwest. Those
misfortunesprolonged
theanarchy
inChinaforseveral
years.
But
eventually
theChinesegovernmentwasfreedinsomemeas-
ureofitsembarrassmentsandwasabletodispatchforcesin
considerablenumbers
against
therebels.Bythattimethelatter
hadlostallpublicsympathyandotherwisefoundthemselvesin
abadway.The
early
associatesofHungHsiuCh'iian,theonly
menconnectedwiththerevoltwhohadhada
trulypolitical
outlookandbroadviews,hadalmostalllosttheirlives.Nanking
wasinvestedandHungHsiuCh'tian,surroundedby
ahaphazard
group
ofmenwhostoodasready
tobetrayhimastorobothers,
lostallhope
of
offering
furtherresistance.Hetookpoison
in
his
palace
onJune30,1864.MastersofNanking,
the
imperial
troopsbeheadedtheyoung
sonofthedeadrebelleadertwenty
days
laterandstifledinbloodandatrociouscrueltyarevoltthat
hadlong
heldononlybycrueltyandterror.
1
IntheCelestialEmpire,asnormallyhappensintheMoham-
medancountriesandtoa
large
extentinEurope,the
political
ideaoridealonwhichtherevolutionhadrestedatthestart
1
Forparticulars
oftheTaipinginsurrection,seeEousset,AtraverslaChine,
chap.
XIX.

253. 410 REVOLUTION [CHAP.VIII
becamecloudedandwasalmost
entirely
lostfromviewthe
momenttheperiodofactionandrealizationcame.
Anotherpoint
ofcontactbetweenthe
Taiping
insurrectionand
insurrectionsinEuropemaybeseeninthefactthatinChinatoo
theground
fortherevolutionarymovementwaspreparedby
secretsocieties.Theinfluenceofclandestineorganizations
in
fomentingpopulardiscontentsand
inspiring
hatredofthefor-
eigner
isapparent
inthatcountry
as
early
asthe
eighteenth
century.Soinourday,therevolutionthatoverthrewthe
Manchudynastywasduein
largeparttotheworkofsecret
societies.These
organizations,
atanyrate,survivedtheTaiping
revoltwhichtheyhadhelpedtostir
up,andtothemseemto
havebeenduenotafewmurdersof
Europeans,whichwerecom-
mittedintheintentof
entangling
thePekinggovernmentwith
oneoranotheroftheWesternpowers.Asincountriesthatare
muchbetterknowntousthanChina,thesecretsocietieswere
joinednowbyardentanddisinterested
patriots,nowbycriminals
whousedthebondofassociationtosecureimpunity
intheir
crimes,andsometimesevenbypublic
officialswhohopedto
furthertheircareers.
4.NoteworthyamongEuropean
revolutions isthetype
in
whichasubjectpeople
rises
against
itsoppressors. Ofthat
typeweretheinsurrections inSweden
againstDenmark(under
GustavusVasa),
inHollandagainstSpain,
inSpainagainst
Prance
(in1808),inGreece
againstTurkey,in
Italyagainst
Austria,inPoland
against
Russia.Suchinsurrectionsaremore
like
foreignwars,orwarsbetween
peoples,thancivilwars,and
theyaretheonesthataremost
likelytosucceed. Inour
day,
however,inviewofourhugestandingarmies,
ifan
insurgent
people
istohaveanygreatprobability
of
victory
itmust
already
enjoyasortof
semi-independence,
sothataportion
ofits
popu-
lationatleastiswell
organized
inamilitary
sense.
In
Spain,in1868,inadditiontothefamous
guerrillas,the
regulararmiestookanactivepart
insupport
oftheinsurrection.
In
Italy,
in1848,thearmy
ofPiedmontplayedthe
principal
roleinthewar
against
the
foreigner;
andthe
regulartroops
of
Piedmont,inconcertwiththeirFrenchallies,dealttheblows
thatdecidedthefateofthepeninsula
in1859.In1830and1831
again,
Polandwasabletoholdoutforalmostayearagainstthe

254. J5] WARSOFINDEPENDENCE 211
RussiancolossusbecauseaPolisharmyhad
previouslybeen
maintainedasapart
oftheRussianarmyanditespousedthe
causeofnationalism. Theinsurrectionof1868-1864wascon-
ductedbymerebandsof
irregulars.
Ithadless
significant
resultsandwas
suppressedwithmuchlesseffort.
Tothesametype
ofrevolution
belongstheAmericanWarof
IndependenceagainstEngland.TheAmericancoloniesenjoyed
very
broad
privileges
ofautonomyevenbefore1776.When
theyjoined
inafederationand
proclaimed
theirindependence
theyhadlittle
difficulty
in
organizinganarmedforce,partly
fromtheoldmilitiasofthevariouscoloniesandpartlyfrom
volunteers.They
werethereforeabletoholdoffthe
troops
thatweresentbythemothercountryto
subjugatethem,until
Franceintervened.Thentheysucceeded in
emancipating
themselves.
WhentheGreatRebellionbrokeout,in1642,Englandwas
notyetabureaucratic state,andCharlesIhad
onlyasmall
standingarmy
athiscommand. InthebeginningParliament
hadthemilitiasoftheshiresonitsside.Therural
nobility
theCavaliers borethemainbruntoftheconflictonthesideof
the
king.TheCavalierswerefarbetter
practiced
inthe
military
artsandwoneasy
victoriesatfirst;butwhenCromwellwasableto
organize,
firsta
regiment,andthenanarmy
ofpermanent
dis-
ciplinedtroops,
conflictwasno
longerpossible.Attheheadof
hisarmytheLordProtectornotonlydefeatedtheCavaliersbut
subduedScotlandandIreland,put
theLevelersintheir
places,
senttheLongParliamenthomewithscantceremonyandbecame
absolutemasteroftheBritishIsles.The
English
are
great
loversofconstitutional
privileges.Remembrance ofthese
doings
madethemlong
distrustfulof
standing
armies. CharlesIIand
JamesIIwereneverprovidedwithmeansfor
maintaining
permanentmilitaryforces,and
every
effortwasmadetokeepthe
county
militiasingoodtraining.
Williamof
Orangehimself,
greatly
tohis
regret,wasobliged
tosendbacktotheContinent
theoldDutchregiments
whichhehadledin
overthrowingthe
lastoftheStuarts.
5.Anothersocialphenomenon
of
importance
istheruralor
peasant
rebellion.Suchuprisings
were
fairlyfrequent
inEurope
during
thesecondhalfoftheeighteenthcenturyandthefirst

255. 212 REVOLUTION [CHAP.VIII
halfofthenineteenth. Theybrokeoutinanumberof
widely
separated
communities. Onerememberstherevoltsthattook
place
inRussiaearly
inthe
reign
ofCatherineII*onthe
pretext
of
restoring
tothethroneoneindividualoranotherwhotriedto
impersonatethemurderedczar,PeterIII.TotheSpanish
rebellionof1808,inwhichtheentirenationtookpart,wehave
severaltimesreferred.Thentherewasthegreat
insurrectionin
theVend6ein1793,theNeapolitanrebellionof1799
againstthe
Parthenopean Republic,theCalabrianrevolt
againstJoseph
Bonaparte
in1808,andtheoneintheTyrol
in1809.There
havebeenanumberofCarlistinsurrections inBiscayand
Navarre.
OftheruralrevoltthatwascaptainedbyMonmouthinthe
day
ofJamesII,justbeforethe"GloriousRevolution,"Macaulay
observesthatthat
uprisingwasmade
possiblebecauseatthat
timeeveryEnglishyeomanwas
something
ofasoldier. Infact,
aseriousinsurrectionbypeasants
is
possibleonly
in
placeswhere
theyhavehadacertainhabitofhandlingarms,oratleastwhere
hunting
or
brigandage,
orfamilyandneighborhood feuds,
havekeptpeople
familiarwiththesoundof
gunfire.
OftheRussianmovementsmentioned,themostimportant
wasledbyPugatchev.Onthewholethoserevoltsrestedonthe
hatredthat
peasants,Cossacksandalltheplainsmenwhowere
usedtothefreedomofthe
steppes
feltforbureaucraticcentrali-
zation,whichwasatthattime
gainingground,andforthe
Germanemployees
ofthegovernment,whowerelookeduponas
originallyresponsible
forthebureaucracy's interference inthe
daily
livesoftheRussians. However,the
revoltingpeasants
werewhatwewouldnowcall
"loyalist/*Theymaintained
thatthetrueczarwasintheircamp,andthattheczarinawho
heldthepalaces
atSt.
PetersburgandMoscowwasa
usurper.
Sentimentsthatareconservativeandatthesametimeopposed
-
toexcessiveinterferenceby
thestatearecharacteristic,in
general,
ofthe
peasantinsurrection,whichasaruleoccurswhensome
triumphingparty
ofinnovationseeksto
requirenewsacrificesin
thenameofcivilizationor
progress.TheVendeansweredis-
satisfiedwiththeRepublicbecauseitwas
persecuting
their
priests,andtheywereangeredby
theexecutionofLouisXVI.
However,theydidnotriseenmassetillMarch1793,whenthe
Convention decreed
general conscription. The
Neapolitan

256. 5] PEASANTREVOLTS
peasantry,
in1799,besideshaving
beenshockedintheirhabits
andbeliefsbynewmodesof
thinking,hadbeen
pillagedand
heavilyrequisitionedbytheFrench
troops.
In
Spain,
in1808,
notonlyhadCatholicandnationalsentimentsbeen
grievously
offended. Itwas
allegedandbelievedthattheFrenchinvaders
wereprovided
withhandcuffsin
largenumbers,whichweretobe
usedtodrag
outofthecountry
allyoungmenwhowere
eligible
forenrollment inNapoleon's
armies.
1
ThevariousCarlist
insurrectionsin
BiscayandNavarrewerein
largepartcausedby
the
jealousy
withwhichthoseprovincescherishedtheirold
fueros,orlocalcharters,whichgavethemvirtualindependence
in
localgovernmentandmanyimmunitieswith
respect
to
public
burdens.
Theinitialleadersofruralinsurrectionsareusuallybutlittle
superior
tothepeasantsthemselves ineducationandsocial
status.ThefamousSpanish
cabecillaMinawasamuleteer.
In
Naples
in1799Bodiowasacountrylawyer. Pronioand
Mammonehadoncebeenfarmlaborers,andNunziante,atbest,
hadbeena
sergeant
inthearmy.AndreasHofer,wholedthe
Tyrolese
revoltin1809,wasawell-to-dotavern
keeper.The
initialmovesintheVendeaninsurrectionwereledbyCathelineau,
ahackdriver,andStofflet,agamewatchman. Butifthe
higher
classeshappen
toapprove
ofthe
insurrectionarymovementand
itacquirespowerand
weight,
otherleadersofa
higher
social
statusstepforwardverysoon.IntheVendeethenobleswere
naturallyhesitantbecausetheybetterunderstoodthedifficulties
ofthe
enterprise,butthepeasantswenttotheircastlesand
persuadedthem,or,inasense,obligedthem,to
placethemselves
attheheadoftherebellion. SoLescure,Bonchamps,LaRoche-
jaqueleinandCharettedelaContrie,gentlemen all,weredrawn
intothemovement. Charettewasacold,shrewdmanof
indomitable willandtireless
energy.Heatonceexhibited all
thetalentsoftheperfectparty
leader.Insteadof
curbingthe
excessesofhisfollowers,heletthem
satisfy
their
grudgesand
repayoldscoreswithaviewto
compromisingthemandso
bindingthemirrevocablytothecauseoftherebellion.Among
allleadersofruralconservativerevolts,the
onlyonetocompare
withhimisZumalac&rreguy,
aBasque,whowasleaderinchief
1
Thiers,Hist&ireduConsidatetdeVEmpire. Thiersdrewmostofwhathe
wroteonthegreatSpanishinsurrectionof1808fromToreno.

257. 814 REVOLUTION [CHAP.VIII
ofthefirstCarlistinsurrection.Hetoohadbeenanobscure
countrysquire.
Conservativepeasant
insurrectionsandurbanrevoltsthatare
madeinthenameof
libertyand
progress
haveonetraitin
common.Howevershortatime
theymaylast,thereimmedi-
atelycomesintoevidenceacertaintype
of
person,
a
personwho
seemstobe
enjoying
thefunandtobeinterestedin
prolonging
it.
Theinitialmovementmay
be
general
incharacter,butvery
soon
theseindividualscometostandoutinthecrowd.Oncethey
haveabandonedtheircustomaryoccupations,they
are
unwilling
toreturntothem.Theinstinctfor
struggle
andadventure
growsuponthem.They
are
people,
infact,whohavenotalent
for
gettingaheadvery
farintheordinary
courseofsociallife
butwhodoknowhowtomakethemselvesfeltunder
exceptional
circumstances suchascivilwars.Naturallytheywantthe
exception
tobecometherule.
Afterthefirstand
grandestphase
oftheVendeaninsurrection,
whichendedintheterribleroutatSavenay,
thewar
dragged
on
for
years
and
years,becauseaboutitsleadershad
gathered
groups
ofresolutemenwhohadbecome
professional
rebelsand
wouldturntonoothertrade.Thistendency
isthemoremarked
whenrevolutionisaroadtospeedy
fortune.Thatwasthecase
in
Naples,
whereRodioandProniobecame
generalsovernight,
andNunzianteandMammoneweremadecolonels.The
revolutionaryleaventhatwasleftin
Spainby
thesix
years
ofthe
warforindependencefermentedinthe
long
seriesofcivilwars
thatensued,andineachcaseatthebottomoftheinsurrection
wereanumberofadventurerswhowere
hoping
forfortuneand
advancement. Titlesandrankswere
easilygained
insuch
tumultsbyserving
oneoranotherofthe
contendingpartiesand
desertingthemintime.Thehabitofrevolutionthatiscon-
tractedby
certainpersons
further
helps
to
explain
the
betrayals
andinconsistenciesthatarenotrareincivilupheavals. People
who
beginbyfighting
fora
principlekeepon
fightingand
rebelling
aftertheircausehasbeenwon.Theysimply
feela
needfor
rebellingand
fighting.
6.Consideredassocialphenomena,
therevolutionsthatbroke
outinFrance
during
thenineteenth
century
are
especially

258. 6] REVOLUTIONSINFRANCE 215
interesting
asduetoveryspecialpoliticalconditions,notably
to
thephenomenon
ofover-bureaucratization.
Notofthistypewasthe
great
Revolutionof1789.Thatwasa
real
collapse
oftheclassesand
political
forceswhichhadruledin
Francedowntothattime.DuringtheRevolutiongovernment
administrationandthearmycompletelybrokedown,owing
to
inexperience
intheNationalAssembly,toemigrationandtothe
propaganda
oftheclubs.Forsometimetheywereunableto
enforce
respect
forthedecisions ofanygovernment.By
July1789,whole
regimentshad
gone
overtothecauseofthe
Revolution.Fromthenon,noncommissioned officersandsol-
dierswere
carefully
luredintotheclubs,where
they
receivedthe
watchwordofobediencetotheresolutionsofthe
revolutionary
committeesratherthantothecommandsoftheirofficers.The
MarquisdeBouille,commandingtheArmy
oftheEast,had
beenunableto
suppress
adangerousmilitaryinsurrectionat
Metz.Hewrotelatein1790that,withthe
exception
ofa
regi-
mentortwo,thearmywas"rotten,"thatthesoldierswere
disposedtofollowtheparty
ofdisorderor,rather,whoeverpaid
thembest,andthattheywere
talking
insuchterms
openly.
1
The
powers,therefore,thathadfallenfromthehandsofthe
king
werenotgatheredupbyanyministrythathadtheconfidenceof
theConstituentAssembly.
Itbelonged
inturntothe
clique,
ortotheman,whoonthe
givendaycould
get
himselffollowed
toParisbyashowofarmedforce,whetherhewerea
Lafayette
attheheadoftheNationalGuardoraDantonwithasuburban
mobarmedwithclubsandironbars.
Nevertheless, apparenteveninthose
earlydayswerethe
beginnings
ofatendencythatwastobecome
strongerand
strongerduringthefirsthalfofthenineteenth
century.Leaders
ofinsurrectionsalways
triedtobecomemastersoftheindividual
orindividualswhoimpersonatedthesymbol,
ortheinstitution,
towhichFrance,whetherbecauseofancienttraditionorbecause
offaithinnew
principles,
wasinclinedtodefer;and,oncesuc-
cessfulinthatintent,theywere
actuallymastersofthecountry
(seeabove, ).
ThatiswhattheriotersofOctober6,178&,didwhen,obviously
inobediencetoawatchword,theywenttoVersaillesandseized
1
Correspondence
entrelecomtedeMirabeau etleoomtedeLaMarch

259. 816 REVOLUTION [CHAP.VIII
theperson
ofthe
king.Withthemonarchyabolished,the
NationalConventionbecamethe
goal
ofall
surprises,suchasthe
coup
ofMay31,1793,whichmadetheAssemblythatrepresented
allFranceslavetoahandfulofParis
guttersnipes. Theprov-
incestriedtoreact,butinvain,becausethearmyremained
obedienttotheordersthatemanatedfromthe
capital
inthename
oftheConvention,thougheverybodyknewthattheConvention
was
actingundercompulsion.
Thesame
generalacquiescence
in
everything
thathappened
at
theseatofgovernment
contributed
greatly
tothefavorableout-
comeofthevariouscoupsd'6tatthattook
placeunderthe
Directory,anddowntotheestablishment oftheNapoleonic
empire.
Butevenmorecharacteristic, perhaps,
iswhatoccurredin
1830,thenagain
in1848,and
finally
in1870. Firstofallcomes
abattle,moreorless
protractedandsometimes
relatively
insignificant,
withthedetachmentofsoldiersthatisguardingthe
buildings
inthe
capital
inwhichareassembledtherepresentatives
ofthesupremepower
thathas
previouslybeenrecognized
as
legitimate.ThefamousFebruaryRevolution of1848,which
overthrewthemonarchy
ofLouis
Philippe,costthelivesof7
soldiersand87civilians,eitherriotersor
bystanders! Next,the
mob,armedorunarmed,putssovereignsandministersto
flight,
dissolvestheassembliesandriotouslyformsagovernment. This
government
ismadeup
ofnamesmoreorless
widelyknowntothe
country.Themenmentionedtakedesksintheofficesfrom
whichtheformerheadsofthegovernmenthavebeenwontto
govern,andthen,almostalwayswiththeconnivanceoracquies-
cenceoftheordinaryclerks,theytelegraph
toallFrancethat,by
thewillofthevictoriousPeople,theyhavebecomemastersofthe
country.Thecountry,theadministrative departments, the
army,promptlyobey.
Itallsoundslikeastory
ofAladdin's
wonderfullamp.Whenbychanceorbyguilethatlamp
fellinto
thehandsofsomeone,evenamerechildoran
ignorantboy,
at
oncethe
genii
werehisblindslavesandmadehimricherandmore
powerfulthananysultanoftheEast.Andnoone,furthermore,
everaskedhoworwhy
the
precious
talismancameintotheboy's
possession.
Itmay
beobjectedthatin1830thegovernmenthadbecomean
obedienttoolofthe
Legitimistparty,
thatithad
givenup
all

260. 6] OVERCENTRALIZATION 217
pretense
to
legality,
thata
largepart
ofFrancewas
definitely
opposed
tothe
politicalpolicywhichthegovernmentwasfollow-
ing,andeventhatapart
ofthearmyrespondedfeebly,
ornotat
all,atthedecisivemoment. Also,thecatastrophe
of1870might
accountin
part
forthechange
ofgovernment
thattook
place
in
Franceatthattime.
Butnoelementofthatsort
figured
inthesuddenrevolution
of1848.NeithertheChambersnorthebureaucracynorthe
armywere
sympathetic
totherepublicangovernment
atthat
time.The
majority
ofthedepartmentswere
franklyopposed
to
it.LouisBlanchimselfconfessesasmuch.After
rejecting
as
insulting
the
hypothesis
thatthe
republichadaminority
inits
favor,headmits
1
thatanationwidevotemighthavedeclared
againsta
republicanformof
government.And
againhe
says,no
more,noless:"Whynotfacethefacts?Mostofthe
depart-
mentsin
February1848,werestillmonarchical/'
2
Lamartine,
too,in
speaking
oftheimpressionthattherevolutionof1848
madeinFrance,admitsthatitwassurroundedby
an"atmos-
phere
ofuneasiness,doubt,horrorand
frightthathadnever
been
equaled,perhaps,
inthe
history
ofmankind." InParis
itselftheNationalGuardhadbeenwavering
inFebruarybecause
itwantedtoseeanendput
totheGuizotministry. However,it
wasmanifestinga
reactionaryframeofmindinthe
following
Marchand
April.Afewhoursofvacillationwerenonetheless
enough
todriveLouis
Philippe,
hisfamilyandhisministersnot
onlyfromParisbutfromFrance,toabolishtwochambersand
toenablea
provisionalgovernment amerelistofnames
shoutedatatumultuouscrowdthatwas
millingaboutthe
PalaisBourbon toassumefromonemomenttothenextfull
politicalcontrolovera
greatcountry France!
CitizenCaussidi&re,"wanted"bythepolicethedaybefore,
wentto
policeheadquartersontheafternoonofFebruary20,
1848,attheheadofagroup
of
insurgents,
hishandsstillsmudged
with
gunpowder. Thateveninghebecamechiefof
police,and
thenextday
alltheheadsofbranchesintheservicepromisedhim
loyalcooperationand,willing
or
unwilling,kepttheir
promises.
8
Policeheadquarterswere,moreover,the
only
officewherethe
1
EistoiredelaRevolutionde1848,vol.I,p.85.
2
Ibid.,vol.II,p.
3.
*
SeetheMtmoiresofCaussidierehimself.

261. 218 REVOLUTION [CHAP.VIII
rankandfileofthepersonnelwas
changed,theoldmunicipal
guardsbeing
dismissedandreplacedbyMontagnards,former
comradesin
conspiracyandatthebarricadesofthenewchief,
whoafterwardsutteredthefamousepigramthathestoodfor
"orderthrough
disorder."
Inthe
preface
tohis
history
of1848,LouisBlancdecidesthat
Louis
Philippe
fellmainlybecausehis
sponsorswere
supporting
himforselfishreasonsandnotbecauseof
personal
devotion.
According
toBlanc,the"bourgeoisking"hadvery
fewenemies
andmanyconfederatesbutatthemomentofdanger
failedtofind
onefriend.Thatreasoning,
itseemstous,hasonlyavery
moderatevalue.Notallthepeoplewhosupportagivenformof
governmenthavetofeelapersonalaffection,orhaveadis-
interested
friendship,
fortheindividualwhostandsatthehead
ofthatformofgovernment. Actually,suchsentimentscanbe
sincerely
feltonlybythefewpersons,
orthefewfamilies,who
are
actually
intimatewithhim. Politicaldevotiontoasover-
eign,
oreventothepresident
ofa
republic,
is
quite
another
matter.Themaincauseofthefrequentsuddenupheavals
in
Francewastheexcessivebureaucratic centralization ofthat
country,asituationthatwasmadeworseby
theparliamentary
system
itself.Publicemployeeshadgrownaccustomed to
frequentchanges
inchiefsand
policies,andtheyhadlearnedfrom
experiencethatmuchwastobegainedbypleasinganyonewho
wasseatedatthetopandthatmuchwastobelostbydispleasing
sucha
person.
Undersuchasystemwhatthe
greatmajority
inthearmyand
thebureaucracywantandalsothe
greatmajority
inthatpart
ofthe
public
thatlovesorder,whetherby
interestorby
instinct
is
justagovernment,
not
anyparticulargovernment. Those,
therefore,whostanddefactoattheheadofthestatemachine
always
findconservativeforcesready
tosustainthem,andthe
whole
politicalorganismmovesalong
inaboutthesameway
whateverthehandthatsetsitinmotion.
Certainly,undersucha
system,
itiseasiertochangethe
personnelthatholdssupremepower,
ashappened
inFranceafter
1830,1848and1870,thanitistochangetheactualpolitical
trendofa
society.Forifthemoreradicalchange
istheobject,
governorswhohaveemergedfromtherevolutionitselfareforced
to
prevent
itbytheconservativeelementswhicharetheirinstru-

262. $7] THEREVOLUTIONARY SPIRIT 219
mentsandatthesametimetheirmasters.Thatwasthecasein
June1848andin1871.
Unquestionably, also,a
strong
senseofthe
legalityand
legitimacy
ofanearliergovernmentwouldpreventsubmissive
obediencetoanew
regimeissuingfromstreet
rioting.Butfora
feeling
ofthatsorttoriseandassertitself
requirestimeandtradi-
tion,andforFrancethechangesthathadoccurreddoWnto1870
weretoo
rapid
toenableanytraditiontotakeroot.InFrance
andina
largepart
ofEurope,during
thenineteenth
century,
revolutionary minoritieswereabletorelynotonlyonthe
sympathy
ofthepoorandunletteredmassesbutalso,and
perhaps
inthemain,upon
thesympathies
ofthe
fairlywell-
educatedclasses.Rightly
or
wrongly,youngpeople
in
Europe
were
taught
forthebetterpart
ofacenturythatmany
ofthe
mostimportantconquests
ofmodernlifehadbeenobtainedasa
consequence
ofthe
greatRevolution, orbyotherrevolutions.
Givensuchaneducation, itisnottobewonderedatthatrevolu-
tionaryattemptsandsuccessfulrevolutionswerenotviewedwith
anygreatrepugnanceby
the
majority
of
people,atleastas
long
asthey
offerednoseriousmenaceoractual
injurytomaterial
interests.
1
Naturally,such
feelings
willbe
strongerandmore
widespread
incountrieswherethedefactoor
legalgovernments
themselveshaveissuedfromrevolutions,sothat,whilecondemn-
ing
rebellionsin
general,theyare
obliged
to
glorifytheone
good,
theone
holy
insurrectionfromwhichtheysprang
themselves.
7.Oneofthe
principalagenciesbywhich
revolutionarytradi-
tionsandpassionshavebeenkept
aliveinmanycountriesin
Europehasbeenthe
politicalassociation,especiallythesecret
society.
Insuchsocieties
rulinggroupsreceivetheireducation
andaretrainedintheartsof
inflamingpassions
inthemasses
and
leadingthemtowardgiven
ends.Whenitbecomes
possible
towritethe
history
ofthenineteenthcenturyimpartially,much
space
willhavetobe
given
totheeffectivenesswithwhichthe
Masonic
lodges,
for
example,managed
todisseminateliberaland
democraticideals,andsocause
rapidandprofoundmodifications
1
Ontheeffectsof
revolutionaryeducationinFrance,seeVilletard,Insurrec-
tiondu18mars,chap.
I.[PierreMillerelatesthathis
agedmother,whohad
seenmostofthe
upsets
ofthenineteenthcentury,wasalarmedby
thelong
quiet
afterYL"Quoi?Plusderevolutions?aaFairlouche!" A.LJ

263. 220 REVOLUTION [CHAP.VIII
ofintellectualtrendsina
greatpart
ofEuropeansociety. Unless
weassumeanactive,organizedandwell-managedpropaganda
onthe
part
ofsuchgroups,
itwouldbehardto
explainhowithas
comeaboutthatcertainpoints
ofviewthatwerethe
property
of
highly
exclusivecoteriesinaselect
society
attheendofthe
eighteenthcentury
cannowbeheardexpressed
intheremotest
villagesbypersonsandinenvironmentsthatcertainlyhavenot
been
changedbyanyspecialeducationoftheirpwn.
Nevertheless, ifassociations,open
orsecret,excelasarulein
laying
theintellectualandmoralfoundationsforrevolutions,the
samecannotbesaidofthemwhenitcomestorousingthemasses
toimmediate action,to
stirringupthearmedmovementat
the
givenpointonthe
appointedday.Underthattestsocieties
and
conspiracies
failatleasttentimestoeverytimetheysucceed.
Thereasonisevident.Tolauncharevolution itisnotenough
tohaveatone's
disposalthecrowdof
joblessadventurers,ready
foranyrisk,thataretobefoundinanygreatcity.Thecoopera-
tionofconsiderableelementsfromthe
public
at
large
isalso
necessary.Nowthemassesarestirred
only
attimesof
great
spiritualunrestcausedby
eventswhichgovernments
eithercan-
notavoidorfailtoavoid.Suchunrestcannotbecreated,itcan
onlybe
exploited,byrevolutionary
societies.The
disappoint-
mentofsome
greathope,asuddeneconomic
depression,
adefeat
sufferedbyanation'sarmy,avictoriousrevolutionina
neighbor-
ingcountrysuchareincidentsthatarewellcalculatedtoexcite
amultitude,provided
ithas
previouslybeen
prepared
forthe
shockby
arevolutionarypropaganda.
Iftherebelliousgroup
has
developed
apermanentorganizationandknowshowtotake
advantage
ofsuchamoment,itcanhope
forsuccess;butifit
rushesintoactionwithoutanysupportfrom
exceptionalcircum-
stances, itis
unfailinglyand
easilycrushed,ashappened
in
Franceinthe
uprisings
of1832,1834and1840.
InFrance,Spainand
Italy
thereareafewcitiesinwhichit
is
relativelyeasy
toleadmassestothebarricades. Thatisone
ofthemany
effectsofhabitandtradition.Oncea
population
hasexchangedshotswithaconstitutedgovernmentandover-
thrownit,itwillfeel,forageneration
atleast,thatitcanmake
anew
tryanytimewithfavorableresults,unless
repeatedand
bloody
failureshavechancedtoundeceive it.Soitiswith
individuals.Whenthey
havebeenunderfireanumberoftimes

264. J7J THEREVOLUTIONARY SPIRIT 221
theyacquire
asortofmartialeducationand
fightbetterand
better.Thatisoneofthereasonswhy
theParisianworkmen
fought
so
stubbornly
inJune1848,though,
asBlanc
explains
in
his
history
ofthatepisode,thehabitofdisciplinethattheyhad
acquired
inthenationalarmoriesalso
figured
intheirdeportment
"tosomeextent.Therevolutionaryelements
foughtevenbetter
in1871because,as
part
oftheParisNationalGuard,they
had
been
carefullyorganized,
trainedandarmed.
And
yet,
in
spite
ofalltheadvantages
oftime,placeandcircum-
stancethatarevolutionarymovementmayenjoy,
inourday,
becauseofourhugestanding
armiesandthe
pecuniary
resources
andtheinstrumentsofwarfarethatonly
constituted
powers
are
inapositionto
procure,nogovernment
canbeoverthrownby
forceunlessthemenwhoarein
charge
ofitarethemselves
irresoluteorlosetheirheads,oratleastunlessthey
are
paralyzed
bydreadofassumingresponsibility
fora
repressioninvolving
bloodshed. Eleventh-hour concessions,last-minuteordersand
counterorders,the
falterings
ofthosewhohold
legalpowerand
are
morallyboundtouseitthesearetherealandmosteffective
factorsinthesuccessofarevolution,andthe
history
ofthe
"Days
ofFebruary,"1848,is
highly
instructiveinthat
regard.
1
Itisafatalillusiontobelievethatwherethereisvacillationand
fearof
beingcompromised
inthe
higherplaces,
subordinates will
befoundtoassume
responsibility
for
energeticmeasuresoftheir
own,orevenforeffectiveexecutionof
perplexingandcontra-
dictory
orders.
Wehaveseenthatif
standing
armiesarewellhandledthey
canbecomeeffectiveinstrumentsinthehandsof
legalgovernment
withoutdisturbance tothe
juridicalequilibrium.Weought
thereforetoexaminethesecomplexanddelicate
organisms
in
ordertoseehow
theyhavecomeinto
beingandhowtheycanbe
keptfrom
degenerating.
1
See
especiallyThureau-Dangin,
HutoiredelaMonarchicdeJuiUet,last
volume.

265. CHAPTERIX
STANDINGARMIES
1.Wehavealreadydiscussedthepredominance
ofmilitary
classes(chap.II, 4),andwehaveseenthatinsomecases
warriorshavecomeexclusivelyfromdominantclasses,though
inothercasesthoseclassessupplyonlygenerals,
officersand
pickedcorps,whileacertainnumberoftherankandfileinless
esteemeddivisionsarerecruitedfromlowerclasses.
Insavage
orbarbarouscountries,whereeconomicproduction
isveryrudimentary,
alladultmalesaresoldiersintherather
frequenteventofwar.Insuchsocieties,assumingthatpastoral
nomadismorevenanembryonicagricultureandindustryexist,
th6y
areneversohighlydeveloped
astoabsorbhuman
activity
entirely.
Sufficienttimeandenergyarealways
leftforadven-
turousraidsand
forays.Thesefurnishan
occupationthatisnot
onlyagreeable
initselfbutisalmostalways
lucrative.Among
such
peoplestheartsofpeaceareregularly
lefttowomenorto
slaves.Themendevotethemselvesbypreferencetothechase
andtowarfare.
Thishashappened,andstillhappens,among
allracesandin
allclimateswhentheconditionsdescribedabove
prevail.So
livedtheancientGermans,theScyths
ofclassical
antiquity,the
morerecentTurkomans,anddowntoafewyearsagotherem-
nantsofthemodernAmericanIndians.Somany
oftheNegroes
oftheAfricaninteriorhavealwayslived,andtheAryan,Semitic
andMongolian
tribesthathavemanagedtoconserveadefacto
independenceinthemoreinaccessible
regions
ofAsia.
Onefactorfavorabletothepermanence
ofsuchastateof
affairsistheexistenceofverysmall
politicalorganisms ade
factoautonomyonthepart
ofeachlittletribeor
village,which
canmakewara
dailyroutineandtheftsand
reprisalsbetween
neighborsunending. Inthelongrun,wheneven
verybarbarous
tribesbecomesubjecttoa
regulargovernmentthatprevents
internalstrife,theybecomepeaceful. Thiswasthecasewith

266. 1] MILITARY 223
thenomadicpeoples
ofAsia,whowere
longsubject
totheChinese
government,
andwiththenomads
livingbetweentheVolgaand
theUralMountains,whohavelongbeenundertheRussian
yoke.Ontheotherhand,intheGermanyand
Italy
ofthe
Middle
Ages,wesee
relatively
civilizedpeoplesclinging
towarlike
traditionsbecausetheyweredividedintofiefsandcommunes,
amongwhichthe
right
ofthemailedfist
prevailed.
Butassoonas
greatpoliticalorganisms,howeverrudimentary
and
imperfect,cometobesetupand,more
especially,
assoonas
economicdevelopmenthasadvancedsomewhatandwarceases
tobethemostlucrative
occupation,wefinda
special
class
devoting
itselftothe
bearing
ofarmsandmaking
its
livingnot
somuchbyplundering
itsadversariesasbylevying
tributein
someformorotheronthe
peaceful
toilersofthe
countrywhich
it
policesanddefends.Aswehavemanytimesremarked,pro-
ductionisalmostexclusivelyagriculturalwhencivilizationand
cultureareatalowlevel,andwarriorseitheraretheownersof
theland,whichthey
forceotherstocultivate,orelseextort
heavy
tributefromthosewhodoowntheland.Thiswasthe
situationintheearlyperiod
ofGreco-Roman
antiquity,when
thedominantmilitaryelementinthe
citywasmadeup
exclu-
sively
oflanded
proprietors,
andthesamephenomenonrecurs
moremarkedly
stillinallcountriesthatare
feudallyorganized.
Wefindit,therefore,among
theLatinsandGermansofthe
MiddleAgesandalsoamong
theSlavs.AmongtheSlavshow-
ever,itwasamuchlaterdevelopment,
sincetheyabandoned
nomadiclifeandentereduponapermanentlyagriculturalperiod
ata
fairly
recentdate.Wefindit,also,atoneperiod
oranother,
inChina,JapanandIndia.InIndiaitreappeared
infullforce
duringtheepoch
ofdeclineandanarchythatfollowedthe
breakup
oftheempire
oftheGrandMogul.
Similarorganizationsmaybe
tracedinTurkey,Abyssinia,AfghanistanandinancientEgypt
inthe
periods
ofdecadencethatwere
interspersedamong
the
various
phases
ofthatlong-lived
civilization. Inshort,wefind
itinallsocietiesthathavenotyet
issuedfromthe
earlyperiod
of
crudeculturethatappears
inthehistory
ofeverygreatnation;
andwefinditalsointheperiods
ofdeterioration ordecline,
whetherduetointernalorexternalcauses,bywhichcountries
thathaveattainedahigh
levelofcivilizationchangeand
perish
associaltypes(theRomanEmpirewouldbeanexample).

267. STANDINGARMIES [CHAP.IX
.However,asfeudalstatesadvanceincivilization,atrend
towardcentralization,towardbureaucratic
organization,
setsin,
sincethecentralpower
isconstantlytrying
tofreeitselfof
dependenceuponthegood
willoftheminute
politicalorganisms
thatmakeupthestateagood
willthatisnotalwayspromptand
freely
offered.Withthatinview,and
incidentally
forthe
purpose
of
keepingthesmall
organismsmoreobedientand
better
disciplined,
thecentralpower
triestoobtaindirectcontrol
ofthe
agencies
thatwillenableit
effectively
toenforceitswill
upon
othermencontrolofmoney,
inotherwords,andsoldiers.
So
corps
ofmercenaries,directly
intheserviceoftheheadofthe
state,comeinto
being,andthatdevelopment
issonaturaland
so
regularlyrecurrentthatwefind
it,inembryo
atleast,inall
countriesthatare
feudallyorganized.
IntheAbyssinia
ofourday,
inadditiontothe
contingentsthat
were
supplied
tohimbythevariousrases,thenegushadthe
nucleusofanarmy
intheguardswhowereattachedtohis
person
andwhoweremaintained
directlybycourtfunds;andinthe
retinue ofdomesticattendants butchers, hostlers,grooms,
bakers,andsoonwhofollowedtheemperoreverywhereand
becamesoldiersasneed
required.
1
IntheBibleonenotesthatthecoreofthearmy
ofDavidand
hissuccessorswasmadeup
firstofwarriorswhoateatthe
king's
tableandthenofCherethimandPelethitemercenaries allmen
sowellversedinarmsthattheysuccessfully
dealtwiththerevolt
ofAbsalom,eventhoughthatuprisingwas
supportedbya
majority
ofthe
people.
2
Renan
suggests
thatthepresence
ofa
nucleusof
foreign
retainersintheserviceofa
governmentwas
peculiar
toSemitic
peoples,
theSemiticsenseoftribeand
family
being
so
strong
thatnativeelementswereunsuitedto
enforcing
respect
forthe
rights
ofthestate,sincetheyalwayssubordinated
publicintereststofactionalorclaninterests.Butthatsituation
arises,really,whereverthesocial
aggregate
iscomposed
ofsmall
unitswhichareequippedwithalltheorgansrequired
forinde-
pendentexistenceandaretherefore
easily
abletorebel
againstthe
central
authority. Sothemedievalkings
ofEnglandsecured
1
Foranaccountofthe
organization
ofaShoanarmy
onthemarch
(zemeccia),
seeareportpresentedbyAntonellitotheItalianparliamentand
publishedin
DiplomaticDocuments,Dec.17,1889.
*
IISam.15-18.

268. f] MERCENARIES
soldiersinFlandersandBrabant.The
kings
ofFrancesur-
roundedthemselveswithSwiss
guards,
theItalianlordswith
hiredGermans;andinthisthey
allwere
bowing,
atbottom,to
thesame
political
necessitiesthatimpelled
the
kings
ofJudahto
enlistPelethitesandCherethimand,lateron,the
caliphs
of
BagdadtohaveaTurkishguard.
Underthe
earlyrepublictheRomanshadacitizenarmythat
wasrecruitedfromthedominantandwell-to-doclassesandwas
madeup
ofindividualswhotooktoarmsonly
incaseofneed.
Nothing
lessthantheRomangenius
for
organizationwas
requiredtobring
thatsystem
tosuch
perfection
astomakeit
possible
forthecitizenarmy
todevelopwithoutshockandalmost
imperceptibly
intoarealstandingarmymadeup
of
professional
soldiers.Thatevolution,asiswellknown,began
inthelast
century
ofthe
republicandwasalreadycompletewhenthe
empirewasfounded.Asarule,standing
armieshave
originated
inunitsofnativeor
foreignmercenarieshiredbythecentral
power
tosupport
it
againstothermilitary
forcesthathavebeen
feudallyorganized.
As
regardsthepractice
of
hiringmercenaries, itis
interestingto
notethatitwas
especially
characteristic ofcountriesthatnot
onlywererichbutderivedtheirwealthfromcommerceand
industry
ratherthanfrom
agriculture.
Insuchcountriesthe
ruling
classesgrewunaccustomedtolifeinthe
open,whichwas
thebestpreparation
forthecareerinarms,andfounditmoreto
theiradvantage
tosuperintendbanksandfactoriesthantogo
offtowars.ThatwasthecaseinCarthage,
inVeniceand
quite
generally
inthewealthierItaliancommunes,wherethemer-
cantileandindustrial
burgherssoonlostthehabitof
fighting
their
warsin
person,andbecamemoreandmoreinclinedtoentrust
themtomercenaries. InFlorencecitizenswerestill
fighting
inthebattlesontheArbiaandatCampaldino,but,aswesaw
above
(chap.Ill,6),thelatestrecordofacampaignconducted
whollyby
citizensbelongs
totheyear
1325.The
nationality
ofthemercenariesthemselvesmaysometimesbedeterminedby
politicalconsiderations,andperhapsbythetraditionalhabitsand
aptitudes
ofcertain
peoples;
buttheconsiderationthatmostcom-
monlyprevails
isthe
plaineconomicconsiderationofthe
largest
resultsfromthesmallestexpenditure
inotherwords,thedesire
tohavethe
greatestpossiblenumberofsoldiersfortheleast

269. STANDINGAEMIES [CHAP.IX
possibleoutlay.Thereforecountries
relativelypoor
in
capital
andrichin
population,
inwhichtimeandlivescanbebought
onvery
favorableterms,havealwaysbeentheonestofurnish
the
largestnumbersofhired
troops.
Whenthesoldier'soutfitwasexpensiveandthe
style
of
fight-
ingrequiredalongapprenticeship, aswasthecasewiththe
medievalknightandtheGreek
hoplite,themercenary
career
was
ordinarilyadoptedbyyoungersons,orunplacedmem-
bersofgoodfamilies,whoby
choiceorofnecessitywent
seeking
theirfortunesoutsidetheirnativelands.Xenophon's
TenThousandoriginated
inthatway.Whenequipment
was
cheapandnoverylongperiod
of
trainingwasrequired,
mer-
cenarieswerepreferablysought
inpoor
countrieswhereman
powerwas
plentifulandindustryand
capitalwerescarce.Down
toveryrecentlythevolunteerEnglisharmywas
largely
recruitedfromthe
poorer
countiesofIreland. Machiavelli in
hisdaynotedhowharditwastoraisemercenariesinthemanu-
facturing
citiesinGermany.Twocenturies laterVoltaire
remarkedthatofalltheGermanstheSaxonswereleast
given
to
enlisting
assoldiers,Saxonybeingthemostindustriousregion
inGermany.
Inour
day,eveniftheSwissfederalgovernment
weretoallowit,veryfewSwiss,probably,wouldbeavailableas
mercenaries, sinceSwitzerlandhasbecomea
fairlywealthy
country. Fortheir
part,theEuropeangovernments
thatonce
dependedonSwitzerlandforhired
guards
couldnowprobably
spend
theirmoneyto
greateradvantageright
athome.
S.Nativeor
foreign,onceregularlyorganizedmercenaries
havebecomethepreponderant
forceina
country,theyhave
normally
triedtoforcetheirruleupon
therestof
society.Like
theirfeudal
predecessors,theyhave
regularlytaken
advantage
oftheirmonopoly
inthe
bearing
ofarmstolevyblackmail,to
liveas
fatly
as
possible
atthe
expense
ofthe
producingpopulation
and,especially,
toreducethesupremepoliticalpowertodepend-
enceontheirwill.Themoreperfect
their
organizationandthe
morecompletethe
militarydisorganization
oftherestofthe
country,
themore
far-reaching
hastheinfluenceofmercenaries
been.
Pertinentexamplessuggest
themselves. Onethinksatonce
ofthepraetorianguardsandthe
legions
thattoyedastheysaw

270. 3] MERCENARYTYRANNIES 227
fitwiththeRomanEmpire.Butin
general,
wheneverand
wherevergovernmentshavebuiltupstandingarmiesinorder
todealwithfeudalunruliness,orforotherreasons,theyhave
almostalwaysfoundthemselvesatthemercy
ofthosearmies.
Aswesawabove(chap.II,4),
inordertogovernwithgreater
absolutismandnotbewhollydependentuponthecontingents
thatweresuppliedbytheboyars,IvanIVofRussiaorganized
theStrelitzes,a
regularlypaidforce
directlyresponsible
tothe
sovereign. VerysoontheStrelitzesweremakingandunmaking
czars.Theybecame
virtuallyomnipotent
inRussia,and
PetertheGreatwasabletofreehimselfofthemonlybyshooting
themdownwith
grapeshot,
or
beheadingthemby
thethousand.
AtConstantinople, again,thesultansdecidedtohaveathor-
oughlyloyal
militiamadeup
ofmenwhohadnocountriesand
nofamiliesandcouldthereforebebroughtupinwhole-hearted
devotiontoIslamandthePadishah. Suchaforce,theythought,
wouldmarchwithoutscrupleandasneed
required,notonly
against
theinfidelbut
againstthesheiksinArabiaandKurdistan,
thebegs
inAlbaniaandBosnia,andthekhansofTurkistanand
Tartary.Sothey
filledtheircorpsofJanizarieswithyoung
boys
ofCircassian,GreekandotherChristianstocks,whomthey
bought
orkidnapedfromtheirfamilies.Butverysoonthe
Janizariesbecametherealauthority
intheOsmanliempire
andwere
creatinganddeposing
sultans.Theystrangledthe
unfortunateSelimIII,whomadeafirstmovetocurbtheir
omnipotence,andinorderto
get
thebetterofthemthesultan
MahmudIIhadtoexterminatethemalmosttothelastman.
ThesultansofConstantinople mighthave
profitedbythe
experience
oftheAbbassidsofBagdad,
their
predecessors
in
the
caliphate.TheAbbassids,asfarbackastheninth
century,
andperhapsearlier,hadorganized
theirTurkish
guard
inorder
tohavea
loyal
militiathatwouldnotbe
raising
thestandard
ofthePatimidsortheOmmiadsevery
other
day,
astheirArab
troopshadbeeninthehabitof
doing.BythetimeofMotasim,
whowascaliphbetweentheyears833and842,theTurkishguard
hadbecomeomnipotent. Turkishmercenarieswere
doingvery
muchastheypleased
inBagdadand
committing
allsortsof
outrages,Motasim'ssuccessor,Watthikbyname,wasdeposed
by
theTurksandreplacedby
hisbrotherMotawakkil. Then
inthe
space
offour
years,866-870,theTurkish
guardmadeand

271. 288 STANDINGARMIES [CHAP.IX
unmadethreeothercaliphs.The
caliphMotamidtookadvan-
tage
ofthedeathoftheir
general,oneMusa,tobreakup
their
powersomewhat.Hescatteredthem
along
thefrontiersof
KhurasanandDzungaria,andcountedeverydefeatthey
suffered
thereasa
victory
forhimself.
Inaword,history
teachesthattheclassthatbearsthelance
orholdsthemusketregularly
forcesitsruleupon
theclassthat
handlesthespadeorpushestheshuttle.As
societyadvances
economic
production
absorbs
largerand
larger
numbers of
handsandbrains,andcivilized
peoplescometo
regard
thearts
of
peace
astheircustomaryoccupations. Underthesecircum-
stances,todeclarein
principle
thatallcitizensaresoldiers,
without
providing
forasoundmilitaryorganization
witha
nucleusof
generalsandofficerswhoare
specialists
inmattersof
war,meansin
practicethatinthemomentof
periltherewill
benosoldiersatall,andthatapopulouscountry
willbein
danger
of
fallingprey
toasmallarmy,
nationalor
foreign,
if
thatarmyhappenstobewelltrainedandwell
organized.On
theotherhand,toentrustthe
bearing
ofarms
exclusively
to
elementsina
society
thataretemperamentally
bestsuitedtothe
militarytradeand
voluntarilyassumeitan
altogether
rational
andobvioussystemwhichmanypeopleshaveinthepastadopted
alsohasitsnumerousandseriousdrawbacks. Ifthe
society
isunorganized
or
looselyorganized,
thatsystemmeansthat
everyvillageandtownwillhaveitsbandofarmedmen.The
bandwillcomprisethosewhofeelthe
greatestrepugnance
to
regularworkandthe
greatestinclinationtowardadventureand
violence,andsoonerorlatertheband,oritsleader,will
begin
to
tyrannizeoverpeacefulproducersquiteignoringany
ruleorlaw.
Ifthesociety
issomewhatbetter
organized,thebandstakenasa
wholewillconstitutea
rulingclass,whichwillbelordsandmasters
ofallwealthandall
political
influence thatwasthecasewith
medievalfeudalisminwesternEuropeandwiththePolish
nobilitydowntoacenturyandahalf
ago.
Inabureaucraticstate,
which
representsthemostcomplicatedtype
ofsocial
organiza-
tion,the
standingarmy
willabsorballthemore
belligerent
elements,and,beingreadilycapable
ofpromptobediencetoa
singleimpulse,
itwillhaveno
difficulty
in
dictating
totherest
of
society.

272. 4] EVOLUTIONOFSTANDINGARMY 229
The
greatmodernfactisthehugestandingarmythatisa
severecustodianofthelaw,isobedienttotheordersofacivil
authority
andhasvery
little
politicalinfluence, exercising
indirectly
atbestsuchinfluenceasithas.Virtuallyinvariable
asthatsituation isincountriesofEuropean civilization, it
representsamostfortunate
exception,
ifitisnot
absolutely
without
parallel,
inhuman
history.Onlyahabitofafew
generations'standing,alongwith
ignorance
or
forgetfulness
of
the
past,canmakesuchasituationseemnormaltothoseofus
whohavelivedattheendofthenineteenthandthebeginning
of
thetwentiethcentury,andsofindit
strangewhenwechance
uponexceptions.
ExceptionshaveoccurredonrareoccasionsinFrance,and
moreoftenin
Spain.InSpainthe
standingarmyhasattimes
overthrownthemeninsupremepowerandevenchangedthe
formof
government. Oneshouldremember,however,thatthis
hashappenedatmomentsofcrisisandsocial
disorganization,and
thatonce
changinggovernmentsbyviolentmeanshasbecome
a
practice,eachparty
orsocialclassusesthemeansmostcon-
genial
toitandwithineasiestreachinorderto
gaintheupper
hand.
Asamatteroffact,ithasbeen
possibletosubordinatethe
standingarmytothecivilauthorityonlythrough
anintense
andwidespreaddevelopment
ofthesentimentsonwhich
juridical
defenseisbased,and
especiallythroughan
exceptionally
favor-
ablesequence
ofhistoricalcircumstances. Perhapswehad
bettertouchonthesecircumstancesatsome
length
atthis
point,
butwemightnoteatoncethatitisnotatall
impossiblethat
differenthistoricalcircumstancesthatarenowmaturingmayend
t>yweakening,
orevenundoing,the
complex,
delicateand
sagely
elaboratedmechanism ofthemodernarmy.
Ifthatactually
takes
place,wemay
findourselvesbackwithatype
ofmilitary
organizationperhapssimpler
andmorenaturalbut
certainly
morebarbarousandlesssuitedtoahigh
levelof
juridicaldefense.
4.Thehistorical
processby
whichthemodern
standingarmy
developedgoes
backtotheendoftheMiddle
Ages.During
thefifteenth
century,
firstinFranceandtheninotherregions
of
Europe,centralizedmonarchy,parent
ofthemodernbureau-

273. 230 STANDINGAEMIES [CHAP.IX
craticstate,graduallyreplacedfeudalmilitiaswithstanding
armies.EveninthosedaysEurope
suffered
relatively
little
frommilitary
insurrectionsand
militarytyranny. Thiswasdue
largely
tothefactthatthesubstitutioncameaboutslowlyand
gradually.EventowardtheendoftheMiddleAgesEuropean
armieswerebecoming
so
complicated
instructurethatmany
differentsocialelementswere
represented
inthemandservedto
balanceoneanother.Attheopening
ofthathistoricalperiod,
thecavalrywasin
generalmadeup
ofmen-at-arms,whowereof
gentle
birthandwere
profoundlyimbuedwiththearistocratic
andfeudal
spirit,butwhoneverthelesswereintheking'spay.
The
infantrywasamotley
collectionofadventurershailingfrom
anynumberofcountries. Littleby
littleasystemcameto
prevailwherebythecommand of
infantryregiments,
and
eventually
of
infantrycompanies,wasentrustedto
gentlemen,
whodifferedinbirth,temperamentandbackgroundfromtheir
soldiers. Besides,downtothetimeofLouisXIV,andevenafter
that,anoldpracticelingeredonwherebyanobleman
organized
at
hisownexpenseasquadron
of
cavalry
ora
regiment
orcompany
ofinfantryfromamongthemenwholivedonhislands,andthen
hiredhimselfouttosomesovereignwithhis
troopready-made.
Itwasalwaystakenfor
granted
thatincaseofneedtheking
couldcallthewhole
nobility
oftherealmtoarms.
The
practice
of
leasingand
hiringprivateregiments
lasted
downtotheendoftheeighteenthcentury.Thetrafficflourished
especially
inSwitzerlandandGermany.TheLaMarckregiment
ofGermaninfantrywas
usually
inserviceinFrance. Recruited
preferably
inthecounty
ofthatname,itwasalwayscommanded
byamemberoftheLaMarck
family,andtheofficerswere
appointedbythecolonel. Itpassedonfrom
generation
to
generationbyinheritance. AllthatdowntotheFrenchRevo-
lution!
1
Thelast
general
callofthewhole
nobilitytoarmstook
place
inFrance
early
inthe
reign
ofLouisXIV. Itbecame
apparent
atthattimethatanassemblage
oftwelveorfifteen
thousand
knights,
allwithdifferentsortsofequipment,sometoo
youngandsometooold,all
personallycourageousbutuntrained
to
fight
inconcertedmovements,hadvery
littlevalueinactual
practice.
FormuchthesamereasonsthePolish
cavalry
lost
mostofits
militaryimportance
inthe
eighteenthcentury.The
1
Correspondance
entrelecomtedeMirabeauetlecomtedeLaMarck,preface.

274. 4] EVOLUTIONOFSTANDINGARMY 231
Magyarnobilitywascalledtoarmsforthelasttimein1809,
whentheFrenchinvadedHungary.Thebody
soformedwas
composed
ofhorsemenwhowereindividually brilliantbutit
showed littleeffectiveness inthebattleatRaab,whichwas
fought
inconnectionwithNapoleon'sWagramcampaign.
Thoughthe
mixing
ofdifferentsocialelementsanddifferent
nationalitiespreventedthearmiesofthesixteenthandthefirst
halfoftheseventeenthcenturyfrombecoming
toastersofthe
countriestheyserved,itwasno
easy
mattertomaintaintoler-
able
disciplineamongtroopsmadeupofadventurersfrom
everywhereand
largelyfromtheworstelementsin
society.
The
outragescommittedbytheGermanlandsknechtsandthe
Spanishmiqueletsbecame
proverbial,butwehavenoreasonto
assumethattheFrench,Swiss,Italian,CroatorWalloon
regi-
mentsbehavedverymuchbetter.ThelettersofDonJuanof
Austriashowwhathardwork,whatshrewdness,whatenergy,
that
generalandhisofficerswerecalleduponto
display
inorder
tomaintainavery
relativedisciplineamongthetroopsthatput
downtheMoorishrevoltinthe
Alpujarras,embarkedonthe
galleysthatwonatLepantoandthenservedinthewarin
Flanders. There isthe
story,fromearly
inthesixteenth
century,thatonhearingthataSpanisharmy,whichhadgone
overseastoconquerAlgiers,hadbeendefeatedandallbut
destroyed, CardinalXim6nezexclaimed:"Godbe
praised!
Spain
isfreeofthatmanyblackguards
atleast!"Attheendof
thesamecentury,amongtheunattainabledesiresthatCervantes
ascribestothe
priestandtheapothecary
inthe
villagewherethe
CaballerodelaManchawasbornwasahope
thatthesoldiers
whoweremarchingfromtheinteriortotheseaboardtoembark
for
foreign
landswouldnotsackthehomesofthe
peasants,
theircountrymen,alongtheroad.Wellknownarethefeats
ofthetroops
ofallthecountriesthatfought
inthefamous
Thirty
Years*War.Oneofthechiefreasonsfortheaversionto
standing
armiesthatpersisted
so
long
inEnglandwasdreadof
thelicentiousways
of
professional
soldiers. Inthe
reign
of
JamesIIanEnglishregimentunderColonelKirkereturned
homeaftersomeyears
ofserviceinTangiers. Itbecame
notoriousforits
rapesandrobberies.The
regimentalbanner
borealambasitsdevice,andBritishhumordubbedthesoldiers
whobelongedtoit"Kirke'sLambs."

275. 282 STANDINGARMIES [CHAP.IX
Inparts
ofEuropewheremedievalimmunitiesand
privileges
surviveddowntomodemtimes,theinhabitantsoftowns
clung
jealouslytotheirright
tomanthewallsandfortificationsoftheir
citieswithlocalmilitiamen. UndertheSpanish
dominationat
Palermo,forinstance,thoughtheinhabitants,apartfromsome
fewlapses,remainedloyalsubjects
toHisCatholicMajesty,
onlyaverysmallnumberof
foreign
soldierswereallowedto
enterthetowntoguard
the
royalpalaceandthecastle.The
ramparts
withtheir
artilleryremainedinthecontrolofthe
city
militiamadeup
of
"
theworthyguilds."Attimeswhenaquestion
of
strengthening
the
royalguard
inthe
citycame
up,the
guilds,
loud-voicedintheirprofessions
ofdevotionand
loyalty
tothe
king,nonethelessbarricadedthestreetsandtrainedtheguns
of
therampartsupon
theroyalpalace.TherevoltatMessinain
1676wasbrought
onin
partbyanattemptbyDonLuisdelHoyo,
the
strategos,
tocapturebysurprisethefortsthatweremanned
bythetownmilitia.Thelicentiousconductwhichcouldbe
takenforgranted
insoldierswascommpnlyalleged
asthereason
forsuchsuspicions
ofthesoldiery.
Nobetter
disciplinewasobtaineduntilwelltowardtheend
oftheseventeenth,orrathertillthe
eighteenthcentury.Then
feudalandtownmilitiasdisappearalmosteverywhere,andthe
eraofrealstanding
armiesinthemodernsense
begins.During
those
periodsthe
necessity
of
keepingmanymeninarmsandthe
difficulty
of
payingwageslargeenoughtoattractvolunteers
broughtonconscription
inmostcountriesontheEuropean
continent.Thatsystemmeantthatcommonsoldiersno
longer
camefromtheadventurousandcriminalclassesbutwere
recruitedfromamongpeasants
and
workinginen,whonever
thought
ofdevoting
theirwholelivesto
militaryservicebut
returned,afterthefewyearsrequired
ofthem,totheirordinary
occupations. Theofficerscontinuedto
belong
toa
totally
differentclass.Theymoreandmorebecameasortofbureau-
cratized
nobility,combining
theorderlinessandconscientiousness
ofthecivilserviceemployee
withthechivalrous
spiritandthe
high
senseofhonorthatweretraditionalinthewellborn.
FrederickIIofPrussiainhistime
apologized
for
having
been
obligedduringtheSevenYears'Wartomakearmy
officers
ofmanymenwhowerenotofnoblebirth.Hefeltacertain
dislikeforthisnewtypeofofficerbecause,hesaid,themanwho

276. 4] CITIZENMILITIAS 233
wasagentlemanby
birthcouldoffer
greatermoralandmaterial
guarantees.
Ifhedishonoredhimselfasanofficer,hecouldnot
turntosomeother
pursuit,whereastheplebeiancouldalways
findsomeway
to
getalong
andwasthereforelessinterestedin
scrupulously livingup
tothestandards ofhisrank.The
founderofPrussianpowerwasan
altogetherunprejudiced
indi-
vidual.Suchreasoningonhis
partshowsthatinGermany,
as
elsewhere,thegrowth
ofaclassofpeople
of
superioreducation,yet
notbelonging
tothe
nobility,
isa
relativelyrecentphenomenon.
Only
inEnglandandtheUnitedStateshastheoldsystem
of
recruitingvolunteers,preferablyfromamongtheunemployable
elementsofthepoorer
classesofsociety,hungon,conscription
beingresortedto
only
in
greatcrises,suchastheAmericanCivil
WarortheWorldWar.Inthosetwocountries,however,and
especially
intheUnitedStates,standing
armieshavealways
been
relatively
small.Inviewoftheirgeographicalsituation,
defense
againstforeign
foescanin
largepartbeentrustedtoa
navy,whileinternalorderismaintainedpartlyby
localmilitias
andin
largerpartbystrongand
well-organized police
forces.
Classdistinctionsbetweenofficersandprivates
inthe
regular
armiesare,furthermore,muchmore
rigorously
stressedthanis
thecaseinarmiesonthecontinentofEurope.Theresultis
that,invirtueoffamilyconnectionsandeducation,army
officers
retainclosetieswiththeminoritywhichbybirth,cultureand
wealthstandsatthepeak
ofthesocialpyramid.
The
corps
ofEnglish
officershas
alwaysmaintaineda
highly
aristocraticcharacter.Thesystem
of
purchasingrankings
held
onintheEnglisharmydownto1870.InhisEnglish
Constitu-
tion,Fischel
justly
notesthatitisnottheMutinyActthathas
kept
theEnglisharmyfrom
becomingatoolforcoupsd'etat,but
thefactthatEnglish
officers
belongbybirthandsentimenttothe
classesthatdowntoafew
yearsagoweremost
largelyrepre-
sentedinParliament.TheUnitedStateshasfollowedthe
Englishtraditioninallthismatter.Inthefederalarmy
there
isa
great
differenceinclass,aswellasinrank,betweenthe
commissioned officeroflowestrankandthenoncommissioned
officerof
highest
rank.Infact,betweenthemliesan
abyssthat
may
wellbecomparedtothegulfthat
separatesthe
Negro
from
thewhiteintheUnitedStates,acountrywheredistinctionsof
colorareoffar
greatermomentthanelsewhere.

277. 284 STANDINGARMIES [CHAP.IX
5.TheAmericannonprofessional
militiahassofarprovedto
beofverymediocre practical
value.Washington
himself
remarkedthatifhewerecompelled
todeclareunderoathwhether
heconsideredthemilitiausefulorthereverse,hewouldhaveno
hesitationinreplyingthatitwasuseless.
1
American
foreign
warshavebeenfought
almost
exclusivelyby
federalarmiesaug-
mentedbyvolunteerenlistments,andthatwasalsothecasein
theCivilWar.Asregards
internaldisorders,onemay
atleast
wonderwhethertheAmericanmilitiaismoreeffectivein
quieting
thanin
aggravatingthem. Ithasnotbeenabletoprevent
the
lynchingsthatarestillfrequent
intheUnitedStates,andin
dealingwithstrikesithasoften
dispersed
orelsecometoterms.
Inanyevent,theAmericanmilitiasetthepattern
fortheEuro-
peannationalguard,andwasinasensetheparent
ofit.Great
importance
wasattachedtocivilianmilitiasdowntoacentury
ormore
ago,mainlyonaccountofthe
political
rolewhichthey
weresupposedly
destinedto
play.
2
Theidea
underlyingthe
nationalguardwasthatitwouldprovideanarmedforcefreeof
blind,unreasoning militarydisciplineand
partisanship,which
wouldservetoprotectparliamentary
institutionsfromencroach-
mentsbyanexecutivepowersupportedby
a
standingarmy.
AsfarbackastheFrenchRevolution,Mirabeaupointedvery
soundly
tothedrawbacksofsucha
militarybody. Itwould,
hethought,be
likely
tofavororsuppressarevolt
according
to
themoodithappened
tobeinatthemoment,andsoinaway
cometofunctionasanarmedarbiterbetweenconstitutedauthor-
ityandrevolution.
3
In
spite
ofthat,whentheFrenchCharter
wasrevisedin1880,a
special
articleprovidedthat"theCharter
andallthe
rights
whichitsanctifiesshallcontinuetobeentrusted
tothepatriotismandcourage
oftheNationalGuard."When
GaribaldienteredNaples
tosavetheSant'Elmocastle,whence
theroyaltroopshadtheretoforeheldthe
cityundertheir
guns,
hehadtopromisethatitwouldalwaysbe
garrisonedbythe
Neapolitannational
guard.As
regardsFrance,totellthetruth,
1
DeWitt,Histoirede
Washington,p.
104.
2
Jannet,Leistituzioni
politiche
esocialidegli
StatiUnitid*America,partI,
chap.XVII.
*
"ApercjudelasituationdelaFranceetdesmoyensdeconcilierlaHbert6
publiqueavec1'autoriteroyale,"inCorrespondence
entrelecomtedeMirabeauetle
comtedeLaMarck,vol.II,p.418.

278. 6] OFFICERANDPRIVATE 235
thenationalguard
didnotalwaysprove
ineffective. In1832
and1834,andagain
inJune1848,fearofsocialism
inspiredthe
peace-loving
Parisian
burgherswith
spurts
of
courage,andthe
nationalguardhelpedthearmytoputdownthe
rioting.But
inFebruary1848,dissatisfiedwiththeGuizotministry,andnot
realizing
thatarevolutionwas
goingon,itwasatfirsthostile
tothearmy,then
puzzled,then
finallyinert,anditsconductwas
themaincauseofthefallofthe
JulyMonarchy.
1
Itfailedto
preventthecoup
d'etatofDecember2,1851.In1870-1871
socialistworkershadbeenallowedtoserveinitsranks.The
elementsofdisorderthereforeprevailedovertheelementsof
order,andthecitizenmilitiaofParisbecamethe
praetorian
guard
oftheCommune. Inour
day,partlybecausethelow
efficiencyandunsoundnessoftheinstitutionaretoowellrealized,
and
partlybecausebynoweverytradesmanandshopkeeper
hasservedforatimeintheregulararmyandsohaslosthis
enthusiasm for
paradesanduniforms,thenationalguardhas
beenabolishedinallthe
great
countriesof
Europe.Thefact
thatthenationalguard
haslasted
longest
in
Belgium,where
theintroduction ofuniversalcompulsorymilitary
servicewas
also
longestdelayed,wouldleadoneto
suspectthatthesecond
ofthereasonsmentionedmaynothavebeenthelessinfluential
ofthetwo.
6.Onthismatterofmodern
militaryorganization
in
Europe
anditsrelationtojuridicaldefense,twofurtherremarkswill
bein
point.
Aswehaveseen,ourmodernarmedforcescomprisetwo
classesof
people,aclassofofficers,usually
recruitedfromthe
politicallydominantranksof
society,having
a
specialeducation
and
trainingand
beginning
serviceata
fairlyhighrank,and
anotherclassmadeup
of
privatesandpettyofficers,whofindit
hardtomaketheirway
intothehigherranks.Nowabsurdly
conventionalandarbitrary
asthisdistinctionmayseemtobe
atfirst
glance,
ithasalways
beenmoreorless
definitelypresent
inall
greatand
well-organized standingarmies,whateverthe
periodorcountry.
It
prevailed
atcertain
periods
inancient
Egypt.Papyridatingbacktothe
dynastiesthatwongreatest
glory
inarmsspeak
ofchariotofficersand
infantry
officerswho
1
Thureau-Dangin,
HistoiredelaMonarchiedeJuillet,vol.VII,chap*
VII.

279. 886 STANDINGARMIES [CHAP.IX
wereeducatedin
specialmilitaryacademieswheretheywere
introducedtoallthehardships
ofarmy
life.Toentersuch
collegesonehadtopaynotmoney,whichdidnotthenexist,but
slavesandhorses.
1
Thesamedistinctionwasenforcedtoa
certainextentinmodernChina,wherethestatusofthemilitary
mandarinwassomewhatsimilartothatofthemodernarmy
officerintheWest.The
militarymandarinhadto
passan
examinationbeforethe
military
authoritiesofhis
province.He
thenenteredthemilitiaofoneofthe
eighteen
Chineseprovinces
witha
relativelyhigh
rank.Theexaminationwasusuallytaken
beforethe
Tchang-kun,
orchief,oftheTatar
garrison,
which
wastobefound,downtoafew
yearsago,
inallthe
strategic
citiesofChina.Afterthecivilwarsofthemiddleofthenine-
teenthcentury,thevariousranksofthe
militarymandarinate
cametohavelittleimportance,becausetheywereoftencon-
ferredso
arbitrarily
thatamanwhowas
discharged
witha
rather
high
rankinone
provincewasoftenenrolledasaplain
soldierinthenextprovince,andviceversa. Allthesame,com-
mandof
large
bodiesofsoldierswasentrustedtogovernors
of
provincesandothercivilmandarins of
highrank,whowon
advancement only
afteraseriesofhardandthoroughgoing
examinations. InChina, itshouldbenoted,asinancient
Rome,thehigher
civil
postswerecombinedwithhighmilitary
posts.
2
Butthedistinctionin
questionwas
unusually
strictinthe
Roman
legionsduring
thelastcenturiesofthe
republicandthe
firstcenturiesoftheempire.Therealinewas
sharplydrawn
betweentheordinaryandtheso-calledequestrian
militias.A
militiamanofthe
equestrian
classbegan
serviceasacontubernalis
todaywewouldsay"aide-de-camp"
totheconsul,orto
thecommanderofa
legion.Thiscadetshipopenedtheway
to
therankof
militarytribuneandtotheother
higher
ranks.For
longcenturies,ontheotherhand,themanwhobegan
hiscareer
asa
private
intheordinary
militiacouldatthemostbecomea
seniorcenturion,or"firstspear,"agradethatwasthemarshal's
baton,asitwere,oftheRomanrankandfile.This
organization
assuredthetenureof
high
ranksinthearmy
tothesamesocial
1
Correspondence
ofAmon-em-ept,
librariantoRamsesII(Nineteenth
Dynasty),
withoneofhis
pupils,thepoetPentaur. SeeMaspero.
*
Rousset,AtraverslaChine.

280. 7] VALORANDRACE 37
classthatheldthehigh
civil
magistraciesandwhich,sinceit
possessedbothwealthand
politicalpower,madeup
thearistoc-
racy
ofancientBorne.Thedistinctionbetweenthemilitia
equestrisandtheordinary
militiawasbasedonalawthatmade
thenominationof
militarytribunesand
higher
officersthe
pre-
rogative
ofthecomitia.Now
popular
electionsinancient
Rome,astoday
inmanycountrieswhicharenotinastateof
latentrevolutionandwheretheelective
system
hasbeenlong
established,almostalwaysgavepreference
totherich,orto
personswhosefamiliesalreadyenjoyedgreatprestigeand
occupiedprominent positions.
Inthe
&arly
centuriesofthe
empirethesame
organization
heldon.Tribunesandother
higherarmy
officerswerestillchosenfromthemoreconspicuous
Romanfamilies. Littlebylittle,however,theemperorsbegan
toexcuse,firstsenatorsandthen
knights,from
militaryservice,
fearingthemas
potential
rivals.During
theperiod
of
military
anarchythatsupervened
inthethirdcentury
A.D.theso-called
eraoftheThirtyTyrants privatescouldbecome
generalsand
evenemperors.
7.Ourotherobservationrelatestooneofthemost
widespread
conceptions,
or
misconceptions,
intheworldthat
military
qualities
areveryunequallydistributedamongpeoples,some
beingnaturallytimorousand
cowardly,
others
daringand
courageous. Ofcourseitcouldneverbeprovedthatthereis
notruthwhateverinsuchnotions.Butbeyondquestionthe
moreorlesswarlikehabitsofa
peopleandthe
typeandsound-
nessofits
militaryorganizationaretheelementsthatcontribute
most,onthewhole,to
increasing
its
militaryprestige.
Inwar,asinalldangerousoccupations,acertainamountof
experience
is
required
ifoneistoface
dangercalmlyand
coolly.
Whenthatexperience
is
lacking
itcanbemadeup
for
onlyby
thosemomentsoffrenzythatoccuratrareintervalsinthelifeof
everypeople
orby
a
high
senseofdutyandhonorthatcanbe
createdand
kept
aliveinalimitedclassof
superiorindividualsby
a
specialtraining.
Incivilizedcountries,wherethe
great
majority
ofpeoplecannotdevotethemselvesto
bloody
conflicts
asa
regularprofession,oneofthe
goals
of
militaryorganization
shouldbeto
keepdistributedthroughthemassesasmallminority
ofindividualswhoarefamiliarwithsuchconflictsandhavebeen

281. 238 STANDINGARMIES [CHAP.IX
so
preparedby
the
specialtrainingmentionedthattheycan
dominatethe
plainsoldier,exerciseadecisiveinfluenceoverhim
andleadhimtofacedangers
fromwhichhewouldotherwise
recoil.TheWorldWarshowedthatthesoundnessofanarmy
dependsverylargely
onthe
strength
ofthe
patriotic
sentiments
thathavebeeninstilledbylongandcarefuleducation,both
intellectualandmoral,inindividualsbelonging
tothe
ruling
classesandinthemasses.
The
organization
inquestionmaybemoreorless
perfect,
or
evencompletelyabsent,anda
ruling
classmaybefamiliarwith
thebusinessofarmsor,foronereasonoranother,completely
shy
ofit.Asonescansthe
history
ofcivilized
peoples,therefore,
itisapparent
thatalmostallofthemhavehadtheirmomentsof
militarygloryandtheirperiods
ofmaterialweakness.The
HinduswereconqueredanddespoiledtimeaftertimebyTurks,
Mongols,AfghansandPersians,andtheysubmittedtoafew
thousandEnglishmen
intheeighteenthcentury;yet
ofallthe
Asiaticpeoplestheyweretheoneswhoofferedthestoutest
resistancetotheMacedonians. ThenativesofEgypthavefor
centurieshadthereputation
ofbeingcowardlyfighters,yetthe
troops
ofAmasisandThutmosis,intheirdaythebestarmiesin
theworld,wererecruitedamong
theinhabitants ofthelower
valley
oftheNile.Fromtheday
ofLeonidasdowntoAlexander
theGreat,theGreekswereconsideredveryvaliantsoldiers,and
inXenophon'stimetheyspokewiththegreatestscornofthe
SyriansandtheMesopotamians. ButwhenIslamrose,the
Semiticpeoples
ofAsiatookthelead
againand
literally
massa-
credtheunwarlikepopulationsthat
gave
theirobedienceto
Byzantium. Amari
1
seemsinclinedtoascribethesubmissiveness
thattheGreeksdisplayedunderByzantine
ruletotheinfluence
of
Christianity.NowinthefirstplacetheByzantineEmpire
lastedfortencenturies,and
during
thattimeithadnotafew
momentsof
extraordinarymilitaryenergy.Then
again,
Chris-
tianity
didnothaveanysucheffectontheGermansortheSlavs,
anditistobenotedthatthewarlike
spirit
alsorevivedamong
theLatin
peoples
oftheWest,opceRomanadministrationhad
actuallybeenobliteratedandafeudal
organizationhademerged
fromanarchy.Therealfactisthat
imperialefficiencyandthe
PaxRomanahadunaccustomed thecitizensofthe
empire
to
1
StoriadeiMusulmaniinSicilia.

282. 7] VALORANDRACE 89
arms,sothatoncetheregulararmywasdisposedofthey
fell
areadyprey
toany
invader.
TheItaliansoftheRenaissancemadewretchedsoldiers,being
unusedtoanything
likerealwarfare.However,theRoman
legionarieshadbeenrecruitedamong
theirancestors.They
hadshownnotalittlevalorintheday
ofthecommunes,andnot
somanygenerations
afterMachiavelli'stime,theItalian
regi-
mentsrivaledtheSpanish
insteadinessatthefamousaffairat
Rocroi.TheNeapolitansowedtheveryspecialreputation
for
cowardicethattheyenjoyed
inadaynotlongpastrathertoa
lackofcohesionandmoralunity,whichtheydisplayedona
numberofoccasions,thantoanydeficiency
inpersonalcourage.
InSpainandRussiaunderNapoleon I,andonotheroccasions
aswell,Neapolitantroopsgavea
fairlygoodaccountofthem-
selves.Preeminenceinsome
specialbranchofwarfareandin
certaindefinitemilitaryqualities
isaveryephemeralthing
among
thenations,everythingdependingontheciviland
military
organization
ofthecountry
in
question. Machiavellijudged
the
FrenchcavalrythebestinEurope,since,hesaid,theFrench
nobilitywerewhollydevotedtothe
military calling.The
infantry
ofthatsamenationheconsideredverypoor,"because
itwasmadeup
ofthelowestrabble,andofartisanswhowereso
overriddenby
thebaronsineverythingtheydidthattheycould
onlybecravencowards." But,lo,thesocialand
military
organizationchanges,andtheinfantrybecomesthebackboneof
themilitarypower
ofmodernFrance!
MuzabenNoseir,theArab
generalwhoconqueredSpain,
said,inoneofhis
reports
tohis
caliph,WalidI,thattheGoths
(by
whichhemeantalltheSpanish)were
"eaglesonhorseback,
lionsintheircastles,weakwomenafoot/'DuringthePenin-
sularWarWellingtondeploredtheunsteadiness oftheSpanish
infantry
intheopenfield,whereasbehindthebattlements of
Saragossa,Tarragonaandothercities,thesameinfantryshowed
extraordinary
valorandstubbornness.Nowwemustassume
thatatthetimeoftheArabinvasionthe
cavalrywascomposed
ofnobles,whowerewelltrainedinarms.Aswasthecaselater
on,intheday
ofNapoleon,
the
infantrywasprobablythrown
togetherbymassconscriptionandcouldshowitsnativecourage
only
behindbattlementsorinfortresses,nothavingacquired
as
yet
thecouragethatcomesfrom
long
habituationto
military

283. 840 STANDINGAKMIES [CHAP.IX
lifeandfromawell-selected personnel. That,beyondany
doubt,wasthemainassetoftheSpanishinfantry
ofthelate
Renaissance,fromtheday
ofFerdinandtheCatholicdownto
theday
ofPhilipIV.During
that
periodtheSpanisharmywas
regarded
asthebest
fighting
forceinallEurope.
8.Inourdayareaction
againstlargestanding
armieshas
setin.Theyareblamedfor
withdrawing
handsfrom
factory
andfield,for
instilling
vicesintheyoung
andfor
occasioning
almostunbearable
expenditures
of
publictreasure.Such
plaints
comeinthemain,itistrue,fromsocialelementsthathaveatall
timesmostconspicuously
exhibitedaninclinationtoassertthem-
selvesandtoimpose
theirwillontherestofsocietybyforce
fromthosewhospontaneouslyandby
naturehavethe
greatest
tasteforthebearing
ofarms,andwho,perhapsunconsciously,
findanobstacletothefull
expression
oftheirinstinctsinthe
presentmilitaryorganization
ofthe
peace-loving, producing
masses.Wealludetothesubversiverevolutionaryelementsof
ourtime,whocountamong
theirnumbertheboldest,most
adventurousandmostviolentelementsinmodernsocieties.
Butitisnonethelesstruethattheverypressuresthathaveled
thedifferentEuropeannationstocreatethe
prevailingorganiza-
tionofstanding
armiesarenowtending
sotobroadenandextend
the
application
ofthe
principles
onwhichmodernarmiesare
foundedastoalteranddenaturetheirstructure.
FirstintheNapoleonicwarsandthen,andmore
particularly,
intheFranco-Prussianwarof1870,victorywenttothenations
thathadequippedandmobilizedthe
largestarmies.Those
experiencesbroughtthesystem
ofcompulsorymilitary
service
toexaggerated
extremesinalmostallthecontinentalcountries
ofEurope,andwehavenowcometothepointwherepeople
thinkthatincaseofneedtheycanturnthewholeable-bodied
populations
ofstatesof
thirty,forty,seventy
millionsofinhabi-
tantsintoarmies.Butto
bring
suchanundertaking
within
range
ofthepossible,
ithasbeennecessarytocurtailtermsof
preliminary service,andthatmakesitdoubtfulwhethercon-
scripted
recruitshavetimetoacquire
thehabitsandthespecial
frameofmindwhichshoulddistinguishthesoldierfromthe
restof
society,andwhichfortechnicaland
especially
for
political
reasonsmustnotbeweakenedbeyond
acertainpoint.Military

284. 8] THEARMEDNATION 241
expenditures
formen,officersandarmaments,whichhavetobe
renewedconstantly,
haveenormously
increased. Itisbecoming
harderandhardertokeepupwiththem,and
public
debtshave
piledupmonstrously. Thisisoneofthemostseriousafflictions
ofmanymoderncountries,andunderitsomeofthe
economically
weakernationsareindangereventually
of
succumbing.
Intheintroductiontothe1884editionofDasVolkin
Wtyffen,
thelateGeneralvonderGoltzexpressesafavoriteideaofhis,
thatinthemilitaryhistory
ofthenationsonemaydetectthe
conflictand
alternatingtriumph
oftwo
oppositemilitarytend-
encies.Afirsttendency
istoincreasemassesofcombatants
moreandmore,toconquerbysheerweight
ofnumbers.That
processgoes
onandonuntilhugemassesofmenareledto
war.Suchmassesarehardtohandleandarealwaysinade-
quatelydrilled,sothattheycometobeconqueredbysmallarmies
ofwell-drilled
professional
soldiers.So
specialization
inthe
militaryfunctionbecomesthesecondtendency,whichinturn
leadstoarenewalofmass
armings.
GeneralvonderGoltzbelievedinthe
eightiesthatinEurope
thetrendtowardincreasingnumbersofcombatantshadnotyet
reacheditslimit,andhis
prophecywas
certainly
validforthe
WorldWar.Butthehistoricalphenomenonwhichhestressed
doesnotalways
unfoldin
regularrhythm.
Itatleastundergoes
exceptionsandfluctuations,however
clearly
itmaymanifest
itselfinsomefew
special
cases.TheMedo-Persians,according
totheaccountsoftheGreekhistorians,succeededin
conquering
allsouthwesternAsiabymobilizingenormousmassesofmen.
ThefactthatCyruswasabletokeepahugearmyunderthe
colorsformorethanoneseasonwasthecauseoftherapiddecline
ofthekingdom
ofLydia.Greatunitsofarmedmenheldthe
fieldforlongperiodspftime,also,duringthetwo
sieges
of
Babylonthattook
placeunderCyrusandunderDarius,sonof
Hystaspes.
Other
greatmassesweremobilizedintheexpedition
againsttheScythsandinthecampaign
ofXerxes, Itwas
during
thelatterthatthePersianmilitarymachinebegan
to
betray
itsdefects.Becauseoftheveryfactthattheybelonged
toa
wide-rambling
statethe
contingentsfromthevariouspeoples
whomadeupthePersianempirecame,tolackthe
training
required
for
unending
wars.
Gradually
their
military
abilities
declined.Thearmybecameamere
assemblage
of
disorganized

285. 242 STANDINGARMIES (CHAP.IX
mobswhichcouldnotwithstandtheonrushoftheGreek
hop-
lites.Thesewerefewinnumberbut
they
were
thoroughly
trained,heavilyarmedandskilledin
fighting
inmassformations,
Certainly
inits
process
ofexpansionthemodern
military
machinehasbecomemoreandmore
complicated,
moreandmore
delicatelyadjusted.Todirectits
functioning
intimeofmobiliza-
tionandwarhasbecomeataskthatbristleswithgreaterand
greater
difficulties.Wemayevenaskourselveswhetherwar
itselfwillbe
possiblewhfeneach
passingday
ofhostilities,what
witheconomiclossestothecountryand
expenditures
fromthe
exchequer,
willcosteverynationtensandtensofmillions,and,
whenadeclarationofwarwillharmtheinterestsandshockthe
emotionsofeverysinglefamily
inawholecivilizedpopulation.
Ifthemoralaversionsandtheeconomic intereststhatare
opposed
towaramong
civilizednationsareabletostavesuch
conflictsoffforasfewas
sixty
or
seventy
successive
years,
itis
doubtfulwhetherthemilitaryand
patrioticspirituponwhich
modernarmiesarebased,andwhichalonemakes
possible
the
enormousmaterialsacrificesthatwars
require,canbe
passed
on
tothe
risinggenerations.
Whenthedeclineofthat
spiritand
prolongedpeacehave
abolishedstandingarmies,orreducedthemto"semblances
vainand
subjectless,"adanger
willagain
arisethatthemilitary
predominance oftheWestmayreverttootherraces,other
civilizations,thathavehad,orwillhavehad,differentdevelop-
mentsfromtheEuropean,andwillmeantimehaveappropriated
Europeanmethodsandinstruments ofdestruction. Ifthat
dangerseemstooremoteandtoofancifultosomeofus,noone
candenythat,withinthestructureof
European
nationsthem-
selves,therewillalwaysbeviolentcharactersandtimidcharac-
terstherewillalwaysbeconflictsofinterest,andthewillto
haveone'sownwaybybruteforce.Nowthemodern
organiza-
tionofthe
standingarmyhassofar
stripped
theclassof
persons
whohavenaturaltastesandcapacities
forviolenceoftheir
monopoly
ofthe
militaryfunction.Whenthat
organization
has
beendissolvedorweakened,whatistoprevent
small
organiza-
tionsofthe
strong,
thebold,theviolent,fromagaincoming
to
lifeto
oppress
theweakandthepeaceful?Whenwarhasended
ona
largescale,willitnotberevivedonasmallscalein
quarrels
betweenfamilies,classesor
villages?

286. 8] ARMYANDLIBERTY 243
Indeed,fromthedoubtswehavebeen
voicing,aconclusion
whichwehardlyhavethe
courage
toput
intowordsmaybe
drawn. Itisthatwaritself initspresentformstherootofso
manyevils,theparent
ofsomany
barbarities becomesneces-
saryeverynowandagain
ifwhatisbestinthefunctioning
ofour
westernsocietiestoday
isnottodeclineandretrogress
tolower
types
of
juridical
defense.Graveandterribleasthisconclusion
is,itis,afterall,only
onemoreconsequenceofourcomplexand
contradictoryhumannature.Inthehistory
ofthenations,good
andevilareinevitably
linked.Thejuridicalandmoralimprove-
mentof
societygoeshandinhandwith
expressions
ofthebasest
andmostselfish
passionsandthemostbrutishinstincts.
Themodern
organization
ofarmies, itwillbenoted,runs
countertotheeconomic
principle
ofthedivisionoflaborandto
the
physiological
lawoftheadaptability
ofthevarious
bodily
organs
togivenpurposes.Thatshowsonceagainhowhazard-
ousitistosetupanalogiesbetweenthephenomena
ofthehuman
bodyandthephenomena
ofthesocialbody,andonceagain
calls
attentiontothereservationsthathavetobemadein
regard
to
certaineconomiclawswhentheyareapplied
inthefieldof
poli-
tics. Ifthe
principle
ofthedivisionoflaborweretobetoo
rigorouslyfollowedinthe
political
fielditwould
easilyupset
all
juridicalbalance,forthewholeofa
societywouldbecomesub-
jecttothegroup
thatexercisesnotthe
highestfunctionfromthe
intellectualormoralstandpointbutthemostindispensable
func-
tionthefunctionthatmostreadilyenablessomementoforce
theirwillupon
othersthemilitaryfunction,inotherwords.

287. CHAPTERX
PARLIAMENTARISM
1.Inthefirstchapterwesetforththereasonswhythecon-
stanttendenciesorlawsthat
regulatetheorganization
ofhuman
societiescanbediscoveredonlythroughthestudy
of
history;and
inthe
chaptersfollowingwetriedtodeterminethenatureand
manneroffunctioning
ofsomeofthoselaws.Wetriedtodemon-
stratethatinanyhumanaggregatewhichhasattainedacertain
levelofcivilizationa
rulingminorityexists,andthatthisminority
isrecruitedinwaysthatmayvarybutthatarealwaysbased
upon
the
possession
ofmultipleandvariablesocialforces in
otherwords,ofthose
qualitiesorresourceswhichgivemoral
prestigeandintellectualandeconomicpreeminence
totheindi-
vidualswhopossessthem.Wealsotriedtomakeitclearthat
everysociety
isfoundeduponacomplex
of
religiousand
philo-
sophical
beliefsand
principleswhichare
peculiartoitandby
whichitexplainsand
justifiesthetype
of
organization
thatit
happenstohave.Thisgave
usoccasiontoconsiderdifferences
insocialtypes,
whichareinthemainduetofundamental dif-
ferencesinthephilosophicaland
religioussystemsorpolitical
formulasthatsharedominionoverthemajority
ofmindsin
those
portions
ofmankindthathaveattainedacertainlevelof
civilization.
Inthisconnectionwemadetwo
pointsthatseemtoussus-
ceptibleofscientificand
practicalapplications
ofsomemoment.
Wetriedtoshowthatthehighestgrade
of
juridicaldefense,the
greatestrespect
forlawandmoralsonthe
part
ofthosein
power,
canbeobtainedonlythroughthe
participation
ofmany
different
politicalforcesingovernmentandthrough
theirbalancingone
another.Wethinkweshowedconclusively, further,thatno
philosophical
or
religiousdoctrinecanchangehumannaturevery
radically
oratallpermanently,
ifitfailstolimitits
propaganda
toasmallnumberofchosenindividuals,or
"superiorsouls,"and
iriestoeducateawhole
greatsocietyandgovern
itbyimbuing
it
withcertainprinciples. Ofcourse,wedonotdenythatthe
244

288. 2] FUTUREOFRELIGION 245
predominance
ofagivendoctrinary
or
religiousoutlookmay
haveupon
a
people
a
practicalinfluencethatis
very
considerable.
Chapters
VIIIandIX
applied
thetheorieswehad
previously
setforthtoaphenomenon
thatisverycommoninmoderntimes,
revolutionbyviolence,andtoadiametricallyoppositephenome-
non,themodernorganization
ofstanding
armies.Inouropinion
thestandingarmy
asat
presentorganizedprevents
theelement
in
societywhichwouldnaturallymonopolizemilitarypower
from
enforcing
itswillby
violenceuponothersocialforces.
Asomewhatmoredelicateanddifficulttasknowawaitsour
attention,foritwouldseemtobeour
duty,nowthatwehave
statedourtheories,tosee
justwhatlighttheythrowonthemore
importantproblems
thatareatpresentagitating
thenationsof
European
civilization. Suchastudymayhelptoclarifythe
natureofthoseproblems,andevensuggest
themore
plausible
solutionsthatmaybefoundforthem.
&.Theproblemsthatmore
especiallyengageourinteresthere
arethreeinnumber.Westatethemintheformof
questions:
1.Willthedogmaticreligions
ofourday
thedifferentforms
of
Christianity
inotherwords,managesomehowtosurvivethe
present
drifttowardrevolution,and,especially,toresistthe
rationalisticmovementwhichforsometimehasbeentending
to
destroythem?
.Willpresent-dayformsofgovernmentbyelectedauthori-
ties,in
particularthesystem
ofgovernment
thatiscommonly
styledparliamentarism, beabletolastverylong?
Incasewe
findthatsuch
systemshavetobechanged,
inwhatdirectioncan
they,
ormust
they,bemodified?
3.Whatisthefutureofourcivilizationtobewith
respectto
socialdemocracy
inoneformoranother thatimpressivecur-
rentof
feelingsandideaswhichissweeping
somanycountriesin
EuropeandtheAmericasandwhich,inonesense,isa
logical
consequence
oftheirmorerecent
historyandisquitecapable
of
modifying
theirfutureverysubstantially?
Thefirstofthe
questionsmay
atacasual
glanceseemtobe
theeasiesttoanswer.
Actually
itisnot.Manymoreimponder-
ablesandunforeseeables areinvolvedinitthanintheother
questions,which
veryproperlyseemtobeso
complicatedand
which,forthatmatter,are
closelyrelatedtothefirst.

289. 346 PARLIAMENTAEISM [CHAP.X
Manypeople
declarewithallassurancethatscienceisbound
todestroydogma;and
superficiallythat
opinion
hasa
greatdeal
tobesaidforit.Thereisno
denyingthat
geology,paleontology,
the
physicalandchemicalsciencesandthehighercriticism
(which
isnothingmorethanhistoricalcriticismitself)are
open-
ing
widebreachesinthewholestructureofthe
supernatural
containedintheOldandNewTestamentsandinthedoctrine
thattheearlyFatherswere
"inspired."Whatismore,evenif
sciencewerenot
impairing religious
beliefs
directly,
amind
trainedtoitsstrictmethodscan,ifitis
dispassionate,only
feel
anunconquerable
aversionto
acceptingdogmatic
doctrinesand
statements. Theseitmustlookupon
assomanygratuitous
assertions.
InthisconnectionacommentbyCherbuliezonabookissued
byBehramji,alearnedBrahman, isenlightening. Thoughhe
hadbeenrearedbySuratmissionaries,Behramjihadforsworn
the
religion
ofhisfathers,without,however,becomingaChris-
tian.Says
Cherbuliez:
Hundredsofthousandsofhiscountrymen
findthemselvestoday
in
thesamesituation....In
Bengal,
aswellasin
Gujarat,Christianity
isthemostactiveofdissolvents. Itiscorrodingand
imperceptibly
destroyingtheoldidolatries. However,itdoesnotsucceedin
replacing
them.Thealtarisleftemptyandsitsconsecratedtoanunrecognized
god.Hindusnolonger
believeintheTrimurti,intheincarnationof
Vishnu,inmetempsychosis,
buttheyarefarfrom
believing,either,
intheHolyTrinity,
intheincarnationofJesus,inSatan,inHell;and
theParadisetowhichSt.Peterholdsthekeyshasfewattractionsfor
them.
1
Thisstateofmindonthe
part
ofculturedHindusis
readily
understandable. TheChristian
religioncanstillbe
practiced
by
amanwhohasbeeninitiatedintoEuropeanscience,because
itisrootedinsentiment,notinreason.Butin
peoplewhohave
notbeeijborntoChristianity,orhavenotbeenbroughtup
in
Christianfamilies,nosuchsentimentwillbeactive.
Allthesameitmustnotbe
forgottenthat
religious
beliefs
havealwaysrespondednottoanydemandofthereason,butto
otherpsychological needs,andespecially
tothedemandsof
humansentiment. If,inonesense,religiousbeliefsmaybe
considered illusions,theyendurenotbecause
theyseemtobe
1
"UnvoyagedansleGiwerate."

290. ] PUTUEEOFEEMGION 247
truebutbecausemenfeelthattheyneedElusion.Thatneedis
souniversalandso
strong,especially
atcertainmomentsin
life,
thatweoftenseewell-balanced, sensibleindividuals,people
of
robustintelligencewhohavebeentrainedtoasoundsenseof
realitiesandpossessnoendofscientificknowledge,paying
lavish
tributetoit.
Norshouldweattachtoogreatanimportancetoaphenomenon
thatwearenow
witnessing,particularly
inCatholiccountries.
Christianobservancesare
disappearing
in
largecitiesinFrance,
inmany
citiesinSpainandnorthernItalyandperhaps
alsoin
somecitiesinGermanyandNorthAmerica;andthey
are
disap-
pearing
inthose
regions
inthelowerclassesratherth.aninthe
classesthat
possessacertainamountofeaseandeducation.
Wemustnotinferfromthisfactthatrationalisticorscientific
educationhasmadeanygreatprogress
inthelowerclasses.A
personmaynotonlyquestionthetruthof
religiousdoctrines
hemay
alsobeconvincedthatall
religions
arehistoricalphe-
nomenabornofinnateandprofoundneedsofthehuman
spirit,
andthatattitudemaybearrivedatthrougharealisticmental
trainingbasedoncomprehensive
studiesthathas
gradually
accustomedthemindnottoaccept
astrueanythingthatisnot
scientificallyproved.
Insuchacase,on
losingonesystem
of
illusions,theindividual isleftsowellbalancedthathewillnot
beinclinedtoembraceanother,and
certainly
notthefirstthat
comes
along.Butthemassoflower-classunbelieversthatwe
haveinnationsofEuropean
civilizationtodayandalso,itmust
beconfessed,the
greatmajority
ofunbelieverswhoarenot
exactlylower-class,donotarriveatrationalismoveranysuch
road.Theydisbelieve,andtheyscoff,simplybecausetheyhave
grownup
inenvironments inwhichtheyhavebeen
taught
to
disbelieveandtoscoff.Underthosecircumstances, themind
thatrejectsChristianitybecauseitisbasedonthesupernatural
is
quitereadytoacceptotherbeliefs,andbeliefsthatmay
well
becruderandmorevulgar.
Theworkingman
inParis,Barcelona,Milan,thefarmlaborer
inRomagna,
theshopkeeper
inBerlin,areatbottomnomore
emancipatedfromthe
ipse
dixitthantheywouldbeif
theywent
tomass,toaProtestantserviceortothe
synagogue. Insteadof
believingblindly
inthe
priestthey
believe
blindly
intherevolu*
tionaryagitator.Theypride
themselveson
being
inthevan*

291. 248 PARLIAMENTARISM [CHAP.X
guard
ofcivilization,andtheirmindsareopen
toallsortsof
superstitions
and
sophistries.Themoralandintellectualstatus
whichtheyhaveattained,farfrom
being
anenlightenedpositiv-
ism,is
justa
vulgar,sensuous,degrading
materialism itis
"indifferentism,"
ifone
preferstocallitthat.Beforetheygo
laughing
attheNeapolitan
loaferwhobelievesinthe
liquefaction
ofSanGennaro'sblood,such
peopleshouldtry
totrainthem-
selvesnottoaccept
astrue
thingsthatarejust
asabsurdand
certainly
a
greatdealmoreharmful.
3.What
religionmeetstoday,therefore,in
largeportions
of
theEuropeanmasses,isnota
positivism,
oran
agnosticism,that
isrationaland,soto
say,organic,butavulgar
imitativeatheism.
Thatbeing
thesituation,religious
beliefsarestillina
position
andwillbeforatime,untilindifferentismhasbecomeamatter
oftradition to
regain,quiteas
rapidly,thegroundthatthey
haveso
rapidly
lost. Itmay
wellbethatwithinafew
genera-
tionssocialistdoctrinesandrevolutionaryimpulses
will
openly
havedeclaredtheirbankruptcy.
Itmayjust
aswellbethat
thatresultwillbeattained
only
aftercivil
strugglesandgrievous
moralandeconomic
sufferingscomparablenottothosethat
followedthetinyovernight
revolutionsofthenineteenthcentury
buttothosewhichtriedthe
generations
ofthe
greatRevolution
so
sorely.
IthasoftenbeenremarkedthatChristianity
isthe
religion
ofhardtimesratherthanof
prosperous
times.People
can
easilygetalongwithoutitwhenlifeis
runningalongsmoothly
andcomfortably,whenthefutureopenssmilingbeforeus,when
materialpleasuresabound.But
peopleneeditshopesandits
comforts,andveryurgently,whencatastrophes
or
grievous
dis-
appointments
aretheirlot,when
privationsandsorrowsembitter
today
andleavethe
prospect
ofthemorrow stillmorebitter.
Christianityenjoyed
adecisivetriumph
oncebeforein
history
whentheupperandmiddleclassesoftheancientworldwere
smittenwiththeappallingcatastrophesandtheunutterable
sufferingsthatfolloweduponthefinalvictoriesofthebarbarians
andthefallofthewesternEmpire. SaysGastonBoissier:"The
sufferings
ofthosedays[theperiod
ofthe
invasions]seemed
destinedtostrikea
deadlyblowat
Christianity. Actuallythey
madeitsvictorycertain."
1
Inanumberof
large
citiesofthe
1
"Lelendemainde1'invasion."

292. J4] FUTUREOFRELIGION 249
empire,andinRome
especially,theupper
classeshadbeen
generally
hostiletothenew
religiondowntothetimeofSt.
Augustine. If,inour
day,many
livesaresacrificedanda
large
part
ofEuropeanwealthissquandered
insocial
struggles,
orin
vainattempts
toeffectsocialreforms,itisnotatall
unlikely
that
theluxuryandwastethatwascharacteristic ofthefirstthree
decadesofthetwentiethcentury
willbefollowedbyaneraof
depressionandcomparative poverty,duringwhichChristian
doctrineswillagain
findtheterrain
propitious
for
recapturing
theheartsofthemasses.InFranceandothercountries,revivals
ofpietismhaveaway
of
following
seriousepidemics
orcatas-
trophes.
In1832,forinstance,acholeraepidemicveryappreci-
ablyweakenedanaversionto
prieststhattherevolutionof1830
hadaroused.Another
religious
reactionfollowedtheterrible
waryear
of1870-1871. Itis
interestingthatinboththose
casesthe
sufferingsinvolvedwereveryephemeralandhadbeen
quiteforgotten
withinafew
years.
Sofar,inCatholiccountries,theCatholicChurchhasenjoyed
very
considerableautonomyandclaimedthe
right
tointerfere
extensively
in
public
affairs. Anticlericalpropagandahasthere-
forebeenfostered,directly
or
indirectly,by
allsecularauthorities
withwhichthepapacyhasfounditselfinany
violentconflict
ofinterests.ThatwasthecaseinFrance
during
thefirst
years
ofthe
JulyMonarchyandatcertain
periodsundertheThird
Republic.
Itwasthecasein
Italyduringandafterthefallof
thetemporalpower
ofthepapacy.Butsuch
episodeshave
occurredtimeandagain
inthelivesoftheCatholic
peoples. It
wouldbeanerrortothinkofthemas
touchingtheessenceof
history,andtoregardthemaswarstothedeath,brookingneither
treatynortruce.Ashasveryoftenhappened
incenturies
past,
afteraposition
hasbeendesperatelydisputedthe
losingparty
getsusedtothenewstateofaffairsand
resigns
itselftoatleast
tacitacceptance. TheCatholicChurchhashadanumberof
suchhoursofsilentresignation
inthecourseofits
longhistory.
4.Lessamenabletoconciliation isthe
antagonismbetween
the
positive
scientificmethodandthe
supernaturaland
dogmatic
premiseswhichunderlieall
religions,
theChristianincluded,and
whichCatholicismhasrecentlybeen
stressing
toamoreandmore
markeddegree.Butfaithisvery
oldandscience
relativelynew.

293. 850 PAELIAMENTARISM [CHAP.X
Certainglimmers
ofsciencewerevisibleinancientEgypt,
in
Babylon,
inBrahmanicIndia,inChina;buttheywereuncoor-
dinatedgleams,clquded
almostalwaysbymystery,andbetween
themcamelong
centuriesofdarkness.Thescientific
light
that
wasgeneratedbyGreco-Roman civilizationwas
stronger,but
ittooallbutfadedwiththedeclineoftheancientworld.New
gleams
flashed
during
themore
splendidperiod
ofArabciviliza-
tion,whichtookadvantage
of
strayraysfromancientGreece
andfromthePersiaoftheSassanids. Those,also,weresnuffed
outby
the
progressive
barbarizationoftheMohammedanworld.
1
Butasan
integrating
forceinacivilization,asarealcontribution
madebyahistorical
period,positive
sciencecameintobeing
inthesixteenthcentury.
Itdidnot
get
afirmholduntilthe
eighteenth
inaEuropewhichhadinheritedandwasthenturning
toaccountdoctrinesandideasthathadbeendevelopedbymany
different peoples,many
different civilizations. Thatthere
shouldhavebeena
strugglebetweenthisnewsocialforce,which
was
trying
toassertitself,and
religion,whichwas
tryingto
defenditselfand,asafirst
step,seeking
tosmotheritsnewrival
in
infancy,
isnaturaland
altogether
understandable. Religion
firsttriedtodeny
theresultsofscienceandthensmotethemwith
itsanathema. Science,forits
part,turnedwith
particularzest
tothetaskof
discrediting
thedogmas
of
religion
inthe
eyes
of
themasses.
Butmanyinstitutions,likemanypeople,seem
utterlyincom-
patibleyet
intheendareforcedto
getalongtogethersomehow,
sincetheycannotsuppresseachother
outright.
Ifscience
attacksdogma,directlyor
indirectly,
itsfieldatleastisdifferent
fromthefieldof
religion.
Scientificthought
dealswiththe
human
intelligence.
Faithhasitsbasisinsentiment. Science,
necessarily,
isaccessibleonlytothesmallnumberofindividuals
whohavethe
abilityandthe
opportunitytolead
highly
intellec-
tuallives.Religion
exertsitsinfluenceuponthemasses.Any
two
religions,
whichareunavoidablyobliged
torefuteeachother
andcompetewithinthesamefield,arefarmore
incompatible
thanscienceandanygivenreligion.Sometimes,nevertheless,
afterlong,cruelconflicts,two
religionsendbytoleratingeach
other,oncetheybecomeconvincedthattheycannot
destroy
1
Amari,StoriadeiMusulmaniinSwilia,especiallyvol.Ill,pp.702
f.;Renan,
AverrodsetVAverrvisme.

294. 4] FUTUREOFEELIGION 251
eachother;andtodaywefindCatholicsandProtestants,Chris-
tiansandMohammedans,Mohammedansandidolaters,living
togetherpeaceably
inthesamecommunities.
China,perhaps,
offersinthis
regardanexamplethatbetter
suitsourcase.InChinatheeducated
governing
classessub-
scribetoavague
sortofdeism,whichatbottom isrational
positivismpureand
simple.Rationalandpositive
atleastare
the
practicalimplications
ofthe
teachings
ofConfucius. Once
whenKilou,a
disciple
ofConfucius,was
questioning
themaster
onthematterofdeath,heobtainedthis
reply:"Youcannot
findoutwhatlifeis.Whyshouldyoubesoanxioustoknow
whatdeathis?"Tze-Kong, another
disciple,onceasked
whetherthesoulsofthedeadknewwhatwentonintheworldof
the
living,andConfuciusanswered:"Youneedfeelno
great
concern,Tze-Kong,
aboutknowingwhetherthesoulsofour
ancestorsareawareofwhatgoes
onamong
us.Thereisno
hurryabout
solving
thatproblem.Waitawhileandyou
will
seeforyourselfwhatthetruthis.*'
1
TheChinesemassesare
Buddhists,orelsefollowLao-tseorMohammed. Buddhism is,
inasense,legallyrecognizedand
public
authorities
participate
officially
initsrites.
Nowsomething
ofthesamesortmayvery
wellcomeaboutin
Europe.
Itseems
highlyimprobablethatanynew
religions
will
rise,letalonespread,
inthewesternworldinthenearfuture.
Thevariousformsof
Christianity
willmaintaintheirpredomi-
nance,therefore,inthecountrieswheretheyarenow
pre-
dominant. Becauseofitsbetter
organizationandmorecoherent
dogmatism,
Catholicism willprobablygainsomelittle
ground
overthevariousProtestantsects,especially
inEnglandandthe
UnitedStates.Inthe
longrun,amutualtolerationmaybe
establishedbetweenthepositivism, or,rather,thescientific
skepticism,
ofthebettereducatedandthebeliefsthatareheld
notonlybythepoorandunletteredmassesbutalsobythat
large
portionofthewell-to-doclasseswhichbysex,habit,education
andtemperament
ismoreresponsivetosentimental
impulses.
Skepticsmustunderstandthatnosocialadvantage
istobe
gainedbyspreading
apropaganda
ofunbeliefamongthosewho
feelaneedfor
religious
beliefsorwhoaretoo
ignorant
everto
succeedin
developingoriginal
and
personalviewsoftheirownin
1
Bousset,AtraverslaChine,chap.VI.

295. 252 PAELIAMENTARISM [CHAP.X
regard
tonaturalandsocialproblems.Ontheotherhand,the
leadersoftheChristian,and
particularly
oftheCatholic,move-
mentshould
finallybecomepersuaded thatpersuasion,
totell
thetruth,seemstoberatherhardto
acquire
thatscienceisnow
somuchapart
ofthelifeofcivilizedhumanitythatitwillnotbe
easy
tosmotheranddestroy
it.
However,thesolutionswhichwehavejustmentioned of
modern
problemsconcerning
therelationsbetweenchurchand
stateandbetweenscienceandthedogmaticreligions
aretobe
thought
ofmerely
as
possible
solutions.Thatdoesnotmean
thatthey
are
easy
onestoachieve,muchlessthatthey
arethe
onesthatwill
necessarilybeadopted.
Ifthey
aretobe
adopted,
the
partiesthatarenowinconflictmustpossessgreatpolitical
sagacity,and,unhappily,
itisnot
sagacity
thatonthewhole
ruleshumanevents,but
passions,hatreds,fanaticisms. It
shouldnotbe
forgotten, either,thatthedemocratic-socialist
currenttodayamountsvirtually
toanother
religion,whichis
fiercelycompeting
with
Christianityandisalmostwhollyincom-
patible
withit.
Another
possibility
isthatintheclashbetweentheChristian
andsocialistcurrentsnotenoughfreedomandtolerationwillbe
lefttoallowthefewindividualswhoarecapable
of
retaining
independence
ofthought
inthepresence
of
grave
socialand
politicalproblems,
togoon
living
and
prospering.
Unfor-
tunately,
theepochs
inwhichindividualshavebeen
permitted
toexpress
theirthoughtsfreely,andhavenotbeen
obliged
topayhomage
tosome
type
offanaticismand
superstition,have
beenprivilegedepochs.They
arerather
exceptional
inthe
history
ofmankindandasaruletheyhavenotlasted
verylong.
Moreoftenhumansocietieshavesettleddownforcenturiesupon
some
system
ofbeliefstowhichtheyhavesacrificed all
liberty
ofdiscussionandthought;
orelsetheyhave
cruellytormented
themselvesbecausetwodifferentcurrentsofdoctrineandbelief
havebeen
fighting
forsocial
predominance
witheverypossible
weapon.Momentsofrelativepeaceandtoleration,moments
when
passionshavebeenheldinleashsomewhatandthehuman
mindhasbeenabletoobserveandreason
calmly,havebeenno
morethanblessed
breathingspaces,separatedbylong
intervals
offanatical
bigotry,
ofsavage
conflictand
persecution.

296. 5J EVILSOFPARLIAMENTARISM 253
Thatanysuch
breathingspace
can
easily
bebrought
toan
endisprovedbythemany
civilizationswhichhavenowdeclined
orbecomestatic,yetwhichmusthavehadtheirmomentswhen
thoughtwas
relatively freeotherwisethey
couldnothave
attainedthelevelofintellectual
progress
thattheyonceattained.
InEuropeGreekcivilizationdeclinedfromwhatitwasinthe
age
ofAristotletowhatitwasintheByzantineage.
Afterthe
glowing
scientificcivilizationoftheearlycenturiesofRomea
civilizationwhichthemostcultivatedmodernnationsdidnot
overtake tilltheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiescamea
decline,nowslow,now
rapid,tothebarbarismthatwefind
describedbyGregory
ofToursandPaultheDeacon,andthenon
tothebarbarism,evenmoreabjectanddegraded,
thatwefind
chronicledbyRaoulGlaber.
1
Asonethinksofthose
great
eclipses
ofthehuman
intelligence,oneisinclinedunhappily
to
suspect not,ofcourse,toprophesy
thattheerainwhichwe
arenow
livingmay
befollowedby
oneinwhichtheindividual
willnotbefree
publicly
to
profess,
ornotto
profess,
theChristian
religion,andinwhichspontaneousandsincere
expression
of
thought,
fullindependence
ofscientific
inquiry,
willbelimited
bythenecessity
of
keeping
intactthatoneofthe
conflicting
politicalformulaswhichshall
chance,
after
longanddogged
struggles,
tocomeoffvictorious.
5.
Closely
linkedwiththe
religiousproblem,
aswellaswiththe
problem
ofsocialdemocracy,
isoursecondquestion(2),which
concernsthecrisisthat
representative,and
especiallyparliamen-
tary,governmentsarenow
traversing.
Asiswellknown,newandimportant
socialforcescametothe
foreinEuropeduringtheeighteenthcentury
forcesbasedon
theproduction
ofnewwealth,onadifferentdistribution of
wealthandontherisein
Europe
ofaneducated,prosperous
middleclass.But
ignoring
thosemattersforthemoment,one
maysay
thattwointellectualcurrentswere
originallyresponsible
for
developments
inthefieldof
politics
whichbroughtalmostall
the
peoples
ofEuropean
civilizationtoadoptrepresentativeforms
of
government,and,innotafewcases,parliamentaryformsof
government.
1
Seeabove,chap.HI,10.

297. 54 PARLIAMENTARISM [CHAP.X
Thefirstcurrentweshallcalltheliberalcurrent. Itwas
basedonthedoctrinesofMontesquieu.
Itsought
tosetupa
barrier
against
bureaucraticabsolutismbymeansofa
separation
ofpowers.Wehavealreadyseenthatthistheory,incomplete
as
itmayhavebeen,cannotbe
regarded
asmistakeninany
sub-
stantialrespect.
Thesecondcurrentwasthedemocraticcurrent. Itsintellec-
tualparentwasRousseau. According
tothistheory,
the
legal
basisofany
sortof
politicalpowermustbepopularsovereignty
themandatewhichthosewhorulereceivefromthemajority
ofcitizens.Notonlythe
legitimacy
ofgovernors
buttheir
worth theirabilitytosatisfytheinterestsandidealsofthe
massesandtoleadthemtowardeconomic,intellectualandmoral
betterment dependsupon
their
genuinelyapplying
thepremise
ofpopularsovereignty.
Rousseau,therealparent
ofthedoctrineofpopular
sover-
eigntyandhenceofmodernrepresentativedemocracy,expresses
himselfinoneortwo
pages
oftheControlsocial
1
asdecidedly
opposedtoanydelegation
ofsovereignty,andthereforetorepre-
sentativesystems.However,thedemocraticschool,whichtook
itscuefromthe
principles
laiddownbytheGenevanphilosopher,
was
obliged
toacceptthe
principle
of
representation
formany
reasons.Oneofthemmustnotbe
forgotten:thatthe
practical
modelwhichliberalsanddemocratshadbeforethemin
applying
theirdoctrineswastheEnglishconstitution oftheeighteenth
century.Thatconstitutionhadderivedthe
principle
ofrepre-
sentationfromitsfeudal
originsandhadretainedanddeveloped
it.Thissecondcurrentofideas,carriedtoitsultimatedevelop-
mentsand
implications,
hasproduced,alongwiththeoriesof
representative government,
thetheories ofmodern social
democracy.
Manyobjections
arenowbeingurgedagainstrepresentative
government
in
general,and
especiallyagainst
thoseformsofit
inwhichthedemocraticidealmaybesaidtohavebeenbest
realized,inviewofabroad-basedpopularsuffrageandthe
politicalpreponderance thathasbeenacquiredby
elective
"lowerhouses."Theseobjections
areofthreeorders.Afirst
group
focusesupon
the
prattlings,
thelong-windedspeeches,the
futile
bickerings,
withwhichparliamentary assemblieslargely
*
E.g.chap.XV.

298. 6] EVILSOFPARLIAMENTARISM 55
busy
themselves. Another
groupandweconsider itbetter
founded is
put
forward
chieflybyadvancedsocialistsoranar-
chists.Theircriticismscomedowntothechargethat,given
theunequal
distribution ofwealththatprevails
at
present,
parliamentsdonot
representtheinterestsand
aspirations
of
majorities,buttheinterestsofwealthyruling
classes.Thethird
group,finally,
isbestfoundedofall.Itrelatestotheexcessive
interference,notsomuchbylowerhousesas
politicalbodiesas
by
individualmembersoflowerhouses,inthecourts,in
public
administration, inthedistribution ofthe
largeportion
ofthe
socialwealththatisleviedbythestateintheformofdutiesand
taxesand
applied
tovariouspublicservices,andinthedistri-
butionofthatportion,
also
large,
ofthesocialwealththatiscon-
centratedinbanks,in
great
industrialspeculationsandin
public
charities. Theseactivities,asarule,failto
escapetheinfluence
and
supervision
ofmodern
governments
inEurope.
Anyonecanseethat,in
highly
bureaucratizedsystemssuchas
oursare,continuouspottering,interlopingandofficiousnesson
thepart
ofmembersoflowerhousesmustbeanexceedingly
baneful
thing,anda
specialnamehasinfactbeengiventothe
phenomenon. Thenameisof
fairly
recent
coinagebutithas
alreadyhadtimetoacquirederogatory
connotations. Itisthe
term"parliamentarism."
6.Nowcertaindrawbacksareunavoidableinanysystemthat
isbasedondiscussion. Assemblieswilltalkandthey
willtalk.
Manyspeeches
areboundtobeinane,andinmany
othersone
willmore
readily
discernaplay
of
pettyambitions,spitesand
vanitiesthananygreat
devotiontopublic
interests.Newlaws
willoftenbedebatedand
passedfrivolously. Filibustering
will
sometimes retard
urgent
decisions. Epithets
willoftenbe
violentandnotalwaysjustified. Thesewithoutadoubtare
all
grave
defects.Buttheycanseemdisastrouslygraveandof
capitalimportanceonlytosomeonewhoisconvincedthatitis
possible
foracountry
tohavea
politicalsystemthatisexempt
fromtheweaknessesinherentinhumannatureitself.The
humanbeing'sability
toconceiveofwhatis
good,
ofabsolute
justice,
ofthebestway
todoone's
duty,andthenthe
great
difficultiesheencounterswhenhecomestomaking
hisconduct
scrupulouslyconformtohishighideals,inevitably
resultinthe

299. 258 PARLIAMENTARISM [CHAP.X
factthatnostatesmanandnoformofgovernment
canavoid
being
the
target
ofanynumberofcriticisms,someofwhich,
fromanabstract
point
ofview,may
be
quitejust.Buttheone
soundcriterionforjudgingmenaswellas
politicalsystems
isto
comparethemwithothers,especially
withthosethathave
precededthemand,wheneveritis
possible,withthosethathave
succeededthem.
Judgedbythatstandard,thedefectsofparliamentary
assem-
blies,andtheevilconsequenceswhichtheircontrolofpower
and
their
participation
inpowerproduce
inallrepresentativesystems,
aremeresttriflesascomparedwiththeharmthatwouldinev-
itably
resultfrom
abolishingthemorstrippingthemoftheir
influence.Undertheconditionsthatprevail
at
present
in
society,thesuppression
of
representative
assemblieswould
inevitably
befollowedby
atype
of
regime
thatiscommonly
called"absolute/*Webelieve itmight
betterbetermed
"exclusivelybureaucratic," sinceitschiefcharacteristic isthat
italienatesfrom
public
lifeall
politicalforces,allsocialvalues,
exceptsuchasarerepresented
inthebureaucracy. Atthevery
least,itcompletelysubordinates allotherforcesandvaluestothe
bureaucraticelement.Wearefarfromdeeming
it
impossible
thatanevergrowingdisgustwith"parliamentarism," and,
especially,afearofsocialdemocracy,whereverthelatterassumes
amenacingly revolutionary bent,may
driveone
people
or
anotherinmodernEuropetoadoptsuchan"absolute" or
"absolutely bureaucratic" system.Whatwecannotadmit
isthatsucha
stepwouldbeawiseone.Weneed
giveno
long
demonstration ofthatthesisinviewofallthatwehavebeen
saying(chap.V, 9-10)astothe
dangersanddrawbacks
involvedingivingabsolutepredominance toa
singlepolitical
forcethatisnotsubjecttoany
limitationordiscussionwhatever.
Thatwearenot
dealingwitha
purelytheoreticalanddoctrinaire
objection*butwithan
objection
ofgreatpracticalconsequence,
is
readilyprovedbyrecallingtheexperiences
ofanumberof
countries ofEuropean
civilizationwherethe
representative
systemhasfunctionedveryimperfectly. Thereistheexample
ofczaristRussia,orperhaps
betterstiE,oftheold
regime
in
Prance. Italians,and
especiallySouthItalians,arefamiliar
withconditionsundertheoldBourbon
dynastiesofthesouth,
Howeverdefectiveonemayconsiderthe
politicalandsocial

300. 6] EVILSOFPARLIAMENTARISM 257
organization
inthekingdom
oftheTwoSicilies
during
thelast
years
ofitsexistence,andhoweverlowitsmoralstatus,one
shouldnotethatKingFerdinandIIwasamanoffairintelli-
gence.Hewas
energeticanddevoted,afterhisfashion,tothe
well-being
ofhis
people.Morally
hewasfar
superior
tothe
average
ofhissubjects.
1
People
ofourtimehavecometotakeforgranted
theadvan-
tages
ofasystem
inwhichallgovernmental
actsaresubjectto
public
discussion. Thatalonecanexplainwhysuperficial
observersamong
ouryoungergenerations
failtorealizeata
glancethemoralruinthatwouldresultfromthedownfallof
suchasystem.Thatruinwouldtaketheformofaseriesof
violationsofjuridicaldefense,of
justice,
ofeverythingthatwe
commonly
call"liberty";andthoseviolationswouldbefar
moreperniciousthanany
thatcanbelaidtothe
charge
ofeten
themostdishonestofparliamentarygovernments,
letaloneof
representativegovernments. Therehasbeenatendencyoflate
tocriticizerepresentativeformsofgovernmenttoomuchand
tooslanderously.Wenote,forexample,
inarecentpamphlet,
anargumentagainstparliamentarism
thatmaintainsthatgov-
ernmentbyparliaments
isdangerous
becauseassemblies
partake
ofthenatureofmobs,inthatthey
are
easilyswayedby
rhetoric
andoratoryandsomakeill-advisedandrecklessdecisions.
Now,inthefirst
place,
assembliesdonotgoverntheymerely
checkandbalancethemenwho
govern,andlimittheirpower.
Inthesecond
place,anassembly
of
representatives
isalmost
nevera"mob,"inthesenseof
being
ahaphazard,inorganic
assemblage
ofhuman
beings.
Parliaments arecustomarily
organized
onabasisof
recognized capacitiesandfunctions.
Theycontainmanymenof
longexperiencewith
publicaffairs,
whoaretherebysafeguardedagainstanyharmthatmight
result
tolesswell-balanced brainsfromanoverardentor
ravishing
eloquence.Someofthedrawbacksthatare
charged
to
par-
liamentsarepartlyoffset,furthermore,by
real
advantages
inci-
dentaltothem. Failuretoactpromptly,
forinstance, isjnot
alwaysanevil.Oftentimesnewlaws
requirenewexecutive
staffs,involvenewoutlays
ofmoneyand
requirenewsourcesof
taxation. Allthatisharmful,asarule,inmodernstates,where
bureaucracyanddevicesfortaxing
are
alreadyoverdeveloped.
1
Memor,La
fine
diunregno.

301. 258 PARLIAMENTARISM [CHAP.X
Theobjectionstorepresentativesystemsthatarecommonly
urgedbyextremesocialistsandanarchistshaveasoundbasis
inanobservationmadeabove(chaps.V, 10-11;VI, 1)and
bymanyotherwriters.Thewonderisthatthepointhasnot
beenmorewidelynotedandmoreearnestlyheeded. Obviously,
themembersofanelectivechamberarealmostneverchosen
freelyandspontaneouslybythe
majority
ofthevoters,since
votershaveonlyavery
limitedfreedomofchoiceamong
the
veryfewcandidateswhohaveanychanceofsuccess. Certainly
this
flagrantcontradictionbetweenthefactandthetheory
ofthe
law,betweenthe
juridicalpremise
ofthe
politicalmandateand
its
expression
in
practice,
isthe
great
weaknessofanyrepresen-
tativesystem.
Allthesame,itcanbetakenasanargument
of
capitalimportanceagainstrepresentativesystemsonlybythose
theyarestillmany,alaswhoadoptthenarrowand
strictly
limitedinterpretationthatwas
given
tothetheory
of
popular
sovereigntybyRousseauandhisfollowersofthedemocratic
school,whotookpopularsovereigntytomeanthatanygovern-
mentinanycountryshouldemanatefromthenumericalmajority
ofitscitizens.Aswesee
things,
the
onlydemandthatitis
important,and
possible,tomakeofa
politicalsystem
isthatall
socialvaluesshallhavea
part
in
it,andthatitshallfindaplace
forallwho
possessany
ofthe
qualitieswhichdeterminewhat
prestigeandwhatinfluenceanindividual,oraclass,istohave.
Justaswedonotcombata
religionbecauseitsdogmasseemfar-
fetched,solong
asitproducesgood
resultsinthefieldofconduct,
sothe
applications
ofa
politicaldoctrinemaybeacceptableso
long
asthey
resultinanimprovement in
juridicaldefense,
thoughthedoctrineitselfmayeasilybeopen
toattackfroma
strictly
scientificstandpoint. Itcannotbedeniedthatthe
representativesystemprovidesaway
formanydifferentsocial
forcesto
participate
inthe
politicalsystemand,therefore,to
balanceandlimittheinfluenceofothersocialforcesandthe
influenceof
bureaucracy
in
particular.
Ifthatweretheonly
possibleconsequence,andtheonlypossibleapplication,
ofthe
doctrineof
popularsovereignty, ifwouldclearlybe
advantageous
to
accept
itonthatgroundalone,however
clearlywemight
realizethattheideasandsentimentswhichhave
producedthat
resulthaveavery
slimbasisinscientificfact.

302. 6] EVILSOFPARLIAMENTARISM 259
Thefactthatrealandactualmajorities
havealimitedinfluence
onthechoiceof
representativesdoesnotdependaltogether
on
thesocial
inequalitiesthatat
presentprevail. Certainly
itis
only
naturalthatwhen
inequalities
existthechoiceofvoters
shouldmostoftenfalluponthosewho,intheparticular
state
of
inequality,occupy
the
highestrungs
onthesocialladder.But
evenifthesocialscaleweretobeleveledsoastobecomea
plane
a
hypothesis
whichweconsider
implausible therewouldstill
betheinevitablepredominance
of
organizedand
easilyorganiz-
ableminorities over
disorganized majorities.Themassof
voterswouldthereforestillbeforcedtochoosetheirrepresenta-
tivesfromamongcandidateswhowouldbeputforwardby
groups,
orcommittees,andthesegroups
wouldbemadeup
of
personswhoby
tasteandby
interestwouldbe
activelydevoted
to
political
life.
Thesoundest
point,therefore,inthecriticismsthatforagood
half
centurypasthavebeenleveledatrepresentative govern-
mentsistheexcessiveandexclusivepowerthatisgivenbymany
ofthem
especiallywhentheyhavedegenerated
intoparliamen-
tarismtotheelected
representatives. Theprimeandrealroot
oftheevilsthatarebeing
so
generallylamentedliesinthefacts
thatwhere
parliamentarism
isinforcethe
ministrydirectingthe
vastand
absorbing
bureaucraticmachineissuesfromtheranks
oftheelectedchamber,and,moreserious
still,thefactthatprime
ministersandtheircabinetsstay
inpower
as
long,andonly
as
long,
asitpleasesthemajority
oftheelectedchambertoretain
them.Becauseofthesetwofacts,discussionof
governmental
actsinourparliamentsandthecontrolthat
representatives!
shouldexerciseover
governmental
actsalmostalwaysgoastray
under
pressure
of
personalambitionsand
party
interests.
Becauseofthesamefacts,thenaturaldesireof
governors
to
governwelliscontinuouslyand
effectivelythwartedby
theirno
lessnaturaldesiretoservetheirown
personalinterests,andthe
senseof
professionalduty
inministersandrepresentatives
is
alwaysbalancedby
allsortsofambitionsandvanities,justified
and
unjustified. Finally,
thecourtsandtheadministrative
departmentsbecomeparts
ofa
greatelectioneeringagencywith
a
correspondingcostin
publicmoneyandinmoralatmosphere;
andademandonthe
part
ofanyimportantvote-getterupon

303. 200 PAKLIAMENTAEISM [CHAP.X
the
representativewhoneedshim,oronthepart
oftheminister
whoneedsthe
representative,
isoftenenough
tosilenceany
respect
for
equityandlaw.Inaword,becauseofaconstant,
flagrantandmanufacturedcontradictionbetweenthedutyand
theinterestofthemanwho
governs,andofthemanwhoshould
judgeandlimitgovernmental action,thebureaucracyandthe
electiveelements,whichshouldcontrolandbalanceeachother,
endbycorruptingand
denaturingeachother.
1
7.Beforeexaminingtheremedieswhichhavebeenproposed
forthisstateofaffairs,itmightbewelltostop
foramomentand
considerwhatwouldhappen
ifthesamestateofaffairswereto
continueunchanged
foracertainlength
oftime if,letus
say,
nosubstantialchangeweretobemadeforahalf
century
ormore
intheinstitutionsthat
govern
so
largeapart
ofEuropeansociety,
andthereweretobenonewupheavals
violentenoughtocause
any
considerable rearrangements
in
personal
influencesand
fortunes.Noweven
grantingsucha
hypothesis,dubiousasit
mightseemtous,wemust
rejectoutrightan
opinion
thatwas
onceembracedbymanyandisnow
acceptedbyfew,that
parliamentary
institutions
possess
withinthemselvesacurative
propertythatisableautomatically
tohealany
evilsthatthey
maybe
responsible
forintheir
early,inexperienceddays.We
takenostockinthemyththat"thecurefor
liberty
ismore
liberty" Liberty,
likethefamouslanceofAchilles,healing
the
woundsthatsheherselfinflicts.Wedoadmitthattheevilsin
questionwouldchange
innaturesomewhatbyvirtueofthe
process
ofstabilizationor
crystallization
in
political
influences
thatoccursinallcountrieswherethe
politicalsystem
isnot
alteredover
longperiods
oftimebyforeign
infiltrationsorby
innerfermentsofideasand
passions.Thescionsoftoday's
celebrities in
parliament,bankandgovernmental positions
wouldinfactattainwith
increasing
easethe
posts
thatarenow
occupiedby
theirfathers,andalittleworldapartwouldcome
into
being,a
clique
ofinfluentialfamilies,intowhichitwouldbe
hardfornewcomerstomaketheirway.In
republicanRomethe
1
Onthedrawbacks ofparliamentarism,
seeScherer,LaDemocratic etla
France,Prins,LaDemocratic etleregimeparlementaire,andMosca,Teoricadei
ffoverni.Ontheevilscausedbygivingexcessivepower
toelectiveelements,
seealsoSeaman.TheAmericanSystemofGovernment.

304. 7] REMEDIESFOEPARLIAMENTARISM 261
moreprominent
familiesheldthesamepublic
officesfrom
fathertosonfor
generation
aftergeneration.
InEngland
intheeighteenthcentury,andinthefirstdecadesofthenine-
teenthdowntotheReformBillof1832,therewereold
par-
liamentary
familiesthat
inevitablyappeared
eitheratthehead
ofthe
opposition
orattheheadofthecabinet. InPrance
weseethesons,brothersandsons-in-lawof
politiciansinheriting
theconstituenciesthattheireldershaveheld.Nowinthecase
weareassuming
therewouldbeanaccentuation ofallthat.
Becauseofthe
greaterstability
oftheclassthatwouldbeholding
supremepoliticalcontrol,successwouldbecomemoredifficultfor
menofmeritandofobscurebirth,butatthesametime
things
wouldbeharderforthosewhoemergefromthecrowdandmount
thefirst
steps
of
reputationand
political
influencebyflattering
and
whetting
thelowestormaddestaspirations
ofthemob.
Timealsowouldpass
thesponge
off
orgetfulness
overthetainted
origins
ofmany
fortunesandmany
influential
positions,andsons
borntohigh
stationwouldbesparedtherascalitiesandthe
moralinconsistencieswhichtheirfathershadtostoop
toinorder
toattainsuchstation.Butthecontradictionbetweenthe
spirit
ofinstitutionsandthemenwhowouldbecalleduponto
represent
themwouldbecomemoreandmoreconspicuous,andtheoli-
garchy,whichwouldbegoverning
inthenameofthepeopleand
wouldneverbeablewholly
toeschewthe
intriguesandhypoc-
risiesthatareinevitable inanyparliamentary government,
woulddriftfartherandfartherawayfromthesentimentsand
passions
ofthe
people.Andbypeoplewedonotmean
just
the
massesof
peasantsandworkingmen,butalsothepopulousmiddle
classeswithinwhoseorbitsomuchoftheeconomicandintellec-
tual
activity
ofacountry
unfolds.
Sothen,weshouldnotbe
justified
in
expecting
toomuchhelp
fromthenaturaleffectsoftime.That
help
couldnotamountto
verymuch.Butlooking
insomeotherdirection, itisnothard
toimagine
modifications inpresentinstitutions thatmight
effectivelycontributetowardattenuatingtheevilsof
parliamen-
tarism.Noone,forinstance,canfailtoseehow
helpful
it
wouldbetoincrease
guarantees
oftheindependenceofthecourts
byassuring
to
magistrates
inallcountriesthatrealpermanency
oftenurewhichisnowestablishedin
onlyafew,andbyraising
thesocial
positionand
prestige
of
judges
infactandnotmerely

305. 268 PA1LIAMENTARISM (CHAP.X
inwords.Noonecanfailtoseehowadvantageous
itwouldbe
toFrance,forinstance,andnottoPrancealonertointroducethe
systemthatprevailed
in
imperialGermany,whereby
allpublic
officialsofhighrankwereresponsible
fortheiractsto
really
independent
administrativetribunals,andatthesametimewere
freefromthejurisdiction
ofministers,andthereforeofrepre-
sentatives. Financialcontrolalsocouldbebetterorganizedby
increasingtheindependence
ofourauditingdepartments.
Unfortunately, remediesofthissortmight
reducetheviru-
lenceofcertainsymptoms
ofthedisease,buttheywouldnot
eradicatethediseaseitself. Itwouldbedifficult,moreover,to
procuretheiradoption,
becausetheelementsthatareinpower
withthesanctionofpopularsuffrage,whencethey
arecommonly
calleddemocratic,nowtacitlyoppose,nowopenlyprotest,
in
thenameoftheintangibleprinciples
ofpopularsovereignty,
everytimeaquestion
of
increasing
the
prestige
andpowers
of
institutionsthatlimittheiromnipotencecomesup.In
Italy
abillguaranteeingpermanency
oftenuretocivilemployeeswas
oncebrought,weremember,beforetheoldChamber,inthedays
ofourpersonal
servicethere.Though
ithadamajority
inits
favor,itwassuddenly
tabledfornoapparentreasonandallowed
tolapsewiththeclosureofthesession. InFrance
thingswent
evenworse. Billswerepassed
toforcea"housecleaning"
inthe
courtsandinthedepartments. Thissimply
increasedthe
subservienceofthejudges
totheministers,whowerethemselves
toolsoftheparliamentarymajorityto
begin
with.
Aremedywhichwouldbemoreradicalandeffective,andwhich
hasbeenfavoredbymanypeople,wouldbesimply
togobackto
the"constitutional"system
ofwhichtheparliamentarysystem
is
justatransformationand,intheopinion
ofsome,a
degeneration.
Tokeepourlanguageclear,wemightnotethat"constitutional
governments,"
asthatexpression
isusedinEurope,
aregovern-
mentsinwhichprime
ministers
(presidents
ofcouncilsofminis-
ters,chancellors),whowieldexecutivepower,donot
resignwhen
theyaredefeatedinavotebythechamberof
representatives,
butarechangedonlythroughactionbytheheadofthestate.
Thetypical
casewouldbethatoftheoldGermangovernment.
A"parliamentarygovernment,"
inthesametechnical
language,
isagovernment
inwhichtheprime
ministerandhiscabinetare
appointedbytheheadofthestatebutpresenttheir
resignations

306. 7] CONSTITUTIONALISM 63
wheneverthey
losethemajority
intheelectivechamber.That
isthealmostinvariablecustomin
England
andFrance.Inthose
countries,according
tosomewriters,thecabinetis
justacom-
mitteeofthemajority
oftheelectivechamber.Athirdtype
ofrepresentativegovernment prevails
intheUnitedStates.
Itmightbecalledthe"presidential"type.
Inittheexecutive
power
isnotchangedbyvoteofthelowerchamber.Thehead
ofthestateiselectedbythepeople
fora
specifiedterm.The
UnitedStates,inaddition,happenstohaveasystem
of
govern-
mentwhichisnotcentralized.
Now,as
regardsEurope,a
politicalmoveinthedirectionofa
returnto"constitutional"governmentwouldbefairlyeasyto
engineer,
sinceifonekeepstotheletteroftheconstitutionsand
basicchartersonwhichmostmodernEuropeangovernments
rest,thereisnodiscernibledifferencebetweentheparliamentary
systemandtheconstitutionalsystem. Infact,allsuchdocu-
mentsassumetheexistenceofconstitutional systems,notof
parliamentarysystems.ThePortuguese
constitutionof18&6is
theonlyoneto
distinguishbetweenthe
personalsovereignty
of
the
king(Art.21),andtheexecutivepower,whichistobe
exercisedbythekingthrough
hisministers
(Art.75).Allother
Europeanconstitutions declaremerelythattheheadofthe
stateexercisesexecutivepowerthroughresponsible
ministers
whomhe
appointsandrecallsatwill.In
Italy,theconstitution
mentionsindividualministersonly,andsaysnothing
ofacabinet
oraprime
minister.Thefunctionsofthelatterhavebeen
determinedbyaseriesof
royaldecrees,theoldestofwhichisthe
AzeglioDecreeof1850andthemostimportanttheRicasoli
DecreeofMarch1867.Thislastwasabrogatedamonthlater
byRattazzi,butitstextwastakenoverin
largepartby
the
DepretisDecreeofAugust20,1876,andby
laterones.
Theparliamentary formofgovernmentcameinto
being
throughaseriesofconcessionsthatwere
tacitlyaskedforby
publicopinionandtacitlygrantedbytheheadsofstates.A
merechange
in
publicopinionwouldbe
enough,therefore,to
effectareturntoamore
genuineinterpretation ofthe
principles
thatarecodifiedinthevariousconstitutions. Itiserroneousto
believe,assomedo,thatinEnglandparliamentarygovernment
hasthesanctionofcenturiesofexperience. Parliamentarism
began
in
Englandonlyalittleearlierthanthemiddleofthe

307. 264 PARLIAMENTARISM [CHAP.X
eighteenthcentury,anditdidnotfunctioninfullaccordwith
theruleswhichcommentatorsnowregard
ascorrectuntilthe
nineteenthcentury(thereigns
ofQueenVictoria,andher
successors). In1783theyounger
Pittwascalledtothegovern-
mentbyGeorge
III
against
thewilloftheHouseofCommons.
In1835WilliamIVtriedonhisowninitiativeto
replaceLord
MelbournewithRobertPeel.Thekingwasabletomaintain
his
position
forsomemonths.
Inspite
ofallthis,a
politicalevolutionina"constitutional"
directionwouldseemtobeofverydoubtfultimelinessatpresent.
InFranceandinotherparliamentarycountriesontheEuropean
continent,thefunctioning
ofall
political
institutionshasbynow
cometobelinkedwiththeassumptionthattheparliamentary
system
shouldfunctioninthefact.Onemayquestionwhether
itwasagood
ideatopassdirectlyfromtheabsolutebureaucratic
system
toaparliamentarysystemwithout
halting,
atleastfora
time,inthe
strictly
"constitutional" phase.However,events
havetakenthatcourse,andonecanonlyputupwiththeir
consequences. One
veryimportantconsequence
ofthe
political
theoriesand
practices
thathavethusfar
prevailed
so
largely
in
Europehasbeenthefactthattheelectivechamber,certainthat
thecabinetcouldatanytimebeoverthrownbyanopposingvote
onits
part,
hasnotpaidenough
attentiontotheneedof
limiting
thepowersandattributesofthecabinet.Asaresulttheelective
chamberhasbeenverylavishinaugmenting
theresources,func-
tionsand
prerogatives
ofthestate,andhasperhapsnotvery
jealouslyguardedtheinviolability
ofsomeofitsown
prerogatives
sinceithasfeltallalongthatthemeninpowerwouldbeinstru-
mentsofthechambermajority
inanyevent.Theresulthas
beenthat
"legislationbydecree/*so-called,hascometobeused
andabusedinanumberofparliamentary
countries.
Underthesecircumstances,anyrapidretrogressionfroma
parliamentarysystem
toa"constitutional" system,
incountries
thatareaccustomedtotheformer,wouldleadtofarmorenarrow
andautocraticsystemsthanprevail
incountriesinwhichpure
constitutionalism hasneverbeenmodifiedandallauthorities
havealwaysfunctionedinconformity
withtheletterofthebasic
constitutions. Letuskeep
clearof
misleadinghopesandfancies,
Adevelopment
inthatdirectionwould,soto
say,decapitate
the
representative
chamberbystripping
itofthemostimportant

308. 8] DECENTRALIZATION 265
ofitsfunctions,andmeantime itwouldleavethe
all-absorbing
bureaucraticorganization intact,alongwithallthosemethods
andhabitsofcorruptionwherebyparliamentarygovernments
arenowableto
nullify
theverdictsoftheballot.Theresult
wouldthereforebethat,foralongtimetocomeatleast,par-
liamentswouldbedeprived
ofallspontaneity
ofactionandwould
loseall
politicalsignificance,andweshouldbeleftwithasystem
very
likebureaucraticabsolutism,withthevicesanddrawbacks
ofwhichwearealready
familiar.Thosevicesanddrawbacks
wouldbemoreserious,moredeeply
feltandfarhardertobear
underthenewsystem
ifthecabinetthathappened
toinaugurate
itweretoissue,asitveryprobably
wouldissue,fromparliamen-
tarismitself,andsobetaintedwithallthe
corruptionand
hypocrisythatisinherentintheparliamentarysystem.
8.Thesurestandmosteffectiveremedy
fortheevilsof
parliamentarismwouldbeextensiveand
organicdecentralization.
Thatwouldnotmerelyimplyshiftingprerogativesfromcentral
bureaucracies toprovincialbureaucracies,andfromnational
parliaments
tolocalassemblies. Itwouldimplytransferring
many
ofthefunctionsthatarenowexercisedbybureaucracies
andelectivebodiestotheclassof
public-spirited
citizens. In
viewoftheireducationandtheirwealthsuchpeopleare
greatly
superior
totheaveragemassin
ability,
inindependenceandin
socialprestige.Theydonotseek
posts
inthecivilserviceand,
atpresent,whentheydonotrunforparliamentorwhen
they
failofelection,theytakeno
partwhateverin
publiclife,unless
theychanceto
belongtosome
provincialmunicipalcouncil.
Onlybymakingconstantuseofsuchelementscantheevilsof
parliamentarism
be
mitigatedandatransitionfromaparliamen-
tary
toaconstitutionalsystembeeffectedwithout
peril
to
public
liberties.
Itisamatterofcommonknowledgethatthedefectsof
parlia-
mentarygovernment
inEuropealmostallcomedownto
improper
interferencewithelectionstocentralandlocalelectivebodiesby
bureaucracies, actingmainlythroughprefectsappointedbythe
ministries,andtoequallyimproperinterferencewiththebureau-
craciesbyrepresentatives
electedtothenationalchambers.
Allthis
gives
risetoashamefuland
hypocritical
trafficin
reciprocalindulgencesandmutualfavors,whichisaveritable

309. PAKLIAMENTAEISM [CHAP.X
running
soreinmostEuropeancountries. Thisviciouscircle
canbebrokenneitherbyincreasing
thepowers
ofthebureau-
cracynorbyenlarging
the
prerogatives
oftheelectivebodies.
Itcanbebrokenonlybysummoningnew
politicalelements,new
socialforces,totheserviceofthe
public
wealandbyperfecting
juridicaldefensethroughtheparticipation
inpublic
officesofall
personswhohaveaptitudes
forthem.Suchpersons
willnotbe
salariedemployeestobepromoted
ortransferredatthecaprice
ofsomeminister,andthey
willnothavetodepend
forreturnto
officeon
electioneeringandontheapproval
ofsomelocal
"machine"orsomeelectoralbusybody.
InFrance,Italyandcertainothercountries,theideawehave
just
setforthcouldbe
applied
ineveryprovince
ordepartmentby
listing
allpeoplewhohave
college
oruniversitydegreesandpay
a
specified
tax.Onemightregard
asequivalent
tohigheredu-
cationaldegreestherankofcaptain
inthearmy,past
serviceasa
representative inparliament
orasmayor
ofatownofnotless
thantenthousandinhabitants,or
past
serviceinthepresidency
ofanindustrialor
agricultural
associationthathasa
specified
numberofmembersorhasbeenworkingwitha
specifiedamount
of
capital.Soa
special
classofvolunteerunsalaried officials
couldbedeveloped.Open
toanyonewhomightacquire
the
qualificationsmentioned, itwouldstillhaveacertainhomo-
geneousness
ofsocialstatus.Inviewofthehumanbeing's
naturalpropensity
forsocialdistinctions, itwouldsoondevelop
cohesionand
grouppride,andthememberswouldbewillingand
eager
todevoteapart
oftheirtimeto
public
business.
Fromtheindividualsbelonging
tosuchaclasscouldbechosen,
eitherby
lotorotherwiseandeitherfor
temporary
orlifetenures,
asmightseembest,refereesandarbitersfor
petty
civilcases,
commissionersforvoters*listsinnationalandlocalelections,and
justices
ofthepeace
todealwith
pettymisdemeanorsandother
minor
police
cases.Fromthesameclassshouldcomemembers
ofhigherbudgetcommissionsandadministrativeboards,which
would
supplant
thepresent
administrative boards,wheresuch
exist,andwhichmightbeundei*thepresidency
of
professional
magistrates. Thesameelementcould,andinfactshould,be
represented
inallcouncilsof
prefectures
or
provinces.
Wearenot,ofcourse,proposing
heretosetforthindetaila
completesystem
ofreformforthe
politicalandadministrative
institutionsofEuropeansociety.Wearemerelysuggestingthe

310. 88] DECENTRALIZATION 267
broadlinesalongwhichreformsshouldbedeveloped.Weare
merelytracing
apathwhich,inouropinion,
itwillbewiseand
necessary
tofollow.
1
Wearenotunawarethatanumberof
objectionsmightbemadetotheimmediateapplication
ofour
idea.Thoughthey
arenotallofequalweight,
itmightbewell
toexaminethemverybriefly.
Itmaybesaidthatour
presentjurysystem
is
organizedalong
thelineswhichwehave
proposedbutthatitisCorkingout
badlyand
discrediting
itselfmoreandmorefromdaytoday.
Nowoneshouldobserve,inthefirst
place,thatthecharges
that
arebroughtagainst
thejurysystemareprobablysomewhat
exaggerated,
inthatthejurysystem
isheldtobeexclusively
responsible
forabusesthatareduerathertothe
generaltendency
ofouragetobeovermildintherepression
ofcommoncrime.
Againstthattendency
astrongreactionisboundsoonerorlater
tosetin.Inthesecondplace,theelementsthatserveonour
juriesarenot
altogether
ofthetypewehaverecommended.
Thebasisonwhichjurypanels
aremadeup
hasbeen
greatly,
too
greatly,broadened, sothat
jurypanelsnowcontaina
majority
ofpersonswhohavenottheintellectual
training,
orthe
moralbackground,required
forthedelicatetasksthat
juries
are
calledupontoperform.
Socialorganismsoftenfunctionbadlynotbecausethe
principle
onwhichthey
arebasedisfundamentallywrongbutbecause
the
principle
isbadlyapplied. Sound,unquestionably,wasthe
principleputforwardbyMachiavellithattheforcethatis
armedforthemaintenance oforderinastateandto
protect
its
independenceought
tobe"composed
ofcitizenswholendtheir
servicesinturn,ratherthanof
foreignersandmercenarieswho
makeatradeofwar."Butwhileawiseandprudentapplication
ofthat
principle
hasproducedourmodernstandingarmies,a
carelessandunsystematicapplication
ofitwouldhave
yielded
thesameresultsthatwere
yieldedbytheFlorentine"ordinance,"
whichwascreatedattheFlorentine
Secretary'sown
suggestion,
andbythenationalguard
whichfunctioned,orratherfailedto
function,in
Italydowntothemiddleofthelast
century.
Itmay
alsobeobjectedthattherewouldbesomething
artificial
andarbitraryaboutourmannerof
designating
theclassof
functionariesthatwehaveproposed.Wedonotdenythatthe
1
Theideasuggestedhasalsobeendevelopedby
TurielloinhisGovernoe
nnvernanti.

311. 268 PARLIAMENTARISM [CHAP.X
criticismmightseem
just,ata
superficialglance,for,asamatter
offact,nohumaninstitution,nolaw,canavoidsettingmoreor
lessartificialand
arbitrary
limits.Arbitraryandartificialisthe
limitthatissetbylawin
fixing
a
person'smajority
attwenty
years,elevenmonthsandtwenty-ninedays.Up
tothatmoment
a
person
isconsideredincapable
of
ordering
hisownaffairs.
Thenextmorninghecomesof
age.Lawsthatfixtheexact
conditionsunderwhichonecanvote,incountrieswhereuniversal
suffragedoesnotobtain,alsosetartificialandarbitrary
limits.
Butinthematterbeforeus,
ifwelooksomewhatdeeply
intoit,
the
preciseoppositeseemstobethecase.Inourprivate
customsandhabitswe
alwaysdrawvery
considerabledistinctions
betweenpeople
ofgood
educationandpeople
ofnoeducation,
betweenpeoplewhomoveingoodsocietybecauseoftheir
economicpositionandpeoplewhoarepoorandhavenosocial
standing.
Ifsuch
people
areallconsideredasonthesamefooting
fromthe
politicalpoint
ofview,itissimplybecausearbitrary
andconventionalcriteriaprevail
allthroughour
politicalsystems.
If
anything
shouldarouseourwonder,therefore, itisthatat
presentpeoplewhohavethe
requisitesmentioned are,taken
asaclass,political
nonentities.Wesay"takenasaclass
"
intentionally. Takenasindividuals,themenwhonowhold
elective officesofanyimportance members ofparliaments,
thatis,provincial
ordepartmental
councilmembers,mayors
and
citycouncilorsin
large
citiescome,as
thingsstand,almost
entirelyfromsocialstratathathaveacertaineconomicease
andacertainamountofeducation.Thetroubleisthat,with
rare
exceptions,theycomefromthestratamentionedbypassing
through
aruinous
process
ofselectiondownward,whichbars
from
positions
ofmajorimportancemenwhowillnotbuyvotes
orcannotbuythem,menwhoareoftoohighacharacterto
sacrificedignity
toambition,ormenwhoaretoosincereand
honesttothrowouttoleftand
rightpromiseswhichtheyknow
theycannotkeep,
orcankeeponlybysacrificing
the
public
welfareto
privateadvantage.
Amorerealandfarmoreseriousobstacletothe
practical
executionofour
planwouldbethepresenteconomicsituation
inmanyEuropean
countries. Duringtheeighteenthcentury
andthefirsthalfofthenineteenth,the
Englishgentryheld
almostalltheofficesthatcorrespond
totheoneswhichwewould

312. J8] DECENTRALIZATION 69
liketoseeentrustedtotheclassthatisthecounterpart
ofthe
Englishgentry
incontinentalEuropeansociety.TheEnglish
gentry
heldofficesinaccordwithasystemverymuchlike
theonethatwewouldintroduceintocontinental countries,
thoughduringpastdecadesthesystem
haslostagood
dealof
ground
acrosstheChannelthrough
thegrowing
influenceof
moderndemocraticideas.
ButEnglandwasa
relativelyrichcountryduring
thetwo
centuriesmentionedand,downtoahundredyearsago,special-
izedknowledge
didnothavesowidean
application
inthevarious
branchesofsocial
activity.Acertainamountofwealthanda
certainsocialbackgroundwereenough
toestablishthe
prestige
ofanindividual,anditwasnotindispensable,
asit
virtually
is
today,thatamanshouldhavea
higher
educationinadditionto
thoseotherassets.As
things
standat
present,
thedemands
ofthetimes,and
especially
the
prospect
of
losing
theirinfluence
unlesssomething
isdoneaboutit,mayinducethemembersof
thewealthyclass,the
peoplewhoownthe
greatfortunes,to
shakeoffanindolencethatinmany
countrieshasbecomeone
oftheirtraditionsandapply
themselvestoobtainingspecialized
and
highertraining.
Butthatclasshasneverbeen,andwillneverbe,verylarge.
Itcanneverfillallthe
positions
thatwehavelisted,andmean-
timethefunctionsofthestatehavebeenbroadeningandbroad-
ening
inEurope,
sothatbureaucracytodayhascometoabsorb
a
trulyvastmassofactivitiesandduties.Todayweshouldbe
atalosstotellwhereonecouldfindenoughpeople
torecruitthe
classof
independenthonorarypublicservantsthatwereferto.
Thatclass,therefore,hastobereinforcedbyanotherclass,the
classofmerelyrespectable,hard-working peoplewholivein
moderateease.However,thisisthe
veryclass,inEurope
at
least,thatishavingthe
greatestdifficulty
in
holding
itsown,
smittenasitis,andmore
grievouslyprobablythananyother
class,bytheheavy,pauperizingsystems
oftaxationthat
prevail
today.Inmany
countriesthemiddleclassescan
hardlymain-
tainthemargin
ofeconomicwell-beingwhichis
indispensable
if
oneisto
acquireahighereducationmerely
forreasonsof
personal
dignity,familystanding
orsocialusefulness.They
are
seeking
a
highereducationfor
strictlyprofessionalpurposes,
sincethey
are
obliged
tohavethediplomasrequiredforfollowing
the

313. 270 PARLIAMENTARISM {CHAP.X
so-calledliberal
professions.
Ifthatwereall,thesocialharm
wouldperhapsbeendurable;buttheworstofitisthatthose
professionssoonbecomeovercrowded. Middle-classelements,
therefore,turnmoreandmoretoa
panting
searchforpublic
office.Underthe
pressure
of
applicants,
officesmultiplyboth
innationalandinlocaladministrations, occasioningnew
budget-
aryoutlaysandopeningnewfieldsfor
bureaucracy
toconquer.
Soaviciouscircleof
reciprocalcausesandeffectsisclosed:the
impoverishment
ofsmall
capitalistsandholdersofmedium-sized
propertiesbyanexcessiveburdenoftaxationmakesitalmost
necessary
toincreasetaxesstillmore;andtheveryelementsin
societythatinmore
prosperous
countrieswouldremaininde-
pendentcitizens,andconstituteamosteffectivebalanceto
bureaucratic influence,arethemselvestransformedinto
profes-
sionalbureaucrats.
Buteventheseeconomicdifficultiesmightgraduallybeover-
come,andanewbroad-based
aristocracymightbeformedofa
numerousclassthatwouldcontainalmostallthemoralandintel-
lectual
energies
ofanation,andbethemostavailablecounter-
balancetobureaucratic, financialandelectoral
oligarchies.
Unfortunately,
afarmoreseriousandintractableobstacle is
raisedbythedemocraticphilosophywhichisstillsomuchin
vogueandwhich
recognizesno
politicalact,no
politicalpre-
rogative,
as
legitimate
unlessitemanates
directly
or
indirectly
frompopularsuffrage.Thedemocraticcurrent,aswehave
seen,hasbeenanimportant
factorin
curtailing
thefunctions
oftheEnglishgentryduringpast
decadesand
handingthem
overtoelectiveelementsortobureaucracy.Nowdemocracy
wouldexertalltheforcethatitcanstillmustertopreventany
evolutionintheoppositedirectionfrom
takingplaceonthe
Europeancontinent.Atbottom,therefore,thegreatest
diffi-
cultythatstandsintheway
of
findingremediesfortheevilsof
parliamentarismandapplyingthemariseswholly
intheframe
ofmindthatprevails
inthesocietieswhichare
livingunder
parliamentarysystems
inotherwords,inthedoctrinesand
opinionsthataremostwidelyacceptedbythem.Inourquest
forsuchremediesweendbyfindingourselvesconfrontedwith
theveryorderofideasandpassions
inwhichsocialdemocracy
originates.

314. CHAPTERXI
COLLECTIVISM
1.Inbeginningourexamination ofsocialdemocracy,
itwill
perhapsbeadvisabletoconsiderabitof
history.
Inanumber
of
religiousandsocialmovementsthathaveeventuallyacquired
prominence,
itishardtodeterminetheexactsharethatthefirst
founderandhis
early
associateshadinthetwiststhatthose
movementsdeveloped
in
practice.
Itisoftennottheeasiest
thing
intheworldtoverifythebirthcertificates ofthefirst
mastersandtotelljustwhattraitswere
peculiar
tothematthe
start.The
personality
ofSakyamuni
isdraped
inthevagueness
anduncertainty
ofBuddhist
legend.Perhapsweshallnever
know
justwhatpartManes,thefounderofManichaeism,played
inbeliefs,whichlateron,attheendofthefifthcenturyA.D.,
brought
onanattempt
atsomething
likeasocialrevolutionin
Persia.Butwhenpresent-daysocialismdawned,theworldwas
living
inafar
riper
intellectualperiod.Thenewdoctrines,and
personal
recollectionsregardingthem,wereatoncegatheredinto
books,whichwerepublished
inthousandsof
copies,andthey
weresowellpreserved
for
posteritythatfewofthemprobably
willeverbe
destroyed
orlost.The
beginnings
ofthereform
doctrinesthataresowidelycurrentinourday
arethereforewell
knownandcanbefollowedstepbystep.Goingbacktotheir
notverydistant
origins,onecan
easilymakesurethatVoltaire
andhisfollowers,althoughtheymayhavehadanimportant
part
indestroying
theoldworld,almostneverreferredtoany
newsocialsystem,
orsystems,thatmightreplacetheonethey
knew.Therealparent
ofthesentiments,the
passions,the
mannerof
looking
atsociallifeand
appraising it,thatresulted
practically
inthebirthandgrowth
ofsocialdemocracy,was
JeanJacquesRousseau(above,chap.X,4).
Itwouldofcoursebeeasy
tofindinChina,inIndia,inthe
PersiaoftheSassanids,inancientEgypt,inafewGreekand
Romanwriters,intheprophets
ofIsrael,inthereformersof

315. 272 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
Mohammedanism, inthe
early
ChristianFathersandinthe
heresiarchsoftheMiddleAgesandthe
beginning
ofthemodern
era,ideas,sentiments,scattered
opinionsandsometimescom-
pletesystems
ofbeliefswhichare
amazingly
similartothe
doctrinesofmodernsocialism.
1
Oneofthemost
interesting
oftheancientChineseexperiments
waslaunchedbyWangMang,whoruledtheempireaboutthe
beginning
ofourChristianera.WangMang
triedtorevivethe
ancientChinese
agrariancommunities,whichweresomething
liketheRussianmir.Heforbadeanyprivate
individualto
possessmorethanatrin,ortwelveacresofland.Betterknown
istheevidently
collectivistexperiment
initiatedin1069bythe
ministerWangAn-shih,whichmadethestatesole
proprietor
of
alllandandall
capital.Bothoftheseeffortshadbeenpreceded
byperiods
ofdiscontent,andbothwereprovokedbydestructive
criticismaimedattheinstitutionsthen
functioning. Needless
to
saybothofthemfailedlamentably. AfterWangMang's
reformhadcometo
grief,
acontemporaryphilosopher,grievously
disappointed,
itwouldseem,wrotethat"notevenYii[saidto
bethefounderofthefirstChinesedynasty]
couldhavesucceeded
in
revivingcommunalownership
of
property. For
everything
changes. Riversdisappearfromtheirbeds,andallthattime
erasesvanishesforever/*
2
Thatsuchanticipations
ofmodernideasshouldhavebeen
numerousisnaturalenough,
forthesentimentsonwhichsocialism
proper,
aswellasanarchism,so
largely
restsareinnosense
peculiar
tothe
generations
thatareatpresentliving
inEurope
andAmerica.Theapplication
ofacritical,destructive
spirit
totheanalysis
ofcontemporary
socialinstitutions, forthe
purpose
ofsupplyingabasisatleast
ostensibly
rationaland
systematic
fordemandingpoliticalrecognition
ofthesentiments
referredto,
isalsoanancientand
altogether
naturalphenomenon.
Itmay
ariseinanyhuman
society
thathasreachedacertain
levelof
maturity.
Thisdoesnotmean,however,thatcontemporary
socialism
descendsinadirectandunbrokenmoralandintellectualline
1
Forparticularsonsocialistthought
inothererasandothercivilizations,see
Cognetti
deMartiis,Socialismoantico.
*Huc,L'Empire
chinois. SeealsoVarigny,"UnSocialistechinoisauXI
sifcele";E6clus,Nouvelle
gfographieuniverselle,vol.VIII,pp.577f.

316. 1] ROUSSEAUANDSOCIALISM 273
fromany
ofthesimilardoctrineswhichflourishedinone
part
of
theworldoranotherin
agesmoreorlessremoteandthen
perished,leavingmoreorless
perceptible
tracesoftheir
propa-
gandauponhuman
history.Thepresent-daymovements of
socialistandanarchistreformdonotgobacktoanyreligious
principle.They
reston
purely
rationalisticfoundationsand
areaspontaneousoutgrowth
oftheintellectualandmpral
conditionsthat
prevailed
inEurope
intheeighteenth
and
nineteenthcenturies.
Socialismandanarchismhaveacommonseedinthedoctrine
which
proclaims
thatmanisgoodbynatureandthat
society
makeshimbad,overlooking
thefactthatthestructureofa
society
isnothingmorethanaresultantofthecompromising
and
compensatingandbalancingthattakeplaceamong
the
variedand
verycomplexhumaninstincts.Nowthefirstto
formulatethedoctrine
clearly,andthemanwhowasitsmost
famouschampion,wasRousseau. Inhisworkshenotonly
explicitlyformulatesthenotionthatabsolute
justicemustbe
thebasisofall
politicalinstitutions,andcondemns,therefore,
allsortsof
politicalandeconomic
inequality;healsoisatno
painstoconcealthe
feelings
ofrancortowardfortune'sfavorites,
towardtherichandthepowerful,whichmakeupsucha
large
part
ofthepolemicalbaggage
ofsocialistspastand
present.
Janetwrites:"FromRousseaucomesthathatredof
property
andthat
rage
at
inequalities
inwealthwhicharesuchterrible
assetsforthesemodernsects."
1
Itshouldbenoted,however,
thatJanet,aswellasotherwriterswho
soundlyregardRousseau
astheintellectualparent
ofmodernsubversivetheories,quotes
onlythewell-knownpassage
atthe
beginning
ofthesecond
part
ofRousseau'sessayon
inequality.
2
Viewed
independently
of
therestofthework,the
passage
ismoredeclamatorythan
conclusive. Itreads:
Thefirstmanwhofencedina
plot
ofgroundandthenthought
of
saying"Thisismine,"andfoundsomebodywhowasfoolenoughto
believehim,wastherealfounderofcivilized
society.Howmany
crimes,howmanywars,howmuch
slaughter,misery,horror,wouldhave
beensparedthehumanrace,hadsomeonetorndownthatfence,or
filledinthattrench,andcriedtohisneighbors:"Donotheedthat
1
"LesOriginesdusocialismecontemporain."
2
DiscoursaurVorigine
etUs
fondements
de
Vinbgalittparmi
leshomme*.

317. 274 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
impostor!Youarelostifyouforgetthatthesoilbelongs
tonobodyand
thatitsfruitsbelongtoall."
Itmightbeobjectedthatinthesame
essayRousseauobserves
thatadivisionoflands
(leurpartage)wasanecessaryconsequence
oftheircultivation. Thatwouldbe
recognizing,
inasense,that
therecanbenocivilizationwithoutprivateproperty.
Themostconclusive
passages,webelieve,comefourorfive
pages
further
along.Rousseau
givesalongdescription,
after
hisfashion,ofman'sslowandgradualdevelopmentfrom
savage,
animal-like
living
tocivilized
living,andnotesthatthemore
significantmomentsinthatevolutionwerethediscovery
of
metalsandthe
discovery
of
agriculture.Hebelieves,further-
more,that
agriculture,andthereforeprivatepropertyand
inequality
infortunes,precededany
socialorganization
atall,
andthattheremust,therefore,havebeena
period
ofanarchy
wheneverybodywas
fightingeverybody
elseandwhentherich
manhadmosttolose.Atthattime
(allowingRousseauto
speak
forhimself),
aloneagainstall,unableinviewofmutual
jealousiestocombinewith
hisequalsagainst
foeswhostoodunitedbyacommonhope
of
plunder,
harassedbyhisneed,therichmanconceivedtheshrewdest
plan
that
hasevercrept
intothehumanmind:Hewoulduseinhisownfavorthe
verypower
ofthosewhowereattackinghim.Hewouldmakehis
adversaries hisdefenders.Hewouldimbuethemwithdifferent
principles,
whichwouldbeasmuchinhisfavorasnatural
righthadbeen
against
him.
Rousseaugoesontorelatehow,atthe
suggestion
ofthe
wealthy,
humanbeings
consentedto
organize
agovernmentwithlaws
whichtoallappearancessafeguardedthelifeand
propertyof
all,butwhichin
realitywereofbenefitonlytothe
powerful.
Finallyheconcludes:
Suchwas,ormusthavebeen,the
origin
of
societyandoflaws,which
laidnewimpedimentsupontheweakmanandgavenewpowertothe
richman,whichdestroyednaturalfreedombeyondrecall,crystallized
thelawofpropertyand
inequalityforever,turnedshrewd
usurpation
intoanunimpeachable right,andforthe
profit
ofafewambitiousmen
subjectedthewholehumanraceforalltimeto
toil,servitudeand
poverty.

318. |1J RISEOFSOCIALISM 375
Noveryprofoundknowledge
ofcontemporary
socialistand
anarchistliterature is
required
toperceive
thatthe
passages
quoted
containin
fullydevelopedformtheconcept
oftheclass
struggle,
inotherwordstheideathatgovernment
isinstituted
forthebenefitofa
single
class.They
alsocontainingerm
all
theassumptionsandsentimentsthatunderliethecollectivist
principle,whichwouldabolishprivateownership
ofland,capital
andtheinstrumentsoflaborinordertopreventtheexploitation
ofoneclassforthebenefitofanotherclass*More
logically
still
they
leadtotheanarchist
principle
thatevery
sortof
political
organizationwhatsoevershouldbeabolishedinorderthatrulers
maybedeprived
ofallmeansofexploitingtheruledandof
governingthembyviolenceandfraud.
Rousseau'sworkontheoriginofinequalityamong
itoenwas
published
in1754.Initheplanted
seedswhichweretofindan
amazingly
fertileenvironmentandenjoyamostluxuriant
growth.
Justa
yearlater,in1755,thenatural
implicationsof
Rousseau's
principlesweredeveloped
inabookcalledCodede
lanature.Though
itwasuncouthinformandincoherentin
substance,thisCodewas
long
attributedtoDiderot. Itsactual
authorwasMorelly. Itoutlinedquiteclearlyaprogramfor
radicalsocialreforminacollectivistdirection.
Morellymain-
tains,intheCode,thatthereshouldbethreefundamentallaws
ineverysociety:(1)Thereshouldbenoprivateproperty. (2)
Every
citizenshouldbea
public
official.
(3)Everycitizen
shouldcontributetothepublic
welfare.
Startingwiththese
three
postulates,Morellyarguesthatthestateshouldfeed
every
individualandthat
everyindividualshouldworkforthestate,
andhedrawsa
picture
ofa
societyorganizedaccordingtothose
ideals.Asaprecursorandpioneer
ofmoderncollectivistideas,
Morelly
isperhaps
entitledtogreaterrespectthanhehashad,at
leastfromhis
coreligionists.
In1776theAbb6Mably,an
enlightenedaristocratwhowas
a
fairlywell-knownwriterinhisday,reachedtheconclusionthat
privateproperty
shouldbeabolished.TheAbb6'sdoctrines
wereforeshadowed forthefirsttimeinhisDoutes
proposSsaux
philosophesGconomistes,aworkpublishedin1768in
rejoinder
toabookpublishedthe
year
beforebyLeMercierdeLaRivifere,
JJOrdrenatureleessentieldessotiM&s
politiques. Mably'ssecond
workonthe
subject
oflandcommunismwashisDela
legislation

319. 276 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
ouPrindpes
deslots.Thereheformulatesanimaginaryobjec-
tionthat,ifadivisionoflandweretobemade,inequalitywould
shortlybereestablished. Hisanswerwas:"Itisnota
question
oflanddivision,butofcommunity
oflands. Itisnota
question
ofredistributingproperty. Propertyhastobeabolished." It
is
significant
thatRousseauoftenaccusedMably
of
plagiarism.
Aclose
parallel
toProudhon'sfamousphrase,"Property
is
theft(LaproprUtS
c'estle
vol)9
"
firstappeared
inapamphlet
thatwas
publishedbyBrissotdeWarvillein1778,underthetitle
ofRecherches
philosophiques
surla
propri&tt
etsurlevol.There
wefindthewords"La
propri&U
exclusiveestunvol."Brissot
becameoneoftheoutstanding
leadersoftheGirondistparty
duringtheRevolution,headingthefactioncalledtheBrissotins.
Hewasoftenintroublebecauseofthebookandthephrase.
Whetherthemenwhodirectedthe
greatrevolutionarymove-
mentinFranceattheendoftheeighteenthcenturywereor
werenot
tinged
withsocialistdoctrineshas
longbeen
hotly
debated. Priorto1848,LouisBlancheldthattheywere,and
Quinet,relyingprincipally
onthememoirsofBaudot,amember
oftheConvention,heldthattheywerenot.Itseemsevidentto
usthatsocialismisanecessaryconsequence
ofpuredemocracy,
ifbydemocracywemeanadenialofany
social
superioritythat
isnotbaseduponthefreeconsentof
majorities.Onthispoint
wewhollyagreewithStahl,andwhollydisagreewithTocque-
villeandothers.Buttosaythataconsequence
is
necessary
isnottosaythatitisgoing
tofollowimmediately.
Itisnatural
thatacertaintimeshouldelapsebetweentheattempttorealize
absolute
equality
inthe
political
fieldandtheattempttoachieve
equality
intheeconomicfield,sinceexperiencealonecanteach
that
politicalequality
is
altogetherillusory
unlessitleadsto
economic
equality.
During
the
periodbetween1789and1793,thetheoriesthat
officiallyprevailed
inthevarious
legislativeandconstituent
assemblieswerewhatsocialistsoftodaywouldcall"individual-
istic"or"bourgeois." Thatwas
partly
becauseexperiencewas
wantingand
partlybecausesocialistdoctrineswerestillintheir
infancyandhadnotyetbeencarefullyworkedoutandembodied
insystemsthatwerescientificinappearanceatleast.More
important still,iftheleadersoftheactiverevolutionarieswere
soldiers,theyweresatisfiedwith
changingfrom
sergeants
to

320. 1] RISEOFSOCIALISM 277
generals
inafew
years'time;andiftheywerelawyerstheywere
satisfiedtosavetheirnecksfromthe
guillotine
andbecome
"legislators,""proconsuls,""committeemenon
publicsafety,"
andwhatnot,oratthevery
leasthighgovernment
officials.
Soldiersor
lawyers,
or
justpeasants,
allofthemwereascontent
ascouldbeifthey
couldbuytheprivateproperty
ofanEmigre
fromthestatewithafistfuloffiatmoney*Thetruthisthat
evenif"bourgeois"
or"capitalist" doctrinesprevailed,
the
instinctsand
passions
thatwerethen,rifewereof
quiteanother
color,andifwarwasnotwagedofficiallyonwealthandprivate
property
in
general,
itwaswaged,
in
general
with
great
effective-
ness,onpropertyownersandwealthymen. Itwouldbea
simplemattertomentionfactsandquotespeechesfromthose
days
thatshow
perfectaccordwiththe
aspirations
ofrevolution-
ary
socialistsofhalfacentury
laterandofourtime.
Inhis
newspaper,L'Amidu
peuple,MaratwrotethatTheir
Worthies,the
grocers,
thedrummers,thesalesclerks,werecon-
spiringagainsttheRevolutionwiththegentlemenontheRight
oftheConventionandwithgentlemen
ofwealth,thatthey
oughttobearrestedas
suspects,everyone,andthattheycould
beturnedintofirstclasssans-culottes,"byleavingthemnothing
tocovertheirbehindswith."Cambonproposedaforcedloan
ofamillionfromtherichtobesecuredbymortgages
onthe
property
of
emigres.AdecreeofSeptember3,1793,confiscated
allincomesover14,000francsa
yearunder
guise
ofaforced
loan.ThereweremenintheConventionwhoconsideredwealth
asinanddenouncedanymanasabadcitizenwhocouldnotbe
satisfiedwithanincomeof3,000francsa
year.TheCon-
ventionistLaplanche
wassentonamissiontotheDepartment
oftheCherandreportedonhisworkasfollowstotheJacobins:
"Everywhere
Imadeterrortheorderoftheday.Everywhere
Iexactedcontributionsfromtherichandaristocratic....I
threwallfederalistsoutofoffice,put
all
suspects
in
jail,and
upheldthesans-culottesby
forceofarms."IntheJacobin
clubitselfaproposalwasmadetoconfiscateallfoodstuffsand
distributethemamongthe
people,andwhenmanufacturers
closedtheirmills,Chaumette,the
attorneygeneral,proposed
thatthe
republictakeoverallfactoriesandrawmaterials.
Nevertheless,whentherevolutionarymovementwas
already
initsdecline,wefindanattempt
torealizeabsolute
equality

321. 278 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
andendoppressionand
privilegebyabolishingprivateproperty
and
concentrating
allwealthinthehandsofthestate.That
wasthe
goal
thatthefamousCaiusGracchusBabeufsetoutto
attain.The"Conspiracy
oftheEquals,"whichheheaded,
gathered
inall
survivingJacobinswhothoughtthey
couldfindin
socialistideaswhich,aswehaveseen,werenotunknownat
theendoftheeighteenthcentury
aforcethatmight
revive
theRevolution,whichwas
showingsigns
of
petering
outeither
intoanarchy
orintoCaesarism.
His
conspiracyfrustrated,Babeufwas
guillotined
in1797.
Acomradeofhis,anItaliannamedBuonarroti,suppliesalink
betweenthesocialistsoftheeighteenthcenturyandthoseofthe
firsthalfofthenineteenth. Buonarroti
clearlyexpoundedthe
doctrinesofhismasterinabookthatappeared
in1826,Dela
conspirationpourVfyaliti,
ditede
Babeuf.
Itcontains allthe
essentials ofthedoctrinethatthestateshouldbecomesole
proprietor
oflandand
capital.
Itis
interestingthatBuonarroti
laterbecameoneofthefoundersoftheCarbonari,andinfact
playeda
leading
roleinalltheactivitiesofsecretsocietiesthat
keptPranceand
Italycontinuallyonedge
afterthefallof
Napoleon'sempire.
Buonarroti'sbookhada
great
influenceontheintellectual
training
ofalltherevolutionary conventiclesthatformedin
Pranceshortly
beforeand
especially
aftertherevolutionof1830.
Thenpassionsandthoughtsbegan
tostirinthedirectionofa
radicalreformof
society,andthe
atmosphere
forthefirsttime
becamedefinitely
socialistic. FourierandSaint-Simon really
antedateBuonarrotibyafew
years.Fourierhad
published
his
TMoriedes
quatremovementsas
early
as1808,buttheAssotia-
tion
domestique
et
agricoledidnotappear
until18andthe
Nouveaumondeindustrielnotuntil189.Saint-Simon'sNou~
veauChristianismecameoutin18&4.Hediedtheyear
follow-
ing.AsforSaint-Simon, hislast
publicationdidinasense
comepretty
closetosocialismonthesentimentalside,andthe
Saint-Simonianism thatflourishedafter1880helpedto
prepare
theground
forsocialismproper.
It
actuallyanticipatedmany
oftheviewswhichlaterwereadoptedby
socialism. Allthe
same,thethoughtthatSaint-Simon develops
inhisearlier
publications
istoovast,tooprofoundandtoo
originaltoallow
himtobementioned
outright
asmerelyoneofthemany
writers

322. 2] SPREADOFSOCIALISM 79
whoheraldedtheriseofsocialdemocracy
asweknowit(below*
chap.XII, 1).
Duringthetenorfifteenyears
after1880,socialismwas
enrichedbythepublicationsofPierreLeroux,LouisBlancand
Proudhon,nottomentionlesser
lights.
1
Ifonelooks
attentively,
onecandetectintherichblossoming
ofreformideasthattook
place
inFrancebetween18&0and1848allthevarietiesand
gradations
of
present-day
socialism. Thereisthe
"legalitarian"
socialismofFourier,andthe
revolutionary socialismofBlanc.
Proudhonhasalltheseedsofmodernanarchism. Buchez
2
will
doforChristiansocialism. Ifwegolookingforindirectmethods
ofpropaganda,wemaynoteanowforgotten"proletarian"
novel,theVoyage
enIcariebyCabet,whichappeared
in1840
andmadea
great
sensation. InitCabetimagines
thathehas
arrivedinacountry
wherethereisno
privateproperty
and
describestheblissthatmenenjoyundersucha
system.About
fiftyyears
laterBellamy
cuthisLookingBackwardoutof
virtually
thesamecloth. Icaria,however,wasanot
altogetherimaginary
utopia.Cabetsetup
hisidealstateintheUnitedStates,first
inTexasandlateratNauvoo,Illinois,ontheMississippiRiver.
HediedinSt.Louis.
.Butsuppose
aclosereading
ofsocialistwritersbefore1848,
almostallofthemFrench,hasconvincedonethatthey
left
littleornothing
fortheGermanswhofollowedafterthemto
invent.Supposewe
perceivethatMarxdid
nothing
but
develop
systematically,
inamore
strictlylogicalformandwithabroader
knowledge
ofclassicaleconomicsandofHegelianphilosophy
too,principlesthathad
alreadybeenformulatedbyBuonarroti,
Leroux,Blancand,especially,Proudhon. Stillitwillbetrue
thatthesocialismoftoday
isafarmore
disquieting
social
phenomenonthanthesocialismof
sixtyyearsago.
Itisimmeas-
urablymorewidespread,
forone
thing.Insteadof
being
con-
1
LerouxpublishedDe
VfyaliU
in1838,Refutation
deI'Sclectismein1839,
Malihusetlesfoonomistesin1840,DeI'humanitiin1840.Hehadbeguntowrite
ona
newspaper,LeGlobe,asearly
as1832.Blanc'sOrganisationdutravail
appearedin1840.AsforProudhononenotestheMSmoiresurla
propriStS,
1840;theMotiondeVordredansVhumaniie,1843;theSystdmedescontradiction*
economiquesou
Philosophic
delamiaere,1846.
2
Essaid'untraite
complet
de
phUosophie
au
point
demeducatholidsme etdu
MuchofBuchez'swritingappeared
ina
newspaper,
L*Atelier,

323. 280 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
finedalmost
entirely
tothegreat
citiesofFrance,andmore
particularly
toParis,itnowembracesalmostthewholeofEurope,
andithasinvadedtheUnitedStatesandAustralia. Callita
good,
callitanevil,itisatanyratecommontoallpeoples
of
European
civilization.
Norhasitgainedany
lessin
depththaninsurface.Revolu-
tionary
instinctsandnobleaspirationsoncefoundan
objective
andanoutletinthe
strictlydemocraticmovement,orinvarious
movements fortheliberation ofonesubjectnationality
or
another.Butnow
representativegovernmentsonbroad-based
suffragehavebeenintroducedalmosteverywhere they
have
evenhadtimetoresultinthedisappointments
ofparliamentar-
ism.ItalianandGermannationalunitieshaveforsometime
been
virtuallycomplete,andthePolishquestionseemstoall
intentsand
purposes
tobesettled.Nowalldisinterested
enthusiasmsareconcentrated in
aspirationstowardsubstantial
reformsinthe
prevailing
socialorder.Atimehascomewhen
many
soulsareathirstfor
justiceandare
wellingwithahope
of
being
abletoquenchthethirstvery
soon.No
longer
a
lonely
thinker,a
solitarymanofheart,wouldbehewho"considered all
the
oppressionsthataredoneunderthesun:andbeholdthe
tearsofsuchaswere
oppressed,andtheyhadnocomforter;and
onthesideoftheir
oppressors
therewaspower,buttheyhadno
comforter."AndtheauthorofEcclesiastescontinues:"Where-
foreI
praisedthedeadwhicharealreadydeadmorethanthe
livingwhichareyet
alive.Yea,betterishethanboth
they,
whichhathnot
yetbeen,whohathnotseentheevilworkthat
isdoneunderthesun."
1
Itisinstructivetonotethatthis
melancholy,
realisticattitudetowardsociety
istobefoundin
the
writings
ofotherthinkerswholivedamongpeoples
ofancient
culture. Itisundoubtedlytheproduct
ofarefinementofmoral
sense,andofalucid
perception
ofrealities,whichonlyalong
period
ofcivilizationmakes
possible,andthenonly
inafewmen
of
loftymindsandnoblehearts.
Withthe
generalperception
oftheevilcomesconfidenceinthe
possibility
ofpromptly alleviating
it.TheearlyChristians
believedintheimminentcoming
ofthekingdom
ofGod,which
wouldbanishallevilfromtheworld,rewardthegoodandpunish
thewicked.Thatfaithfindsits
counterpart
inaconviction
1
4:1-3.

324. 3] SOCIALISTTHEORY 281
thatisnow
spreadabroad
through
allstratain
society,thatmost
ofthe
iniquitiesthataretobefoundintheworldcanbeascribed
tothemannerinwhich
society
isat
presentorganized,andthat
they
couldbeavoidedif
only
thosewhoholdpowerover
society
werenottoolsoftherichandthe
powerful,andwouldconsentto
interfere
effectively
inbehalfofthe
oppressed. This
persuasion
hasnow
conqueredmanymindsandiswarmingmanyhearts.
Thereisawidespread
convictionthatthereisasocialquestion,
thatimportantreformsin
propertyrights,
inthe
family,
inour
wholeindustrialand
capitalisticsystem,must
inevitablyand
shortlycomeabout,andgovernors
andsovereignsdolittleelse
thanmakeeffortsandpromises
inthatdirection.Nowall
thatcontributestocreatinganintellectualandmoralenviron-
mentinwhichmilitantsocialism lives,prospersand
spreads
abroad.
Inthis
favoringenvironmenttwoverypopulous political
organizationshavegrownupaboutmostreveredmastersand
organizers,eachofthemwithits
aspirations,
its
platforms,
its
fairlydefiniteanddefineddoctrinestworealchurches,one
mightalmost
say.
Tlieoneismadeup
ofbelieversincollec-
tivism,theotherofbelieversinanarchy. Both,like
religious
communities,haveacertainurgetoward
universality.
Ifthey
donotsendoutmissionariestoconverttheheathen,theydo
spread
theirpropaganda
abroadamongalmostallthenationsof
European
civilization.Andinoneofthemmoreparticularly
inthecollectivist
organization
in
spite
offrequent
schismsand
theriseofnumerousheresiarchs,whicharephenomenacommon
toall
organizationsthatareyoungandfulloflife,weseethe
leadersand
inspirersmeetingfrequently
innationalandworld
councils,discussingdogma,discipline,the
party's"line,"and
fixingnormsandmethodsthatstraightway
areuniversally
acceptedby
massesofbelievers.
3.
Succinctly
tostatethepostulates
ofcollectivism is
easy
enough.They
arenowfamiliartoeverybody.
Intheold
parliamentinGermanythecollectivistmovementtookthename
"social
democracy,"whichweregard
asthe
designation
scien-
tificallymostapt
forit.According
tothedoctrinemostgen-
erallyrecognizedasorthodox,thestate
represents
the
collectivity
ofcitizens. Itissole
proprietor
ofalltoolsofproduction,

325. 282 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
whethertheybe
capitalproper,machinery
orland.Thestate
isthesoledirectorandthesoledistributorofeconomicproducts.
Sincethereareneitherownersofreal
propertynor
private
capitalists,everybody
worksforthebenefitofsociety
asawhole;
andthesocialorganismprovides
for
all,eitheraccordingtothe
needsofeachindividual,asa
simplerandolderformulawould
haveit,or
according
totheworkthattheindividualdoes,asa
newerformulathatisnowmore
generallyacceptedcontends.
Tobe
strictlyaccurate,followersofthefirstformtllaareknown
among
socialistsas"communists," whilethosewhofollowthe
other,whichismuchmoreinvogueamong
themanydisciples
of
Marx,are
technicallystyled
"collectivists." Asamatterof
fact,many
collectivists
grant
thatcommunism istheideal
goal,
butithasthedrawback,theythink,ofnot
beingimmediately
realizable.Aswillbe
apparent
farther
along,whilecollectivism
isaconcessionthatreformersmaketothewell-known
frailtyor,
better,selfishness,ofhumannature,it
greatlycomplicatesthe
system
ofsocial
regenerationwhichcollectivistsare
trying
to
bringaboutandoffersthe
greaternumberofsoundarguments
totheiropponents,thecommunists.
Thewholemachineso
organized
isadministeredanddirected
by
leaderswho
representthe
people.Thefunctionofthe
leadersistodoleouttoeveryonethetype
ofworkforwhichheis
bestfitted,toseetoitthattheproducts
oflaborandsocial
capital
arenotsquandered
orundulyexploited,andatthesame
timetodistributetoeveryindividual,with
perfectequityand
justice,
theexactsharethatisduehimeitherastheproduct
ofhisownlaborashonestlyand
infalliblycalculated,orforhis
ownneeds,ofwhichthoseincontrolwill,withthesame
imparti-
ality,furnishtheexactestimate.
Supposenowwe
ignoretheviolenceandthecivilstrifewhich
mayjustlybeconsidered
indispensable to
carryingoutthis
program,andwhich
certainlywouldonlyintensifyhatreds,
rancorsand
greeds,cleave
populations
intovictorsandvan-
quished,putthelatteratthemercy
oftheformerandsounleash
thewickedestofhumaninstincts.Letusgo
sofarastoassume
thatthereformsmentionedhavecomeabout
peacefullyandby
common
agreement,orthatrevolvingcenturieshave
quenched
thelastechoofthefratricidalwarswithwhichthenewtype
of
social
organizationhasbeeninaugurated. Letusgoonand

326. 8] SOCIALISTTHEORY 83
assumethattheproductivityandtotalwealthof
societyhave
notbeenappreciably
diminishedby
thenewsystem,asthe
economistsinsistandhave,inour
opinion,indisputablyproved.
Weareevenready
tograntthattheethicalsideofthesocial
problem
shouldhaveabsolutepredominance
overthe
strictly
economicside,andthatthelittlethatiswelldividedshouldbe
preferable
tothemuchthatisbadly
divided.
But,afterconceding
thatmuch,itisourrightandourduty
toaskaquestion
onourside,andweshallcallit
"political,"
because itisthebroadest,themostcomprehensive question
imaginable;
becauseitarisesofitsownaccordfromacompre-
hensiveexaminationofeverytype
ofsocialrelation;becauseits
solutionshouldinterestorthodoxeconomistsnolessthan
socialists,capitalistsnolessthanworkers,therichnolessthan
thepoor;
becauseitisthefirst
question,themostimportant
question,
forallnoblehearts,allunprejudicedmindswhichset
aboveevery
creedandevery
interestofpartythedispassionate
searchforasocialadjustment
thatshallrepresentthe
greatest
good
thatitiswithinthepower
ofourpoorhumanitytoattain.
Itisourrightandourduty
toaskwhether,withtherealization
ofthecommunist (or
ofthecollectivist)system,justice,truth,
loveandreciprocal
tolerationamongmen,willholda
largerplace
intheworldthantheynowoccupy;whetherthe
strong,whowill
alwaysbeatthe
top,
willbelessoverbearing;whethertheweak,
whowillalwaysbeatthebottom,willbelessoverborne. That
questionwenowanswerdecidedlywiththeword"no."
ThelateSaverioScolarioncesaidthatitwas
impossible
for
thestudentofthehistoricalor
political
sciencestoforesee
exactly
whatisgoing
tohappen
inhumansocietiesinanyfuture,near
orremote,becausesomepart
inhumaneventswillalwaysbedue
towhatiscalled"chance,"andweshallneverbeabletocalculate
thatfactorinadvance.Headded,however,thatwearemuch
betterabletoforeseewhatisnevergoing
to
happen,the
negative
reasoninghavingasecurefoundationinwhatweknowofhuman
nature,whichwillneverallowanythingactuallytooccurthatis
fundamentallyrepugnant
toit.Thisseconddictumseemsmuch
tothepointinthecasewenowhavebeforeus,andits
applica-
tionshouldbealltheeasiersincetoa
greatextentwearecon-
cernednotwith
foreseeing
whatwillorwillnothappenbut
simply
with
notingwhathashappenedandis
happeningevery-

327. 284 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
day.Themuchthatweknowfromexperiencemakesit
easy
toestablishthenatureofthelittlethatsomestillconsider
unknown.
Communistandcollectivistsocietieswouldbeyondanydoubt
bemanagedby
officials.Letusassume,forthebestcase,that
inaccordwiththenormsofsocialdemocracy,theywouldbe
electedexclusivelyby
universal
suffrage.Wehavealready
seenhow
politicalpowersfunctionwhenthey
are
exclusively,
or
almostexclusively,
inthehandsofso-called
"people's
choices."
Weknowthat
majoritieshaveonlythemere
right
ofchoosing
betweenafew
possiblecandidates,andthattheycannot,there-
fore,exerciseoverthemanythingmorethanaspasmodic,limited
andoftenineffectivecontrol.Weknowthattheselectionof
candidatesisitselfalmostalwaystheworkof
organized
minorities
who
specializeby
tasteorvocationin
politicsand
electioneering,
orelsetheworkofcaucusesandcommitteeswhoseinterestsare
oftenatvariancewiththeinterestsofthe
majority.Weknow
therusesthattheworstofthemuseto
nullifyor
falsifythe
verdictsofthepollstotheiradvantage.Weknowtheliesthey
tell,the
promisestheymakeand
betrayandtheviolencetheydo
inordertowinortowheedlevotes.
Butcommunistsandcollectivistsmayobjectthatallthis
happensbecauseofthepresentcapitalistic organization
of
society,becausegreatlandownersandownersof
greatfortunes
nowhaveathousandmeans,directorindirect,for
influencing
andbuying
thevotesofthepoor,andthattheyusethemto
makeuniversalsuffrageashamandassure
politicaldominion
tothemselves.Toavoidthosedrawbacks iffor
nothingelse,
theymightargue,weshouldchangethesocialorder
radically.
Thosewhoreasoninthatmanner
forgetthemostimportant
detailintheproblem.Theyforget
thateveninsocieties
organized
astheypropose
therewouldstillbethosewhowould
managethe
publicwealthandthenthe
greatmassofthosewho
aremanaged.Nowthelatterwouldhavetobesatisfiedwith
thesharethatwasallottedtothem.Theadministrators ofthe
socialrepublicwouldalsobeits
politicalheads,andtheywould
undoubtedlybefarmorepowerful
thantheministersand
millionairesweknowtoday.
Ifamanhasthepowertoconstrain
otherstoagiventask,andtofixtheallotmentsofmaterial
enjoyments
andmoralsatisfactionsthatwillbethe
recompense

328. 3]
SOCIALISTTHEORY 85
fortheperformance
ofthetask,hewillalwaysbea
despotover
hisfellows,howevermuchhemaybecurbedby
lawsand
regula-
tions,andhewill
alwaysbeabletosway
theirconsciencesand
theirwillstohisadvantage.
1
Allthe
lying,
allthebaseness, alltheviolence, allthefraud
thatweseein
political
lifeatpresent
areusedin
intrigues
to
winvotes,inordertogetaheadin
public
officeorsimply
in
ordertomakemoney
fastbyunscrupulousmeans.Undera
collectivistsystemeverything
ofthatsortwouldbeaimed
at
controlling
theadministration ofthecollectiveenterprise.
Therewouldbeonegoal
forthe
greedy,theshrewdandthe
violent,onedirectionforthecabklsandthe
cliqueswhichwould
formtothedetrimentofthe
gentler,
thefairer,themoresincere.
Suchdifferencesastherewouldbewouldallbeinfavorofour
presentsociety;
fortodestroymultiplicity
of
politicalforces,that
variety
ofwaysandmeansbywhichsocialimportance
isat
presentacquired,wouldbetodestroy
allindependenceandall
possibility
ofreciprocalbalancingandcontrol.As
things
are
today,
theofficeclerkcanatleastlaugh
atthemillionaire.A
goodworkmanwhocanearnadecent
livingwithhisownhands
hasnothing
tofearfromthe
politician,thedepartmentsecretary,
thedeputy
ortheminister.Anyonewhohasa
respectable
position
astheownerofa
piece
ofland,asabusinessman,asa
memberofa
profession,
canholdhisheadhighbeforeallthe
powers
ofthestateandallthe
greatlandlordsandfinancial
baronsintheworld.Undercollectivism,everyone
willhaveto
kowtowtothemeninthegovernment. Theyalonecandispense
favor,bread,thejoy
orsorrowoflife.One
singlecrushing,
all-
embracing,all-engrossingtyranny
will
weighupon
all.The
great
oftheearthwillbeabsolutemastersof
everything,andthe
independentwordofthemanwhofearsnothingandexpectsnoth-
ingfromthemwillno
longerbetheretocurbtheirextravagances.
Inhis
Progress
and
PovertyHenryGeorgemany
timesquotes
anancientHindudocumentwhichheldthatelephantsinsanely
proudand
parasolsembroideredin
goldwerethefruitsofprivate
ownershipoftheland.
2
Inourday
civilization ismuchmore
sophisticatedthanthat,andlifemoremany-sided. Wealthis
producinga
greatdealbesideselephantsand
parasols. But,
1
Seeabove,chap.V,9.
2
BookV,epigraph(p.262),quoting
SirWilliamJones.

329. 286 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
after.all,the
privilegesthatwealthconfersonthosewho
possess
itcomedowntothefactthatwealthmakesthe
pursuit
ofintel-
lectual
pleasures
easierandtheenjoyment
ofmaterial
pleasures
moreabundant. Itprovides
satisfactionsforvanityand
pride
and,especially,power
tomanipulatethewillsofotherswhile
leaving
one'sownindependence
intact.Theheadsofacom-
munistorcollectivistrepublicwouldcontrolthewillofothers
more
tyrannically
thanever;andsincetheywouldbeableto
distribute
privations
orfavorsastheychose,theywouldhave
themeanstoenjoy,perhapsmore
hypocriticallybutinnoless
abundance, allthematerial
pleasures,
allthetriumphs
of
vanity,
whicharenow
perquisites
ofthepowerfulandthewealthy.
Likethese,andevenmorethanthese,theywouldbeinaposition
todegrade
thedignity
ofothermen.
Thesecriticisms, itwillbenoted,bearbothonthe
postulates
ofcommunismandonthe
postulates
ofcollectivism,andperhaps
ontheformermorethanonthelatter;but,fromthe
standpoint
ofthecriticisms,collectivism is
considerablyworseplacedthan
communism. Iforthodoxsocialdemocracyweretotriumph,
thoseincontrolwouldnotonlyhavethe
righttofixforeverybody
thekindofworktobedoneandthe
placewhereitwastobe
donebut,sincetherewouldbenoautomaticmeasureofreward,
theywouldhaveto
specify
thereturnon
everytypeof
work.
Thattheywouldhavefar
greater
latitudefor
arbitrarydecisions
andfavoritismisobvious.Norwouldthatbeall.Collectivism
doesnotallowanyaccumulation of
privatewealthintheform
ofindustrialcapital,butonly
inkind,intheformofcommodities
ofpureconsumption.
Itwould
certainlyalwaysbe
possibleto
distributesuchcommoditieseither
gratis
orforaconsideration,
andsoelectoralcorruption,andthemany
otherformsof
corrup-
tionthatfeaturebourgeoissocieties,would
reappear.
4.Thestrength
ofthesocialistandanarchistdoctrines lies
notsomuchintheirpositiveasintheir
negativeaspects
in
theirminute,pointed,
mercilesscriticismofour
presentorganiza-
tionof
society.
Fromthe
standpoint
ofabsolutejusticethedistribution of
wealththathas
prevailed
inthe
past,andstill
prevails,leaves
plenty
ofroomformanyvery
seriouscriticismsinthatit
legit-
imizesgreatand
flagrantinjustices.Thatfactissoevidentthat

330. 4] ABSOLUTEJUSTICE 287
eventostateitseems
quiteplatitudinous.
Onedoesnotneed
thepiercing
keennessofProudhon,thelongalgebraicdemon-
strationsofMarx,thetrenchant,savageirony
ofLassalle,to
prove
whatsoreadily
strikestheeye
ofanyonewholooks
evenofthemost
superficialanduntaught
observer. Individual
enjoyment
ofthegoodthings
oflifehasnotbeenproportioned
eventothevalue,letalonetothe
difficulty,
oftheworkthatis
donetoproduce
them.Weseeineconomic lifewhatwesee
everyday
in
politicallife,inscientificlife,inallfieldsofsocial
activity:thatsuccessisalmostneverproportionate
tomerit.
Betweentheservicethatanindividualrenderstosocietyandthe
rewardthathereceivesthereisalmostalwaysawide,andoftena
glaring,discrepancy.
To
fight
socialismbytrying
todeny,ormerelytoextenuate,
thatfactistotakeone'sstandonaterrainonwhichdefeatis
certain.Orthodoxeconomistshaveoftentriedthat.They
havesought
toshowthatprivateownership
oflandand
capital
notonly
isbeneficial,orevenindispensable, tolifein
society,
butalsoanswerstheabsoluterequirements
of
moralityand
justice.Alongthatlinetheyhaveopened
theirflanktoavery
powerful
attack. Precarious,nayhopeless,
inthebestcaseand
inanyage,
theirthesisbecomespatentlyabsurdinour
day,when
everybodywhohaseyescanseebywhatmeans
great
fortunes
areoftenbuiltup.
Thewholeobjectionthatcanbeoffered,andshouldbeoffered,
tothedestructivecriticismofthesocialistsissummedup
ina
truththatmayseemcruel.Wehavealreadystatedit,butitis
helpful,
itismoral,toproclaim
italoudoverandover
again.No
socialorganizationcanbebased
exclusivelyupon
thesentiment
of
justice,
andnosocial
organization
willeverfailtoleavemuchtobe
desiredfromthestandpoint
ofabsolute
justice.
Itisnatural
thatthings
shouldbethatway.Inhis
privateand
public
conductnoindividual iseverguidedexclusivelyby
hissenseof
justice.Heisguidedby
his
passionsandhisneeds.Onlythe
manwhocutshimselfofffromtheworld,whorenounces all
ambitionforwealth,power,worldlyvanity,for
expressing
his
own
personality
inanywaywhatever,canflatterhimselfthathis
actsare
inspiredbyasentimentofabsolute
justice.Theman
ofaction,in
political
lifeorinbusiness life,whetherhebe
merchantorpropertyowner,professionalworkerorlaborer,

331. 288 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
priest
ofGodor
apostle
ofsocialism,always
triestobeasuccess,
andMsconduct,therefore,willalwaysbeacompromise,witting
or
unwitting,
betweenhissenseof
justiceandhisinterests.Of
course,notallpeoplecompromisetothesamedegree
orinthe
sameways.Thetypeandextentof
compromisesdependupon
the
person'sgreater
orlesserselfishness,onhissenseof
delicacy,
onthestrength
ofhismoralconvictions. Thesetraitsvary
widelyfromindividualtoindividual.
Humansentimentsbeingwhattheyare,tosetouttoerecta
type
of
politicalorganizationthatwillcorrespond
inall
respects
totheidealof
justice,whichamancanconceivebutcannever
attain,isaUtopia,andtheUtopiabecomesfranklydangerous
whenitsucceedsin
bringinga
largemassofintellectualand
moralenergies
tobearupontheachievementofanendthatwill
neverbeachievedandthat,ontheday
ofitspurportedachieve-
ment,canmeannothingmorethantriumph
fortheworst
people
anddistressanddisappointment
forthe
good.Burkeremarked
morethanacenturyagothatanypoliticalsystemthatassumes
theexistenceofsuperhuman
orheroicvirtuescanresultonly
in
viceandcorruption.
1
Thedoctorsofsocialismdeclarethatall,oratleastmost,
human
imperfections,
allormostofthe
injusticesthatarenow
beingcommittedunderthesun,donotresultfromethicaltraits
thatarenaturaltoour
speciesbutfromtraitsthatarethrust
uponusbyourpresentbourgeoisorganization
of
society.One
suchdoctorstated
explicitly
inafamousbookthat"ifwe
change
socialconditionsinaccordwiththe
goalsthatsocialismsetsfor
itself,weshall
get
aradicalchange
inhumannature."
2
1
Theviewthatthedestructivesideofsocialistcriticismderivesfrom
ascribing
toourpresentorganization
ofsociety
evilsand
injusticesthatareinherentin
humannaturehasbeenrecognizedbymanywriters. Schafflealludestoit
repeatedly
inDie
Quintessenz
deaSoziolismua. More
definitely
stilltheItalian
historianoflaw,IcilioVanni,wrotein1890:"Socialismoldandnew,rationalistic
orevolutionary
asitmaybe,aimsatbottomtorealizeinthispoorhumanworld
anorderthatis
absolutelyjust.Inthatitbetrays
itsmetaphysicalcharacter."
InhisL'Europepolitique
etsociole,Blocksays:"Wearenotunawarethat
injustices
areworked,butthey
willnotbeeliminatedbychangingtheorgani-
zationof
society.Theycanbedoneaway
withonlybychanginghuman
nature."AnumberoftopicsinGarofalo'sLasuperstizioneaocialistabelongto
thissameorderofideas.
*
Bebel,DieFrauundderSozialismus.

332. 4] ABSOLUTEJUSTICE 289
Weshallnotdothereformersoftodaytheinjustice
of
suppos-
ing
thatthey
are
trying
toreviveunderanewformRousseau's
oldaphorismthatmanisborngoodandsocietymakeshimbad.
Ifoneweretoacceptthatviewunconditionally, onewouldalso
be
obliged
toassumethat
society
isnottheresultofthenatural
andspontaneous activity
ofhuman
beingsbutwassetupby
somesuperhuman
orextrahuman will,whichamuseditselfby
givinguslaws,institutionsandmoralsthathave
poisonedand
upsettheinnate
goodness,generosityandmagnanimity
ofthe
seedofAdam.Modernsocialistscannotimagine,either,that
our
present
social
organizationmerely
reflectstheinstinctsof
otherraces,other
generations
ofmen,whosemoralsensemust
havebeenmuchlowerthanthatofthe
presentgeneration,
so
thatwe,nobleand
enlightened
asweare,feelan
urgentneedof
strippingourselves,asoftheshirtofNessus,ofinstitutions
thathavebeeninheritedfromunscrupulous
elders. Ifwewere
tograntthatmethodof
applyingevolutionary
tHeoriestohuman
societies,
ifweweretogrant
thatwithinafewcenturiesselection
has
considerablyimprovedtheaverage
levelof
morality,we
wouldalsohavetoassumethatthemoral
progressthathas
alreadybeenachievedshouldappreciablyhavediminished,
ratherthanincreased,thedefectsofbourgeoisorganization.
Nothing
ofthatsorthastaken
place.Keeping
towhatthe
socialiststhemselves
say,menhavenotbecomelessselfish,less
hardofheart.Forifthecontrarywerethecase if,intheeyes
ofmen,anatomofself-interesthadnotoftenoutbalanceda
greatweight
ofother
people's
interestand
self-respect,
ifawhole
societywerein
largemajoritymadeup
of
justandcompassionate
men,of
uprightandsincere
people,
aswas
pleasing
totheLord
ofIsraelandaswould
surelyhavebeen
pleasing
toMessrs.Marx
andLassalle allthedeadlyconsequences
of
rapaciouscapitalism
andfranticcompetitionwhichhavebeenrevealedby
those
writerswithsuchraremasterywould
certainlybynowhave
beenreducedtothelowestterms.
TheworldcouldbecomeanEdenevenunderthepresent
bourgeoisorganization
ofsociety
ifeverycapitalistwereto
contenthimselfwithanhonest,moderate
profitanddidnot
trytoruinhis
competitors,squeeze
thelast
possiblepennyfrom
theconsumer'spocketandforcethelastdrop
ofsweatfromthe
browoftheworkingman.
InsuchanEden,thelandowner

333. 290 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
wouldcultivatehisfields
diligentlyandextractfromthemonly
thebarenecessariesforhis
frugalsubsistance.Hewouldnot
takeadvantage
ofmarketfluctuations inordertosellcom-
moditiesofprimenecessity
atthe
highest
obtainable
price.
Themerchanttoowouldcollectjustamoderateand
specified
profitonhissale,andnevertakeadvantage
ofthe
buyer's
inexperiencetoselldearer,orcheathimastothequalityand
quantity
ofhiswares.Theworkingmanandthepeasantwould
toil
conscientiously
fortheiremployer,doingnomoreandno
lessthantheywoulddoforthemselves,neverdeceivinghim,
never
pilferingfromhim,nevertakingaday'swages
forhalfa
day'swork.Thenallofthemtogether,
insteadofwasting
their
surplus
ortheirsavingsonostentatious luxuries,on
satisfying
vanities,onviceandgoodtimes,wouldseekoutthewretched,
the
poor,
thosewhoarenotgood
atmaking
a
living,andspend
everythingon
aidingthem,sothatforonehandthatwouldbe
extendedforhelp
therewouldbetenhandsreadyandeager
to
give
it.
HenryGeorgewas
certainlyamanofnobleheartand
pene-
tratingmind.Hethoughtthatalltheevilsthatweascribeto
selfishness,andtolackoffairnessand
brotherly
consideration
inthemajorityofmen,wereduetothecompetitivesystemand
more
particularly
tothedanger
ofwanting
thenecessariesoflife
thatconfrontsusallunderthepresentsystem.Upholdingthat
thesisin
ProgressandPoverty,Georgementionsasanexample
whatoccursatany
well-servedtable,whereeachdiner,knowing
thatthereisfoodenough
forall,is
polite
tohis
neighbor.No
vulgarstruggle
tosnatchthechoicemorselsarises,andnoone
triesto
getmorefoodthananybody
else.
Nowwedonotthinkthattheanalogy
holds.Inthefirst
place,therearewell-servedboardswherethebehaviorof
guests
isnotascorrectastheconductthatHenryGeorgedescribes.
Inthesecond
place,material
appetites
arenecessarilylimited
asSanchoPanzapointedout,thepoormaneatsthreetimesa
dayandtherichmancandonobetter.Atawell-servedtable,
therefore,everyonecanfindaway
to
satisfy,
letussaya
gar-
gantuan,hungerwithout
pilfering
his
neighbor'sportion.But
thatisnotthecasewhenweare
sitting
atthe
allegoricalbanquet
oflife.Thenthewillto
get
thebetterofothers,to
satisfy
one's
caprices,passions, lusts,can,unhappily,beboundlessand

334. 4] SOCIALISMANDSOCIALFORCES 91
insatiable.Amanwill
trytohaveten,ahundred,athousand
portions,
sothatbydistributingthemamong
othershemay
bendthemtohiswill.Inthe
struggle
for
preeminence,
that
mantriumphswhocanmost
lavishlydispense
themeansby
whichhumanneedsandhumanvicesaresatisfied.
Evenifeachofusweretobeassuredofaminimumthatwould
provide
fortheprimenecessities oflife,thesocialquestion
wouldnotbesolved.Only
theweakestandleastaggressive
wouldcontentthemselveswiththatminimum,thosewhoinany
eventwouldbeleastwelladapted
tothe
struggle
for
preeminence.
Theotherswouldgo
onscrambling
inrabid
competition.
Itfollowsthatthemostrealistic
interpretationthatc&nat
presentbe
given
tothedoctrineofRousseauistheveryonethat
isfollowedbylargenumbersofthosewhoare
fighting
inthe
ranksofthecollectivistmovement,orevenamong
theanarchists.
They
believethatthenaturalworking
ofselectionhasbeen
profoundly disturbedandpervertedbypresentbourgeois
societies,andthatthat
principle
willbeabletooperatefreely
andexertitsbeneficialeffectsonlywhentheirprograms
of
reform,whichvaryfromschooltoschool,havebeencarriedout.
Butinreasoning
inthatfashion,they
are
discountingan
expecta-
tion,andtherewillneverbeanypossibility
of
proving
inadvance
thatitwillberealized. Also,they
are
evidentlycountingona
moral
progresswhich
theysay
willbeattained,inorderto
bring
intoexistenceatype
ofsocialorganizationwhichassumesthat
that
progress
hasalreadybeenattained,andwhichinall
probability
wouldbeabletofunctiononlyif
that
progresshadbeenattained.
Inaword,theywouldonlyberepeatingona
largescale,and
withmoredisastrousconsequences, themistaketowhichwe
primarilyowethecurrentevilsof
parliamentarism.
But,
ifthedispassionatestudy
ofthepastcantellus
anything,
ittellsus,aswebelievewehaveshown
(ohap.VII, 7),thatitis
difficulttomodifyveryappreciablythemeanmorallevelofa
wholepeople
oflong-standing civilization,andthattheinfluence
thatonetype
ofsocialorganization
oranothercanexertinthat
direction is
certainly
farless
powerfulthantheradicalsofour
dayimagine. History
teachesthatwhenever,inthecourse
ofthe
ages,asocialorganization
hasexertedsuchaninfluenceina
beneficialway,
ithasdonesobecausetheindividualandcollec-
tivewillofthemenwhohaveheldpower
intheirhandshasbeen

335. COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
curbedandbalancedby
othermen,whohaveoccupiedpositions
ofabsoluteindependenceandhavehadnocommoninterests
withthosewhomthey
havehadtocurbandbalance. Ithas
been
necessary,nayindispensable,
thatthereshouldbeamulti-
plicity
of
politicalforces,thatthereshouldbemanydifferent
roadsbywhichsocialimportance
couldbe
acquired,andthatthe
various
political
forcesshouldeachberepresented
inthegovern-
mentandintheadministration ofthestate. Collectivismand
communism, likealldoctrinesthatarebasedonthe
passions
andtheblindfaithofthemasses,tendto
destroymultiplicity
of
political
forces.Theywouldconfineallpowertoindividuals
electedbythe
people,
orrepresentingthem.Theywould
abolish
privatewealth,whichinallmaturesocietieshas
supplied
many
individualswithameansfor
acquiringindependenceand
prestigeapartfromtheassentandconsentoftherulersofthe
state,Boththose
thingscanonly
leadtoa
weakening
of
juridicaldefense,towhatin
plainlanguage
iscalledthe
tyranny
ofrulersovertheruled.In
practicesuch
tyrannyhasalways
resultedfromoversimplified political
doctrineswhichtakeno
accountofthecomplicatedanddifficultstructureofhuman
nature,buttrytoadapttheorganization
of
society
toa
single,
one-sided,absoluteconceptandestablish itupon
a
single
exclu-
sive
principlenowthewillofGodas
interpretedby
his
earthly
vicarsandministers,nowthewillofthe
people
asexpressed
throughthosewhoclaimtorepresentthem.
Ofcoursesound
political
doctrinemaysuggestlegislative
remediesandrecommendproceduresthatmight
welllessen
social
injustice
toacertainextent.Themechanismof
juridical
defensemightbeimproved
insuchaway
astomoderatethe
arrogance
ofthosewhoareinvestedwith
publicpower.But
however
great
thebenefitsthat
mightbeyieldedbyreforms
along
thoselines,theywouldbe
insignificant
ascomparedwith
theeraof
happiness,equalityanduniversal
justicewhich,
implicitly
or
explicitly,thevarioussocialistschoolspromise
to
theirfollowers.Theywouldbe
something
likethefewdoubtful
years
offair
physicalhealthwhichtheconscientiousdoctoris
ableto
guarantee
his
patient.A
verypaltryguarantee,when
onethinksofthenuisancethat
goes
withdietsandastrict
daily
observance ofmedicalrules!And
paltryespecially
ifitbe
compared
withthepromiseofa
quickandcertaincure,of
good

336. 5] ANARCHISM 293
healthandlong
lifethatismadeby
thecharlatanwithhis
elixir!
Itmight
beurgedthatfromthemoralpoint
ofviewthis
analogy
isnotapplicabletomenwhoarepropounding
theirideas
inallgood
faith. Besides,thephysicianmight
wellshowthe
fatuousnessofthepatentmedicineandthenbe
obliged
toevade
the
challenge
ofthecharlatantoinventamedicinethatwould
reallydowhatthecharlatan's elixirwas
alleged
todo. Ifthe
physician
werewisehewouldanswerthatherealizesvery
well
howmanygerms
thereareintheworld,andhowvariedand
numerousthediseasesthatmayupset
thedelicateconstitution
ofthehumanbody;butthatforthatveryreasonhewillnever
claimthathehasauniversalandinfallibleremedy
foralldiseases.
Merely
tothinkof
doing
sowouldputhimonalevelwiththe
charlatan.
5.Anarchistpropaganda
basesitsdestructive criticismof
present-day
institutionsonthesame
passions,
thesameorderof
observationsandideas,ascollectivistpropaganda,withthis
difference,thatanarchistsareasarulemoreviolent.Sometimes
they
areactuallyferociousnotonly
intheiractsbutintheir
words.Wearethinking
ofonepublication,amongmanyothers,
inwhichanItaliananarchistadvisestheworkersontheday
of
their
victorytowipeoutnotonlygrownbourgeoiswhoare
capturedarmsinhand,butalsotheagedandthe
helplessand
womenandchildrendowntotwoorthreeyears
todealwith
the
bourgeois,
inshort,thewaytheancientHebrewsdealtwith
the
conqueredwheneverthesehadbeenexpresslysmittenby
Jehovah'scurse.The
publication
issowellwrittenthatits
authormusthavebeenawell-educatedmanoffairnative
intelligence.
However,theanarchists differwidelyfromallthesocialist
schoolsintheidealswhichthey
setouttoachieve. Inorderto
abolish,oratleastconsiderably reduce,the
injusticesand
inequalitiestheydeplore
inthisworld,thesocialistswould
try
to
modifythepresentorganization
of
societyveryradicallytobe
sure.Theanarchists,soundlyarguingthattherewouldalways
be
disparities
ofstatusamongmenunderanytype
ofsocial
organization,thattherewouldalways
berulersandruled,or,as
theyputit,exploitersandexploited,proposethedestructionof

337. 294 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
all
organizedsociety.Theyremindoneofamanwhodiscovers
thatthereisnoprudent
tenoroflifethatcan
guaranteehim
perfecthealthandsoturnstosuicideasasurecureforallhis
troubles.
LogicalandconsistentfollowersofRousseau,thefatherofthem
all,theadherentsofanarchismmaintainthatsince
organized
society
istherootofallevil,onlybycompletelydisorganizing
human
societyand
goingbacktothestateofnaturecanevil
beeliminated. Inthistheyareonlyrepeating,perhaps
unwit-
tingly,amistake oftheirmaster.Thetruthisthatthe
naturalstate,withmanaswithmanyotheranimals, isnot
individual
separationbutsocial
living,
theonly
variationbeing
thatthesocietymaybemoreorless
large,moreorless
organized.
Toassume,then,thatafactsouniversalandsoreadily
discern*
ibleasthefactthatallmenlive
sociallycanbeduetotheself-
interestandcunning
ofafewschemersisanotionwhichweare
certainly
notthefirsttocallabsurdandchildish. Aristotle
livedtwenty
centuriesbeforetheGenevan
philosopher,yethe
hadan
infinitely
clearerandmoreaccurateperception
ofthe
realnatureofmanwhenhewrotethatmanisa
political
animal.
Buttheintellectual facultiesoftheGreekPeripateticwere
probably
neverruffledeitherbyanoversensitive pride
orby
literaryvanity.Onemighteven
guessthatthepatronage
of
theMacedoniansovereigns,
orperhaps
his
ability
toearnhis
own
living,
savedhimfromthenecessity
ofsouring
his
disposition
andruining
his
digestionbyhobnobbing
withpeoplewhowere
oftenfrivolous,sometimes
spitefulandalmostalways
of
high
socialstanding.
RousseaucameofarespectableGenevanfamily,andhe
inherited itshonestand
upright
instincts.Butbecauseofhis
irresponsibility,
his
inabilitytoadapt
himselftomodest,profit-
ablework,andthedestitutioninwhichhisfatherlefthim,he
decayedmorally
tothepointwherefortenyears
ormorehe
livedasanotalwayswelcomechevalierofMadamedeWarens
forthesupport
thatshe
gave
him.Awareness ofthemoral
degradation
intowhichhehadfalleninhisyouthmustnodoubt
havebeenoneofthekeenesttormentstotheGenevan
philoso-
pher
inhis
maturity. Beingunwilling
orunabletoblamehim-
self,hisfather,orMadamedeWarens,heblamed
society. That,
Inouropinion,istherealpsychologicalexplanation
ofthefunda-

338. 5] ANARCHISM 295
mentalideathatservesRousseauasabasisforhiswhole
political
andsocialsystem thatmanisborngoodandsocietymakeshim
bad.
Butsupposeweassumethattheanarchisthypothesishas
comeaboutinthefact,thatthe
presenttype
ofsocialorganiza-
tionhasbeendestroyed,
thatnationsandgovernmentsbpwe
ceasedtoexist,andthat
standingarmies,bureaucrats, parlia-
mentsand
especiallypolicemenand
jailshavebeensweptaway.
Unfortunately peoplewouldstillhavetolive,andtherefore
usethelandandotherinstruments ofproduction. Unfortu-
natelyagain,armsandweaponswouldstillbethere,andenter-
prising,courageous
characterswouldbereadytousethemin
ordertomakeotherstheirservantsorslaves.Giventhose
elements,littlesocialgroupswouldatonceform,andinthemthe
manywouldtoilwhilethefew,armedand
organized,would
eitherberobbingthemor
protectingthemfromotherrobbers,
but
livingontheirtoilinany
event.Inotherwords,weshould
begoingbacktothe
simple,primitivetype
ofsocial
organization
inwhicheachgroup
ofarmedmenisabsolutemasterofsome
plot
ofground
andofthosewhocultivate it,so
long
asthe
group
canconquerthe
plot
ofgroundandholditwithitsown
strength.Thattype
of
societywehavecalled"feudal."We
wouldhavehappening
over
againexactlywhathappened
in
Europewhenthe
collapse
ofCharlemagne'sempiredisrupted
suchlittlesocial
organization
ashadsurvivedthefallofthe
RomanEmpire;andwhathappened
inIndiawhenthesuccessors
oftheGrandMogulwerereducedtoimpotence;andwhatwill
happeneverywherewhena
society
ofadvancedculture,forone
causeoranother,internalorexternal,falls
apartand
collapses.
Therecanbenodoubtthat
peoplewhofeelself-confident
andstrongandhavenothing
tolosewouldstandachance
tobethe
gainersbyarevolutionofthatsort,forviolenceand
personal
valorwouldcometothe
top
astheone
politicalforce.
Butitwouldbetothe
disadvantage
oftheimmensepeacable
majority,perhapsninetyper
centofmen,whowould
prefer
totheruleofthemailedfistaveryimperfectsocial
justice,a
littletranquility,andthecertaintythattheycouldenjoyat
leastsomeportion
ofthefruitsoftheirownlabor.
Whilemostanarchists,forinstanceGrave,
1
believethatto
1
LaSociMtmourante etVanarchie.

339. 896 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
abolishpropertyandlawswouldsufficetomakeallmen
good,
others,lessingenuous,
arriveatconclusionsthataremoreor
lesslikeourown.DeGourmontwrote:
Giventheabsenceofanylawwhatsoever,theascendancy
of
superior
peoplewouldbecometheonlylaw,andtheir
justifiabledespotismwould
beundisputed. Despotism
isnecessaryinordertomuzzleimbeciles.
Themanwithoutintelligence bites.
1
Insteadof
"superior,"wewould
say"stronger"people.
Instead
of"imbeciles,"wewouldsay"theweaker
people." Otherwise
wewouldagreewithDeGourmont,exceptthatweviewlife
asawholefromacompletely
different
standpoint.
Inordernottoarousetoomany
falsehopes,oneoughtreally
to
give
fairwarning
thatthe
blessingswhichthetriumph
of
anarchywouldbringuswouldbeafewyears,perhaps
afew
generations,
incoming.
Ifittookcenturiesandcenturiesfor
theworldtoadvancefrombarbarismtoour
present
levelof
civilization,oneortwocenturiesatleastwouldhavetopass
beforeitcouldforget
itscivilizedwaysandreverttoastateof
justordinary
barbarism. Iftheaimisto
getbacktoareal
andabsolutebarbarism,tothestatusoftribes
livingbyhunting*
fishing
ornomadic
agriculture,
thenitwouldtake
longer
still
thetime
required
foranoldand
thicklypopulatedEurope
to
dwindleinpopulation
toabaretwentiethofwhatitis
today.
Unless,ofcourse,inorderto
speedupthe
process,thedefenders
ofanarchy
wouldbe
willing
notonly
toexterminatethe
bourgeois,
andthesatellitesandsycophants
ofthe
bourgeois,
as
theysay,
butalsotokillthe
greatmajority
of
people
inthe
exploited
classesoverwhoselotthey
arenowshedding
somany
tears.
Among
thenovelsthatwerepublishedtowardtheendofthe
nineteenthcentury,describingwhattheworldwouldbelike
afterthetriumph
ofthesocialrevolution,therewasonewhich,
thoughpopular
intheAnglo-Saxonworld,wasnot
widelyknown
ontheContinent. Fantasticasthestoryis,itseemstocome
closerto
realitythanmanymorepopularconceptionssucceed
in
doing,anditisthereforemore
pessimistic.
Caesar'sColumn
waspublished
inChicago
in1890byIgnatiusDonnelly(Edmund
Boisgilbert).
Itdescribesthetriumphthatthe
proletariat
is
towinovertheplutocracy
afewcenturieshence,whena
day
1
Entretien*
politiques
etIMmires,April,1892,p,
147.

340. 6] THECLASSSTRUGGLE 297
ofsocial
justicecomestoendcenturiesofbourgeoisinjustice.
CaesarLomellini,theleaderofthe
proletarians,
seizesthe
treasures,thewinesandthewomenofCabano,prince
ofthe
plutocrats,proclaimsthemhisownandthenabandonshimself
to
orgiesandcruelties.Meanwhile Europe,Americaand
Australiaare
beingdrenchedinthebloodofa
frightfulcarnage.
Thevictoriousworkersannihilatetheplutocratsandtheir
satellitesandconsumethe
provisionsthathaveaccumulated.
Thenthey
turn
againstoneanotherandkilluntilthree-quarters
oftheworld's
populationandallcivilizationhave
perished.
ThenovelcloseswithascenewhereLomellinicausesacolumn
ofhumanskullsandcrossbones(Caesar'scolumn)tobeerected
inmemory
ofallthathashappened.An
inscriptiononit
entreatsallwhocomeafter,incasethey
feelinclinedto
go
out
andfoundanewcivilization,tokeep
clearofthe
corruption,
the
iniquity,
thefalsehood,thatcausedthedownfallofour
presentbourgeoissociety.
6.Adoctrinecommontoall
parties
ofsubversion,whether
anarchistormerelysocialist,istheso-calleddoctrineoftheclass
struggle.Developedwithsomefullnessforthefirsttimeby
Marx,itisoneofthebestwarhorsesofall
opponents
ofthe
presentorganization
of
society.
Firstofallonemustpointoutthatthedoctrine isbased
onanincomplete,
one-sidedandbiasedexamination of
history,
totheendofproving
thatthewhole
activity
ofcivilizedsocieties
sofarhasbeenaccountedforineffortsof
ruling
classestokeep
themselves inpowerandto
exploitpowertotheir
advantage,
andineffortsoflowerclassestothrowoffthatyoke.Now,
inthepast
ofallpeoplesonefindssocialeventsofthefirst
importance
thatcaninnowaybecrowdedintothenarrowframe
ofthat
picture:
forinstance,the
struggles
ofGreece
against
PersiaandofRome
againstCarthage,the
rapidandtremendous
growth
ofChristianityandMohammedanism, theCrusades
andeventherevivalofItaliannationality
calledtheRisorgimento,
which,asAngeloMessedaglia,awittyandlearnedeconomist,
usedto
say,wasmuchmoreduetotheinfluenceof
poetsand
noveliststhantoeconomicfactors. Itis
interestingtorecall
thatwhenHannibalmarchedintoItalyandwonanumberof
victoriesovertheRomans,themassesinmany
Italiancities

341. COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
began
tosidewiththeCarthaginiangeneral,whereasthe
patri-
ciansforthemostpartremained
loyaltoRome.Suchafact
iseasilyunderstandable. Thepoor
arealwaysmoredesirous
of
change,
andthey
alsohaveless
politicalintuition,than
ruling
classes.IntheCrusades,too,especially
towardtheend,love
of
gainwasmixedinwithreligiousfanaticism. Butthepresence
ofaneconomicfactorinasocialphenomenon
doesnotmean
thatitis
necessarily
themainfactor,muchlessthatit
actually
causedthephenomenon.
Coming
tocivilwars,whichshouldbe
especiallylikelyto
reflect
struggles
ofclass,itisnoteworthy that,atthispoint
too,thesocialphenomenon
isdescribedby
socialistsinanincom-
pleteandthereforemistakenmanner.Fromtimetotimein
historyonemeetsexamples
ofviolentuprisingsbythepoorer
classes,orbyparts
ofthemthehelotrebellionsin
Sparta,the
slavewarsinRome,theJacqueries
inFranceandthemovements
amongpeasants
orminersthathavebrokenoutinGermany,
England
orRussiaindaysgoneby.Suchoutbreakshave
sometimesbeenoccasionedbyunusualandtrulyunbearable
oppression.Morefrequentlytheyhavebeenduetogovern-
mentaldisturbances,withthebeginnings
ofwhichthe
insurgents
hadnothing
todo,butwhichdidofferthemachanceto
getarms
andacquire
arudimentaryorganization.
Inanyevent,move-
mentsinwhichtheclassesthatlivebymanuallaborhavetaken
part
allby
themselveshave
regularly
been
repressedwithrelative
easeandsometimeswith
brutality,andtheyhavealmostnever
helped
toeffectanypermanentimprovement
intheconditionof
thoseclasses.Theonly
socialconflicts,bloodyorbloodless,
thathaveresultedin
actuallymodifyingtheorganization of
societyandthecomposition
of
rulingclasses,havebeenstarted
bynewinfluentialelements,new
politicalforces,risingwithin
governed
classes(butrepresentingverysmallfractionsofthem
numerically)and
setting
outtoobtainashareinthe
govern-
mentofthestatewhichtheythoughtwasbeingwithheldfrom
them
unjustly.
So
duringthefifthandfourthcenturiesB.C.,thericherfamilies
oftheRoman
plebs,
barredfromtheconsulateandotherpromi-
nentpositions,entereduponastrugglewiththeold
patriciate.
Thisendedintheestablishmentofabroader
rulingclass,basedon
propertyqualifications
ratherthanonbirthalone,whichbecame

342. 0] CLASSGAINSINREVOLUTION 99,
the
nobility
ofthelastcenturiesoftherepublic.Soalsothe
portion
oftheFrenchThirdEstatethathad,inthecourseof
tt{e
eighteenthcentury,acquiredawealth
equal
tothe
nobility's,
andacultureand
aptitude
for
public
affairs
greaterthanthe
nobility's,wonaccesstoallpublic
officesduringtheyears
after
theRevolution. Ifitistruethatinboththecasesmentioned
thegovernedmassescametoenjoytheadvantagesofabetter
juridicaldefense,thatwasbecausetheirinterestshappened
to
beinaccordwiththeinterestsofthenew
political
forcesthat
demandedadmissiontothegoverning
class. Itwasbecause,
inordertoattaintheirend,thenewforceshadtochampion
principles
ofsocial
utilityandsocial
justice,
the
application
of
which,
ifitdidhelpthemmore
directly,
alsohelpedthehumbler
membersofthenation. Certainlyonecannotfailtoseethat
the
processinvolvedinthosecasesisoneofthemai^yways
inwhichtheriseofnewelementstosocialinfluencecomes
toimprovetherelationsbetweenrulersandruledandrender
themmore
equitable.Butthatdoesnotmeanthatithasever
happenedthattheentiremassofthe
governed
hasinfact
whateverthelawsupplantedthe
governingminority
orstood
sonearlyonapar
withitthatthedistinctionbetweenthetwo
hascometoanend.Norwillthiseverhappen.
Besides,itremainstobeseenwhether,forallthetalkand
preaching,
thereis
anything
realinthis
dividingsocietyupinto
a
parasite
classthatcontributesnothing
toproductionandsocial
welfareandenjoysthebetterportion
ofboth,andaclassthat
does
everything,produceseverythingandisrewardedwiththe
barenecessariesoflifeandsometimesnotevenwiththatmuch.
Notevenifweisolatethephenomenainvolvedintheproduction
ofwealthfromallothersocialphenomena
as
completely
as
economistsandtheirsocialistadversariessometimesdo,does
thattheoryturnouttocorrespondexactly
tothefacts.
Suppose
we
grant
thatitis
capital,andnotthe
capitalist,thatprovides
theworkerwiththemeansand
opportunity
for
doingprofitable
work.Supposewesay
itistheland,notthelandowner,that
thepeasantneeds.Evenso,itcannotbedeniedthattheman
whoknowshowto
geta
largeamountof
capitalintohishands
andknowshowtoutilizeitprofitably
foranindustrialpurpose
andtheproprietorwhoknowshowtomanage
thecultivation
ofhislandswellarerenderingarealsocialservicebyincreasing

343. 300 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
productionandwealth,aserviceforwhichitis
altogetherproper
thattheyshouldreceivearemuneration. Forif,further,we
considerthesocialphenomenon
asawhole,ifwerememberthat
theproduction
ofwealthis
closelyboundupwiththelevelof
civilizationthatacountryattains,withtheworthofits
political
andadministrative
organization,
the
charge
ofparasitism
that
isso
lightlyflung
atthewhole
rulingclass,madeup
ofland-
owners,capitalists,businessmen,clerks,professionalmen ofall,
inshort,whodonotlivebymanuallabor,willseemsupremely
unjust.
Inourtime
industryand
agriculturearerequiringapplications
ofsciencemoreandmoreeveryday.Economicproduction
hascometobebasedalmost
entirelyuponexchangesamong
countriesthatarefarremovedfromoneanother,andsuch
exchanges
arenot
possible
unlesspeople
aregrouped
into
great
nationsundergovernments
thatare
intelligentlyorganized.
In
thefaceofsuchfactsitisabsurdtoassertthateverything
is
producedbymanuallaborersandthateverythingoughtlegiti-
matelyto
belong
tothem. Itisunfairto
forgettheservices
thatarerenderedbytheclassthatmaintainspeaceandorder,
directsthewhole
politicalandeconomicmovement,preserves
andadvanceshigher
scientificlearningandmakesit
possible
for
greatmassesofmentolivetogetherand
cooperate.
Itcannot
inall
justicebedeniedthatanotinconsiderable portion
of
economicproductionshouldbedevotedtomaintaining
that
classinalltheeasethatisrequired
ifitistoretainanddevelop
itsintellectualandmoral
leadership. Forifitiscertainthat
withoutthecooperation
ofmanuallaborersthe
directing
class
wouldbecondemnedtodecline,andperhapsevento
perish,
it
isnonetheless certainthatwithouttheelementsthatlead,
manuallaborerswould
lapse
atonceintoastateofbarbarism
whichwouldenormously
diminisheconomicproduction,and
theirmoralandmaterialstatuswoulddeteriorateveryappreci-
ably
inconsequence.Onthispoint
theoldestlessonin
sociology,
theparable
ofthebodyanditsmembers,whichMenenius
Agrippa
relatedtotheRomanplebs
assembledontheSacred
Mounttwenty-fourhundredyearsago,
stillremainstheone
thatistruestto
reality.
A
greatmodernliner
represents
thelastachievements of
modernindustryandscience. Itiseasy
toseethatitwasbuilt

344. 6] EXPLOITINGCLASSES 301
throughthecooperation
of
capitalists,
naval
engineersand
workingmen,andthatitis
operatedthroughthecooperationofa
numberofofficersand
largernumbersofordinary
sailorsand
stokers.Woulditbefairforthestokersandsailorsandconstruc-
tionworkers,takenas
representing
the
part
thatmanuallabor
hasplayed
inthebuilding
ofthe
shipandinitsoperation,
to
claimthewholeearnings
ofthelinerandconsiderthe
portion
thatdoesnotgo
tothemasstolen?Obviouslynot,because
ifitistruethatthe
capitalists,engineersandofficerscouldnever
havebuiltthevessel,andcouldnotnowrunitwithoutworkmen
and
ordinarysailors,itis
just
astruethatwithoutthecooperation
of
capitalists,engineersandofficersthemanualworkerscould
neverhavemanaged
tobuildanything
betterthansmallboats
for
fishing
orpettytransporttrade,fromwhich,onthewhole,
theywouldhaveearnedfarlessthanfrom
buildingand
operating
aliner.Thinking
ofallthevariousbranchesofsocial
activity
insomesuchterms,oneseesthatitisthecombinationofwealth,
higher
educationandmanuallaborthatproduceswhatinsum
iscalledcivilization,andonthewholeimprovestheconditionof
all.
Inthe
higher
classestherearegoodlynumbersof
parasites
or
exploiterswhoenjoymuchandconsumemuchwithoutrender-
ingany
realsocialserviceeitherinmanagement
orinexecution.
Inthoseclassesalsothereare
personswhotakeadvantage
of
their
position
inordertodrawarecompense
fortheirservices
thatis
infinitelyhigherthantheirrealworth.Tothoseelements
wereferredabove
(chap.V,10),
in
speaking
ofsocialforces
thatarealwaystryingto
tipthe
juridical
scalesintheirfavorby
meansoftheirtoo
greatpower;andwe
designated
as
particularly
dangerous
inthat
respectfinanciers,great
industrialistsand
speculators
in
general,
individualswho
bringgreatmassesof
privatecapitaltogether
intoone
pair
ofhands.However, if
welookcarefullyatsuch
exploitations,whichare
engineeredin
somecountriesbyprotective tariffs,andinothersbybanking
privileges
aswellas
protectivetariffs,wehavetoagreethatthey
workouttothedamage
bothoftheworking
classesandofthe
largerportion
oftheruling
class.The
ruling"
classtoo,inits
greatmajority,paysahighpricje
foritsweaknessand
ignorance,
bymaking
sacrificesthatbenefitonlyverysmallnumbersamong
itsmembers.

345. COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
Itcanbeshownthatprotectionismcannothelponeportion
ofanationaleconomywithout
injuringanotherand
larger
portionofitatthesametime. Ifsomefewpropertyowners
andmanufacturers
profitbyprotective tariffs,others,more
numerous,paythe
price.Thosewholose,alongwiththe
poor,arethelargernumberofrichandwell-to-dopeoplewho
liveongovernmentandindustrialbonds,and
peoplewholive
bytrade,professional earningsorsalaries.Abadbanking
policyonthepartofagovernmentcanbeofhelponlytocertain
manufacturers or
politicianswhoobtaincreditbyfavoritism.
Itdoesharmtoallothercitizens,andespeciallytopeoplewho
have
savings.A
superficialexaminationofsuchfactsisenough
toshowtheabsurdity
ofanaccusationthatisoftenleveledat
the
bourgeoisie
asawhole,thatitisknowinglyresponsible
for
certainevilsandscandals. Itwouldbefarmoreaccuratetosay
thatthe
greatmajority
inthe
rulingclass,notoutofmalice
butoutof
ignorance*tolerateandallowpracticesthatare
ruining
themandthereforealsoruiningthepoorerclasses,whoseguard-
ianshiphasbeenentrustednotonlytotheirprobitybutalsoto
theircompetenceandwisdom.
Parasitesandexploiters
existinallsocialstrata,justasthere
arethosewhoareexploitedatalllevelsontheeconomicand
socialladder.Amanisan
exploiterwhenhesquandersa
fortuneinluxury,gamingand
roistering,andso
dissipatesthe
capitalhehainherited;andthatmanisexploitedwholabor-
iouslyandhonestlyaccumulatesthe
capitalthattheotherwastes,
workingmuch,consuming
littleandperhapsenjoyingnothing
atall.An
exploiter
isthepoliticianwhoclimbstohigh
offices
inthestatebytakingadvantage
ofthereadinessof
people
to
letthemselvesbeduped,byflatteringtheconceitsandvanities
ofthemasses,bybuyingconsciencesandbyusingandabusing
alltheshortcomingsandweaknesses ofhisfellowmen.But
exploited
isthestatesmanwhoaimsnotatmereeffector
applause
butattherealadvantage
ofthepublicandwhois
alwaysready
to
stepdownwhenhefeelsthathecanno
longer
servethat
advantage.An
exploiter
istheJfeivilserviceemployeewho
gets
his
positionbycheatingonexaminationand
runningcrooked
errandsforsome
politicianandwhokeepsit,doesaslittlework
as
possibleand
getspromotedbyfawninguponhis
superiorsor
betraying
hisoathasa
public
servant.
Exploited,instead,is
themanatthenextdeskwhodoes
justthe
opposite.

346. 6] EXPLOITATION 808
An
exploiter
isthesoldierwhovanishesinthemomentof
dangerbutcomestolifewhenthemedalsorcitationsare
being
handedout.Exploited
ishiscomradewhofacesdeathand
injurywithoutthoughtofposingasaheroorasking
forasoft
jobanda
pension
forlife.Exploiters
arethosepeasantsand,
aboveall,those
lazy,
viciousanddishonestfarmhandswhobegin
bylivingontheirmoreresponsiblerelatives,continue
sponging
ontheircomrades,whomtheyaskforloansandrepay
inchatter
andbadadvice,andontheiremployers,
whottitheywheedle
outofaday'spayforbadworkorfornoworkatall,andwho
finallyendin
prisonorthepoorEouseasparasitesonsocietyat
large.Exploited
arethoselaborerswho
conscientiouslyand
quietlydotheirduty,whonevershirkdiscomfortand
fatigue
andwholivehardlives,unabletobettertheirlotortolayany-
thing
asidefortheirold
age.An
exploiter
isthemanwho
deliberatelyshunsmarriageandlays
snaresforthehonorof
othermen'swives.
Exploited
isthemanwhotakesonthe
burdenand
responsibilities
ofa
legally*
constitutedfamilyand
becomesthebuttoftheother's
intrigue.An
exploiter
isthe
scholarwhowinshischairbywritingabook
justto
pleasethe
menwhoaretobehis
judges,
orpursuesfamebypublishing
aworkthatwillflatterthepopularpassion
ofthemoment.
Exploited
isthescholarwhosacrificesagoodpart
ofhismaterial
successinlifetoloveoftruth,and
resignshimselfto
livingona
lower
planethantheonetowhichhis
abilityand
learningwould
haveliftedhimhadhebeenlessdevotedtothetruth.
Timewaswhenthe
exploitedwerecalledthegood,thehonest,
thecourteous,thebrave,theindustriousandthetemperate,and
exploiterswerecalledsinners,idlers,cowards,schemers,rascals
andcriminals.Onemay
callthemwhatonewill.Perhaps
itis
notabadideatohavejusttwo
expressionsto
synthesizethe
multiplecategoriesthatmakeupthetwoclasseswhichhave
always
existedand,alas,always
willexistintheworld.The
importantthing
toremember isthat
although
the
exploited
inthelowerclassesaremorewretched,perhaps,andmoretobe
pitied,thereareagoodlynumberofexploited
inthemiddleand
higher
classes.Otherwisetherewouldbelessofthe
spirit
of
self-sacrificeandsenseofdutythatare
indispensabletothe
ruling
minorityJfcivilized
living
istoendure.
Therearewriterswhohavetriedto"showbyhistory"that
theupperclasses,asarbitersof
politicalpower,haveusedtheir

347. 304 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
powerconstantlyto
exploit
theworking
classes.Theirhypothe-
sis,andthemannerinwhichtheydevelopit,wouldleadoneto
supposethathumaneventshadforcenturiesuponcenturiesbeen
guidedbyatenaciousandconstantwillwhichknewwhither
itwantedto
go
andastutelyshaped
itsmeanstothatdestina-
tionthatevents,inotherwords,hadbeenguidedbyone
continuousandsinisterconspiracy
oftherichagainstthepoor.
Nowallthatseemstobeasortofpersecutionmania,tousevery
charitableterms.Acalmand
dispassionate observerseesat
oncein
studyinghistorythateventsthathavesocial
significance
comeabout
partlybecauseof
passions,
instinctsand
prejudices,
whicharealmostalwaysunconsciousandalmostneverconsider
theirpracticalconsequences;partlybecauseofinterests,which
asaruledohavesomedefiniteandimmediate
objective;and
in
part,finally,becauseofwhatmencall"chance."
Contrary
towhatsomesocialistwritersseemtothink,Chris-
tianitywasnotadoptedbecauseitwasa
religionthatpromised
happiness
inanother lifeandguaranteedthatthepowerful
couldquietlyenjoy
theirwealthinthislife.Modernwars
haveneverbeenwaged
inordertoincreasethe
publicdebtand
hencethe
political
influenceofnonproductive capital.America
andAustraliawerenotdiscoveredinorderto
prepareanoutlet
fortheteemingpopulations
ofEuropeduringtheindustrial
ageandsosafeguardagainstexcessivedrops
in
wages.
Itisamatterofcommonknowledgethatbyalteringjusta
fewfactsavery
littleand
sayingnothingaboutotherfacts,any
caseof
persecutionmaniacanbemadetolooklikethe
prof
ound-
estsanity.Thatandnootheristhemethodthatisfollowedby
socialistwritersinordertoprovethatthe
rulingclasses,who
havemadethelawsanddeterminedthe
policiesofstates,have
usedtheir
politicalinfluenceto
pauperizethelowerclasses
consciouslyand
constantly.Theygenerally
citelawsand
pro-
visionsthatmaybeconsidereddetrimentaltothosewholive
bymanuallabor,andwhen
theyare
obligedtomentionalaw
thatis
obviouslyfavorabletothem,theyassert,without
proof,
ofcourse,thatitwaswrestedbythewageearnersby
force
fromthe
greed
of
capitalistsandlandowners.
Tomentiona
specific
case:InDas
Kapital(chap.XXVIII),
Marxdeclaresthat
"during
thehistoricalgenesis
ofthe
capitalis-
ticevolution,the
risingbourgeoisiemadeuseofthestatein

348. 6] HISTOEYASCLASSCONSPIRACY 305
orderto
regulatewages,
inotherwords,inordertokeepthem
downtoalevelthatwasconvenientforholding
theworkerin
thedesired
degree
of
subjection." Asproof
ofhisstatement,
hementionstheStatuteofLabourers of1349,whichfixes
maximum
wages,thenotherEnglish
statutesofthesamesort
fromlaterperiodsand
finallyaFrenchordinanceof1350,
Nowlawsofthattype
aretobefoundin
past
centuriesin
othercountries.Somewereproclaimed
inGermanyatatime
whentheThirty
Years*Warhaddepopulated
thecountry.
Theywerealwaysenactedwhen,eitherbecauseoflongwars
orplagues(1348,beitnoted,Wasayear
oftheBlackDeath),
populationshadfallenoff
seriouslyandwages
were
risingsharply.
Butsuch
provisions
cannotbeimpartially
evaluatedunless
theyarecomparedwithothercontemporaneous,
oralmostcon-
temporaneous, provisions
thatfixedmaximum
prices
forbread,
grain,cloth,houserent,andsoon.Obviously,then,therulers
ofthestatecouldnothavebeenthinking
of
systematically
favoring
theriseofthe
bourgeoisie.Whattheywerethinking
intheir
ignorancewasthatbypassingtheapposite
lawsthey
couldeithermitigate
orpreventtheseriouseconomicdisturb-
ancesthatresultedfromsuddenandexcessiverisesinthe
prices
ofallsortsofcommodities,includingthe
prices
ofhumanlabor,
LoriagoesMarxonebetter.Hesaysthattherewasa
period
whenfreelandswerestillabundantinEuropeanditwastothe
advantage
oflandownersthatthe
proletariatshouldnotsave
moneyandsoacquirethecapitalnecessary
for
cultivatingthem.
Hegoesontoenumeratethemethodsthatthey
usedtoobtain
thatendandtokeepwages
low.Theywere,he
says:
directreductionsinwages;depreciationof
currency;introduction of
machinesthatweremore
costlythantheworkers
theyreplaced;expan-
sionofnonproductive capitalinvested instockandbanking
manipulations,
inmetalcurrenciesandin
publicdebts;creationof
excessivenumbersofuselessmiddlemen;stimulationof
over-population
inordertosupplycompetitionforemployedworkers. ...Allthese
devicesundoubtedlytendtolimitproductionandsoalsotoreduce
profits. Neverthelessthe
proprietor
classdoesnothesitatetoresortto
them,becausetheyareanecessaryconditionfor
assuringthecontinua-
tionof
profitbypreventing
risesinwages,whichwouldinevitably
meantheendofreturnson
capital.
1
1
Teoria,p.
6.

349. 806 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
NowLoriacertainlyneverdeservedthe
charge
of
beinga
sycophant
ofthe
capitalists,whichMarxleveledatsomany
practitioners
ofeconomicscience. Itwouldhavebeenuseful,
therefore,hadheproved
tous:1.Thatinanepochwhichcannot
bevery
closetoourown,sincetherewerestillfreelandsinwestern
Europe,
the
ruling
classhadsuchacompetentknowledge
of
economicsciencethattheywereabletoforeseethatthemeasures
mentioned forinstance,expansion
innonproductive capital
wouldcausewages
tofall. &.Thatallthosemeasures,among
them
depreciation
of
currencyandoverpopulation, couldhave
been
broughtaboutbyavoluntary
decisiononthepart
ofthose
whoheld
publicpower.Whileweareawaiting
thatproof,
wepermit
ourselvestodoubtwhethereventodaygovernments
ortheirfriendshaveasmuch
foresight
asthat,and,especially,
whethertheyhavethepower
tocarryoutalltheeconomicmanip-
ulationsthatLoriacreditstotheirancientpredecessors.
7.Itremainstoconsiderwhetherthegreatcurrentofideas
andemotionsthatcanbe
designated
asawholebytheterm
"socialism"maynotatleasthavehadthe
practical
effectof
improving
themoral,andhencethematerial,conditionsofthe
majority
of
people,evenifitisnotbaseduponanaccurate
observationofthelawsthat
regulate
sociallife,andevenifit
aimsatanidealthatcannotbeattaineduntilhumannaturehas
radically
altered. Ifithashadthateffect,itsinfluencecould
becalledbeneficial,andmightbecompared
totheinfluence
ofother
great
collectiveillusionsthathavehelped
to
strengthen
thefabricof
societybymakingmenbetter,moretolerantof
eachotherandlessimpatientwiththeinjustices
oftheworld,
andbymaking
lifelessharsh,withinthelimitsofthe
possible,
forthosewhoare
placedonthelowerrungs
oftheeconomicladder.
Thebriefexaminationthatweshallmakeonthisimportant
subjectwill,weservenoticeinadvance,yieldafarfromfavorable
verdict.
Bookshaveanintellectualinfluencewhichtheyexertthrough
thedoctrinesthattheycontain,andwhichdependsupon
the
mannerinwhichcertain
problems
oflifeareapproachedand
presented.Butthey
alsohavewhatonemight
calla"moral"
influence,andthatdependsupon
the
passionsandsentiments
which,deliberately
or
unconsciously, writerswhetorattenuate.

350. 7] CLASSHATRED 307
Ifonesetsouttoexaminetheworksofthe
greatersages
of
socialismfromthismoral
point
ofview,especiallythebest-
knownsocialistwritersofthesecondhalfofthenineteenth
century,onefinds,indeed,thata
spirit
of
peace,brotherlylove,
socialharmony,breathesfromtheworks,forexample,
ofRod-
bertusorofCarloMario. Particularly
inHenryGeorgeone
notesanobleandtendercompassion
fortheweakthatismore
totheforethanhatredofthe
strong.Among
Italiansocialists
whostressbenevolentsentimentsmorethanhatreds,onemight
mentionNapoleoneColajanniandIgnazio
Scarabelli.
1
But
booksofanothersortarefarmorenumerous.Tosaynothing
ofBakunin,insomeofthemostorthodoxandmostoften
repub-
lishedwriters inMarx,forexample,
orLassalle thepre-
dominantsentiment isanaversiontotherichandthepowerful
thattakestheformof
unremittingirony,sarcasmandinvective.
Inthemastersthisattitude is
presented,nowwithpolemical
gracefulnessand
vivacity,nowwithadialecticthatisponderous
andtiresome.Butthewordofthemastersreachesthemasses
largelythroughnewspapersandpamphlets,andin
beingpopu-
larizedisusuallygarbled.
Inallthisliteraturethe
capitalist
is
regardedand
depicted
asamanofvirtuallyanotherrace,anotherblood.The
working-
manisnottaught
tolookuponhimasafellowcreaturewhose
weaknessesandvirtuesarethesame,fundamentally,
ashisown
butwhosetraitsmanifestthemselvesinsomewhatdifferentways
becausehisenvironment,temptationsandlifeproblemshave
beendifferent.Theworkingman
is
taught
toregardthe
capi-
talistasarivalandanenemy,
asanoxiouscreature,an
oppressor,
degradedanddegrading,throughwhoseruinalonetheredemp-
tionandsalvationoftheworking
classescanbeeffected.
Nownomovementthatisasvastandcomplex
associal
democracy
hasbecomecanbe
groundedsolelyuponthebetter
instinctsinhumannature. Itisbothnaturaland
necessary
thatthelower,theantisocial,thesavagepassions,quite
as
muchassentimentsof
justiceandaspirationstowardabetter
society,shouldfindnourishment insuchamovement.The
troubleisthatsocialistdoctrinesofferthelower
passions
too
vastandfertileafieldinwhichto
multiplyandspread
ina
rank
growth.
1
Sulsocialismselalottadiclasse.

351. 308 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
Thepoormanistaughtthattherichmanleadsamerry
life
upon
thefruitofthepoorman'stoil,whichisstolenbymeansof
anartificial
organization
of
societybasedonviolenceandfraud.
Thatbelief,inmindsthatarenot
absolutely
nobleand
pure,
servesadmirably
to
justifya
spirit
ofrebellion,athirstfor
material
pleasures,
ahatethatcurses. Itfostersa
vengeful
spiritandaninstinctiveenvy
ofnaturalandsocial
superiorities
whichonlylonghabituation,andtherealizationthattheyare
necessaryandinevitable,canrender
universallyundisputedand
accepted.
Nobili-Vitelleschi oncewrotethat"thekeyword
totheriddle
thatis
disturbingthe
sleep
ofEuropeandtheworldis
supplied
inthedistinctionbetweenwealthandhappiness."
1
Nowan
undeniableweaknessinthewholesocialistmovement isits
excessivematerialization oftheconcept
ofhuman
happinessand,
therefore, ofsocial
justice.
Firstthesocialistsoveridealize
thehuman
being,representinghimasbetterthanheisand
ascribing
tothesocialordermany
ormostofthevicesandweak-
nessesthatareinherentinhumannature.Butthentheygoon
and
expresstoolowanopinion
oftheirfellowmen,whenthey
believe,orpretend
tobelieve,thatwealthisthe
inseparable
companion
of
pleasure,thatpoverty
is
inevitablyonewith
suffering.Toreadsocialist
writings
orlistentosocialistsermons
isto
gettheimpressionthatindividual
happiness
is
exactly
proportioned
totheamountofmoney
thatonehasinone's
pocket.Suchasystemmaybeausefultoolofpropaganda
inthehandsofinnovators,inthatitrepresentsthe
injustice
in
present-daysociety
as
beingmuch
greater
thanit
actually
is.
Butitdoesnotcorrespond
tothefacts.Luckily,thingsdonot
standthatWay.
Thereare,tobesure,types
ofpovertythatseem
inevitably
toresultin
pain
andunhappiness. Ofthatsortistheextreme
povertythatdoesnotadmitof
providing
forthemostelementary
humanneeds.Thenthereistheenviouspoverty
ofthemanwho
simplycannot
resign
himselftothefactthatothershave
pleasures
andsatisfactions ofvanitythathecannothopeevertohave.
Finally,thereisthepoverty
thatcomeswitheconomiccatas-
trophesandforcesalowering
inthestandardsof
living.Con-
versely,
the
pleasuresandsatisfactions thatcomewhenour
1
"Socialismoedanarchia."

352. 7] CLASSHATRED 309
economicandsocialstatusisimproved
aremuchlessintense,and
especially
lessabiding,thanthe
pain
thatresultsfroma
pro-
portionatefalling
off.Itwouldseem,therefore,thatthefre-
quentchanges
infortunewhichliftmanyupandcastmany
down
yield
anettotalinwhich
sufferingfigures
farmore
largely
thanhappiness.
Thereisnodenying
thataman's
abilitytomaintainthe
standardof
living
towhichhehasbeenaccustomed,and
espe-
ciallyasenseofsecurity
forthemorrow,areconditionsthatare
indispensable
toacertainwell-being. Butitisnolesstrue
thatmany
otherelements,objectiveandsubjective,figure
in
individualhappiness.Themanwhohasakindlydisposition
andawell-balancedtemperamentmaybefarmorenearly
satis-
fiedwithlifethananothermanwhohasmorewealththanhe,
andabettersocial
position.Thevery
factthattheworld
generallyrecognizesthattheformerhasbeeninadequately
rewardedmay,along
withtheinnerapprovalthathe
getsfrom
hisownconscience,contributenotalittletohis
greaterfelicity.
Otherdoctrines,otherbeliefs,havefoundthemselvescon-
frontedwiththe
grave
andtormentingproblem
oflife,inwhich
the
just
andthegood
oftensuccumbwhiletheunjustandthe
wickedtriumph.Butthesolutionstheyhavefoundhavebeen
differentfromthesolutionsthatsocialism proposes.The
Stoicsrealizedthattheycouldnotbanishunhappinessfromthe
world.They
thereforetaught
their
disciples
toendure it
bravely.Unabletopromiseeveryonetheenjoyment
ofmaterial
pleasures,theyurgedeventhosewhowereina
positiontoenjoy
themlavishly
toscornthem.Thesamescornofmaterial
pleas-
uresandofthe
joys
ofthefleshwefindin
Christianity
inits
earlydays,andinallitsmomentsoffanaticism. Exaggeration
ofthattendencymayleadtoasortof
mysticism,whichsome-
timesalienatesnoblecharacters,soulsthatarepredisposedto
self-sacrifice,fromtheworldandfromlife.Suchteachings
arenotonlymorallyhigher;they
arealsomore
practicalthan
thediametrically oppositeteachings
ofsocialistsin
general.
Theselatterare
likely
toresultinalowering,momentary
atleast,
ofsomeofthenoblestsentimentsinhumannature.
Socialistsarenotthefirsttohavepreachedequalityandto
have
aspired
toabsolute
justice
intheworld.Butequalityand
absolute
justice
canbe
preachedbyurgingtoleration,mutual

353. SIO COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
indulgence,brotherlylove;andtheycanbepreachedbyappeal-
ing
tohatredandviolence.Onemaybidtherichandthe
powerful
tolookuponthepoorandunhappy
astheirbrothers;
andthepoorandunhappy
canbemadetobelievethattherich
andpowerful
aretheirenemies.Thefirstlinewasfollowedby
Jesus,the
Apostles,andSt.FrancisofAssisi,whosaidtothe
rich,"Give!"Thesecond isfollowedbythemajority
of
present-day socialists,whodescribethe
pleasures
oftherich
astheproduct
ofthesweatofthepoorman'sbrowand
implicitly
or
explicitly say,"Take!"Suchsubstantial differences in
methodcanonly
leadto
significant
differencesin
practical
results.
8.Itwillnotbenecessary
to
lingerverylongonthecausesof
thesocialistcurrent.Thecauseofthosecausesisthe
thing
thatwehavebeen
trying
tocombatinthewholecourseofthis
worktheintellectualattitudeofourtimestowarddoctrines
thatconcerntheorganization
of
society,theideasthatnow
prevail
in
persons
ofaverageandsometimesofhighereducation
astothelawsthat
regulatepolitical
relations.
Naturally,
thisbasiccausepresents
itselfinathousandformsand
generates
manyothermultifarious causes,nowsecondary,nowdirect.
Thereisavery
closeconnectionbetweenthemoralandintel-
lectualworldsineverythingthatpertainstosocial
organization.
Amistakendirectioninthespeculativefield,therefore,amistaken
appraisal
ofhumannatureandofsocialtendenciesinmen,has
theeffect,inthefieldof
practice,
of
placingmeninfalse
positions
andsoofmakingthemmorepronetocompromisesand
wrong-
doing.Asaresulttheinfluenceofthenoblerinstinctsisweak-
enedandnecessarily,therefore,average
levelsofcharacterand
consciencearelowered.
An
important
factorinthe
progress
ofsocialistpropaganda,
andoneofitsmostdirectandimmediatecauses,hasbeenthe
broadening
of
suffrage,or,more
exactly,
universal
suffrage,which
hascometobemoreandmorewidelyadopted
in
Europe
in
deferencetothe
principles
oftheradicalschoolandtodemocratic
logic.Nowthedanger
inbro&dbasedsuffrage
isnotsomuch
thatif
proletariansgetthe
right
todrop
theirballotsintoabox
theirgenuinerepresentativesmaycometobeinthe
majority
inour
politicalassemblies,asmany
fearor
hope.After
all.

354. 8] CAUSESOFSOCIALISM 811
whatevertheelection
system,controlwillalwaysremainwith
themoreinfluentialclasses,ratherthanwiththemorenumerous
classes.Thedanger
liesratherinthefactthatinorderto
gain
anadvantage
overtheirrivalsmostcandidatesdoalltheycan
topamperpopularsentimentsandprejudices. Thatattitude
leadstopromisesand
professions
offaiththatarebasedonthe
postulates
ofsocialism.Thenaturalresultofthesystem
isthat
themorehonestand
energeticpeoplearealienatedfrom
public
life,compromisesandmoralreservationsbecomemoreand
moretherule,whiletheranksoftheso-calledconservatives
becomemoreandmorestultified,both
intellectuallyand
morally.
Anotherimportantelementinthegrowth
ofsocialist
parties
istherevolutionary
traditionthatisstill
veryvigorous
inLatin
countries. Therethe
ruling
classeshavedonetheirutmostto
keep
italiveandtoperpetuate
it.AsVilletardhasobserved,
1
andaswenotedabove(chap.VIII, 6),inFrance,downtoa
few
yearsago
atleast,only
interestswereconservative. Ideas
andsentiments,as
inspiredbyprivateeducationand
training,
andevenmorebypubliceducationand
propaganda,were
eminentlyrevolutionary. Thesamethingmaybesaidof
Italy
duringthe
fiftyyearspreceding
theWorldWar.
Itisnaturalforyoungpeople
tofeelaneedofenthusiasms, of
having
beforethema
type,amodel,thatrepresentsanidealof
virtueandperfectionwhicheachoneseeks,asfarashecan,to
imitate.Themodelthathasbeensetbeforethe
eyes
ofyoung
people
inFrance,andinothercountries,hasnotbeen,asit
couldnothavebeen,theknightwhodiesforhis
lady,
hisfaith
andhis
king.Muchlesshasitbeenthe
publicservant,the
magistrate,thesoldier,theuncompromising custodianoflaw
andorder. Ithasbeenthemilitantrevolutionist
pureand
simple.
Ithasbeenthechampion
of
libertyand
equality,the
manwhohas
foughttyrantsandrebelled
againstconstituted
powers,whoindefeathasenduredtheir
persecutionintrepidly
andinvictoryhasoverthrownandoften
supplantedthem.
Inviewofthefactthatsympathy
forrebelshasbeensoassidu-
ouslycultivated,andthatourschoolchildrenhavebeentaught
thateverythingthatrebelshavedonehasbeennobleand
generous,
itisnaturalthatcurrentsofsentimentsandideas
ineachnewgeneration
shouldinclinetowarddoctrinesthat
1
Insurrectiondu18mars,chap.
I.

355. 812 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
justify
rebellionandteachits
necessity.NoBastillesareleft
tostorm.NoSwissGuardsofaCharlesXarelefttobechased
fromtheLouvre. Italian,Greek,Polishunitiesareallbut
achieved.TheNeapolitangovernment
thatwasdefinedasthe
negation
ofGodisamemory
soremotethatpeopleareeven
beginning
tojudge
itimpartially.
Inaworldsofreeofmonsters,
the
spirit
ofrebellioncanonlyturnupon
institutionsthathave
survivedoldrevolution,oruponthemenwhostandatthehead
ofthemandhaveoftenbeenoldrevolutionaries themselves.
Thisisallthemorenaturalinthat,partly
becauseofthe
imperfections thatare
inseparablefromanypoliticalsystem,
partlybecauseoftheirintrinsicweakness,ourmoderninstitu-
tionshave
r
notbeenabletosatisfy
allthe
expectationsandhopes
ofsocialregenerationthatwerereposed
inthematthe
beginning.
Furthermore,oncethesometime
conspiratorsandrevolutionaries
becamestatesmenandleadersof
peoples,
notallofthemproved
atalltimestobefreeoferrorsand
shortcomings. Undersuch
circumstances,whocanmarvelthatthereare
younger
elements
whothinkthatastillmoreradicalreformof
society
is
possible?
Andwhocanmarvelthatthosewhohopetoacquirepolitical
importancethrough
radicalreform,thatagoodlyportion
ofthe
noble,theactive,the
generous,
theambitious,inthegenerations
nowmakingready
totakethetorchfromthehandsoftheold,
haveembraced socialistdoctrines?The
psychological
state
thatwehave
justdescribedusedtobeverycharacteristic ofthe
youngmeninEuropeanuniversities. Itisadmirablyportrayed
inalittlebookthatGuglielmoFerreropublishedsomeyears
ago.
1
Afterexplainingwhymenofthe
youngergeneration
did
notbelieveintheidealsoftheirfathersandfoundno
inspiration
inthem,Ferrerocontinues:
Therearealwaysacertainnumberofindividualswhoneedtobecome
arousedoversomethingthatisnotimmediateand
personal
tothem,
something
thatisafaroff.Theirownaffairs,theproblems
ofscience
orofart,arenotenough
totakeup
alltheir
spiritualactivity.What
isleftforthemexceptthesocialistidea? Itcomesfromfarawaya
traitthatisalwaysalluring.
Iti$complexenoughandvagueenough,
atleastincertainofits
aspects,tosatisfythe
widelydifferingmoral
needsofitsmanyproselytes.Ontheonehandit
bringsabroad
spirit
ofbrotherhoodandinternational feeling,which
corresponds
toareal
1
Reazwne,pp.54f.

356. 8] CAUSESOFSOCIALISM 313
modernneed.Ontheother,ithasasuggestion
ofscientificmethod
thatisreassuringtomindsthataremoreorlessfamiliarwiththe
experimental
schools.Givenallthat,itisnowonderthatagreat
numberofyoungmenthrowintheirlotwithamovementinwhich
theremayindeedbeadanger
ofmeetingsomeunpretentiousex-convict,
orsomepotentialsecondoffender,butinwhichonewillbesureneverto
meeta
professional politician,
a
professional patriot,aprofessional
grafter.
Ferrero
goesontoarguethateconomicconditionsin
Italy
werenotsuchasto
explain
theriseofa
pqwerful
socialistmove-
mentandthat,atanyrate,suchamovement"oughtlogically
tofinditsnucleusintheworkingclasses,notinthe
bourgeoisie."
Thenheconcludes:
Ifasocialistmovementhasdevelopedundersuchunfavorableconditions
andinso
iljogical
afashion,itmustbebecausemorethanany
other
movement itanswersamoralneedinacertainnumberofyoungpeople.
OneofthemaximsofMachiavellihasacquiredacertain
popularityamongpersons
oferudition.The
Secretarywrote
thatoneofthebestwaystosaveorrevivean
aging
institution
wastocallitbacktoitsfirst
principles. Inreadingahistory
oftheMongolprinceswhodescendedfromGenghisKhan,we
comeacrossanothermaximthatseemstoruninadiametrically
opposite
directiontothemaximofMachiavelli,anditstrikesus
as
beingtruer,sinceitfitsinwithagreaternumberof
practical
cases.
Accordingtothe
story,Yelui-Cutsai,prime
ministerto
Ogdai,sonof
GenghisKhan,oftensaidtohislordandmaster:
"Your
empirewasconqueredonhorseback,butyoucannotrule
itfromthebackofahorse.'*Noone,surely,
willventureto
deny
the
politicalinsight
oftheMongolminister,forthemethods
bywhichgovernments, religions
or
politicalpartiesarekept
alive,andthe?sentimentsand
passionsthathavetobecultivated
if
they
aretobekeptalive,areoften
essentially
differentfrom
themeansandsentimentsthathaveservedto
bringtheminto
being.
One
readily
seesthatanewgovernment,anew
politicalsystem,
maybeinstitutedbyrevolution,andonemay
furthergrant
thatrevolutionsmayoftenbe
necessary.Butnostatecan
growin
strength,no
systemcanendure, iftherevolutionary
atmospherecontinuesand
if,worsestill,thosewhoareincontrol

357. 314 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
ofpowerpersist
infomenting
revolutioninsteadof
cultivating
the
sentiments,passionsandideasthataredirectlyopposed
toit.
Othercauseshavecontributedtothe
progress
ofsocialism,
amongthemthesuddenfortunesthatarewonbymany
speculators,almostalwaysdishonestly,andwhichare
just
as
badlyspent
in
purchasingimproperpolitical
influencetobe
usedinmore
gains
orinavulgar
andshowydisplay
ofluxury
thatoffends"themodest
respectability
oftheaverage
citizen
and
actually
insultsthepoverty
ofthe
poor.Thewholedrift
ofthe
age
isinthedirectionof
aggravating
thatevil.Though
equalityand
equalrights
forallarethe
topics
ofoursermons,
therehasperhapsneverbeenatimewhen
inequalities
inmaterial
advantagesweresovisibletothe
eye.Neverhaswealth,
whatever itssources,servedtoopenmoredoors,andnever
hasitbeenso
stupidly
flaunted.
Inearliercenturies,luxuryand
displayhada,sotosay,
primitivesomethingaboutthem.Onekepta
large
retinue
ofservants.Oneofferedlavish
hospitality. Sometimesone
distributedfoodanddrinktothepopulation
ofawhole
city.
Vanityplayed
its
part,beyondanydoubt,inallsuchdevices
for
disposing
ofone's
surplus,but,as
thingsturnedout,aportion
ofthe
superfluouswasenjoyedbythosewhoneededitmost.
Inmorerefined
epochsthebounty
ofthe
greatwentintopatron-
age
ofartistsand
poets,whowereencouragedandenabledto
createmasterpieces
ofartandliteraturethatyieldedexquisite
intellectualpleasurenot
only
totheowneror
patronbuttoall
whowerecapable
of
appreciating
them.Modern
luxury
is
oftenmoreselfishandlessintellectual. Itcbmesdownprimarily
to
organizinganenormous
array
ofcomfortsandsensualsatis-
factionsforthosewhocanspendthemoney.Notonlythat,the
privatepleasureswhichitprocures
forthefeware
industriously
publicizedbythedailypress.That
again,
afterall,isnothing
butan
expressionofhumanvanity,butthe
practical
effectofall
thismodern
publicity
istomakepleasureswhichonlytherich
can
enjoyseem
greaterthantheyreallyare,andsotoincreasethe
envyand
appetite
ofthosewhoaredeprived
ofthem.
Otherfactorsinthegrowth
ofsocialismhavebeenstressedby
many:theill-advisedwarfarethathasbeenwagedon
religious
sentiment;the
publicpovertythatisproducedbyexcessive
tuxes;excessivepublicdebtsandtoomanyunproductivepublic

358. 9] FUTUEEOPSOCIALISM 315
expenditures;
thenotoriousdishonesty
ofmeninpower;the
injusticesandhypocrisiesofparliamentarysystems;the
present
arrangements
insecondaryandhighereducationthathave
turnedtheschoolsintofactoriesofmisfits.A
leadingposition
onthislistmustbereservedforthecustomof
using
influence
uponpublicopinion
andgovernments
towin
monopolistic
concessions or
protective
tariffsinindustryand
agriculture.
Suchthings
areaformofsocialism,inasense,andsoitfollows
thatany
otherformofsocialismis
justified,sincea
reallyworse
oneisalready
invogue,
inthatitusestheauthority
ofthestate
toservethebenefitofafewwhoaretherichestandthedetriment
ofallothers,bothpoorandrich.
Neglect
oftherulesofhygiene,lackofgoodfood,goodwater
andsanitaryhousing,donotgenerate
thecholerabacillus.They
doweakenthehumanorganismandloweritsresistanceto
disease,andsohelptopropagate
theplagueonceithastaken
hold.Inthesameway,
allthevariousfactorsthatwehave
enumerated, allthesevariousmanifestations ofbad
public
management,
arenot
directlyresponsible
fortheintellectual
germs
thathavecausedthemorbuscalledsocialism.Theyhave
increaseddiscontentandloweredtheorganicresistance of
society,andsohavefurthered itsspread.
Itisthereforein
point
tourgeastrictersocialhygieneupontherulingclasses,
whichimplies
theirdropping
olderrors.
Unfortunately, such
adviceis
easy
to
givebuthardtofollow.Beforeitcouldbe
takenandput
into
practice,
theruling
classeswouldhaveto
developa
greatermorality,a
greaterfar-sightednessandmore
talentthantheyhavebeendisplaying
inmanycountriesofthe
westernworld.
9.Fewamong
thosewhofollowthemovementof
public
life
inEuropeandAmericatoday
failtoaskthemselvessooneror
laterwhethersocialdemocracy
isorisnotdestinedtotriumph
inamoreorlessimminentfuture.Manypeoplewhohaveno
sympathywithsocialistdoctrinesandnointerestin
favoring
themarenevertheless inclinedtoanswerthequestion
inthe
affirmative. Thatisoneoftheresultsofanintellectual
training
thathasbroughtagreatmajority
ofeducated
persons
inour
timetolookuponthehistory
ofhumanityasonecontinuous
journeytowardtherealizationofideasthatarenowcommonly

359. 316 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
called"advanced." Asforcollectivistsandanarchiststhem-
selves,blindconfidenceinthefated,inevitable,andmoreor
lessimminenttriumph
oftheirprogram
isthecommonrule,and
itisa
great
sourceof
strength
tothem,servingthemmuchas
theearlyChristianswereservedbytheirfaithinan
earlyadvent
ofthekingdom
ofGodorinthefuturelife.The
primitive
Christians,again,facedmartyrdomintrepidly,
firmintheirtrust
indivinerevelation. Sotheradicalsof
todaygladlysuffer
annoyances,
discomfortsand
persecutions,whenbychancethey
arecalledupontosufferafew,savoring
inforetastethe
joys
ofacertainvictorythatmanybelievetobenearathand.
Many
ofthemoreenthusiasticsocialistwritersofthe
earlydays
placedthedateforthetriumph
ofcollectivismattheendofthe
nineteenthcentury,
orintheearlydecadesofthetwentieth.
Inviewofallthatwehavebeen
saying,noonewillbesur-
prised
ifweassertthat,evengranting
thatcollectivistsand
anarchistsmaychancetobevictoriousand
gain
controlof
politicalauthority
inanumberofcountries,the
carrying
out
oftheirprogramwouldcontinuetobe
impossible;
forthepostu-
latesofcollectivism,communismandanarchynevercanbe
put
into
practice,anymorethantheidealsofthe
earlyChristians
couldbe
put
into
practice
aftertheofficialtriumph
ofChristi-
anity.Butitstillremainstobeseen
justwhat
probability
thereisofatriumphforsocialdemocracy. Forsupposea
mereattemptweremade,andsustainedoveranumberof
years,
toputthecollectivisttheoriesintoforce.Evenifitdidnot
altertheconstantlawsthat
regulatethe
organization
ofhuman
societies,whichwouldinevitably
assertthemselvesintheend
andtriumph,
itwouldweighgrievouslyonthelotofthe
genera-
tionsonwhichtheexperimentwouldbemade.Tornbetween
revolutionandtheinevitablereactionstorevolution,those
generationswouldatthebestbeforcedtoreturntoamuch
cruderandmoreabsolutetype
ofgovernmentthanany
that
wenowknow.Therewouldnecessarilybeadeterioration in
juridical
defenseandarealmoralandmaterial
cataclysm.
Centurieslatersuchacataclysmmightbestudiedwithinterest,
andperhapsevenwithamusement,asan
unusuallyinstructive
caseofsocial
pathology;butmeantime itwouldentailunspeak-
ableagonies
forthosewhowouldbecalledupontowitnessit
andtobeitsvictims.

360. 9] THESOCIALREVOLUTION 317
But,evenwhenstatedinthoseterms,thequestion
isnot
onethatcanbeansweredwithcertainty,
formanyarguments
canbeadducedforand
against
thetemporarytriumph
ofthe
socialrevolution. Theelementsonwhicha
prognosishastobe
basedvaryfromoneEuropeancountrytoanother,andthe
problembecomesstillmorecomplicated
ifweextendourpreview
totheEnglish
coloniesandtheUnitedStates.
Certainly
itwouldbemuchhardertomakeamereattempt
toestablishcollectivismthanitwouldbetooverthrowthe
staunchestofthegovernmentsnoW
existing.Underthepresent
organization
ofsocietythetworeinsthatanygovernment
uses
in
leading
anationarethebureaucracyandthestandingarmy.
Aswehave
already
seen(chap.VIII, 6),
inallearlierrevolu-
tions,the
greatFrenchRevolutionexcepted,theriderhasoften
changedbutthereinshaveneverbrokentheyhavecontinued
functioningalmostnormally.
Butifa
great
socialrevolutionweretotriumph,
itisdoubtful
whetherthe
presentbody
ofcivilemployeesandofficialscould
continuetofunction,anditisexceedinglydoubtfulwhetherthe
victorswouldfindthepersonneltosupplantthemintheirown
rankandfile.Thenormal
organs
ofgovernmenthaving
ceased
tooperate,aperiod
ofanarchywouldfollow,ofwhichnoone
couldsaywhattheoutcomewouldbe,exceptthatitwouldbe
suchanoutcomethatevenatemporarycontinuation ofthe
efforttoestablishcollectivismwouldbeimpossible.
Thepresentorganization
of
society
hasimmense
powers
of
resistance. Justhow
strongthey
arehasnever,sofar,been
tested.Thedestiniesofanincalculablenumberof
peopleand
interestsareboundupwithcontinuingthesystemnow
prevailing
bankers, merchants, manufacturers, publicand
private
employees,
holdersofgovernmentbonds,savingsbank
deposi-
tors,property
owners
great
andsmall.Such
peoplewould
makeup
a
greatarmy.Initsrankswouldbemanywhosym-
pathizewithideasofsocialequalitywhenitisa
question
of
somethingvagueandfarawaybutwhowould
certainly
feel
otherwiseoncetheysawtheexecutionofthose
principlesnear
athandandathreattotheir
personal
interestsimminent.
Thegrowth
within
postal,telegraphand
transportation
departmentsofunionsofemployeesthatarehostiletothestate
mightrendertheeffectofsuchagenciesmuchlessdependable,

361. 318 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
butwemust
figure
thatagovernmentmight
atcertainmoments
finditselfincompletecontrolofthem,andtheywouldbevery
effectiveinstrumentsofaction.Thegovernment
alsocoulduse
themillionsoftreasurethatwouldbe
lying
inthe
publicvaults,to
saynothing
ofthemillionsthatthebankscouldreadilysupply,
orofunlimitedamounts offiat
currencythatcouldbe
issued.Thestate,finally,hasthe
policeforceatits
disposal,
andthestandingarmy.Proposalshavebeenmadeoflateto
transformthearmyintotheso-called"nationinarms,"with
recruitingby
localitiesintimeof
peace,very
shorttermsof
trainingservice,andsoon.Butunlessthearmyhasbeen
disorganizedbysuchconcessionstothedemocratic
spirit
if
itissound,inotherwords,andis
resolutelyused,itcandeal
successfully withanyattemptatarmedinsurrection. The
factthatarmiesmight
bereducedto
relativelysmallnumbers
wouldnotalterthatsituation.
Ontheotherhand,accountmustbetakenofthecontinuous
propagandathatsocialdemocracy
is
carryingoninallsocial
classes,eveningroupsthatshouldbemostinclinedtodefend
thepresentorder.Thispropaganda rarelymakesfulland
thoroughgoingconversionsamongpeople
ofacertainageanda
certainsocial
position;butitdoesmakemanypeople,whoought
to
fightthenewrevolutionarycurrentasamatterofinterestor
duty,doubtthe
justice
oftheirowncase,andinthemomentof
danger
itmightcausea
largepart
oftheforcesthatareappointed
toarrestittowaver.Sucha
falteringmight
contribute
seriously
towarddefeatwhentakenin
conjunctionwiththeslowdis-
organizinginfluencethatparliamentarism
is
exertingupon
all
theorgans
ofstate.Howexpectsteadiness indanger,or
scrupulousand
loyalservice,fromabureaucraticmachinethat
hasgrownusedtothe
shiftingpolicies
ofsuccessiveministries,
from
prefectsand
police
officialswhoturn
every
sooftenintovote-
rustlers?Whatconfidencecanonehaveinmenwhoare
virtually
obligedbythe
positionstheyholdnottofeelanyloyaltyor
sinceredevotiontoanyprinciple
ortoanyperson,whoare
calledupontoday
to
fightt%manwhoseorderstheywere
takingyesterdaywhosemainconcernhastobetoavoid
becomingembroiledwiththemasterof
today,butinsucha
wayasnottomaketoo
greatanenemy
ofthemasteroftomor-
row?Thatisthewaytotraingoodtight-ropewalkers,and

362. 10] REMEDIESFOESOCIALISM 319
suchpeopledoverywellfortheroutinemomentsofadminis-
trativelife.Buttheypossess
neitherthehabitofblindobedi-
encenorthecouragetotaketheinitiativeboldlyandassume
graveresponsibilities. Steadiness ofbrainandheartisrare
enough
inmenwhoareaccustomedtocompromisesandexpe-
dients,butthe
quality
ismostessentialin
high
officialsofa
government
attheextraordinarymomentswhenrevolutions
come.Ourbureaucratswill
surelybefoundlacking
init.
Whatmorethananythingelsemakesany
sortofprediction
difficultisthefactthatthedaywhentherevolutionaryoutbreak
occursandinouropinion
itisbynomeanscertaintocome
willnotbefixedbythemenwhoareorwillbe
holdingpower
in
thevariouscountries,norevenbytheleadersofsocialdemocracy.
Itwillbefixedbyunforeseeable events eitherinvoluntary
mistakesonthe
part
ofgovernments
orhappeningsthatwill
profoundly
shock
societyandthrowitintospectacularferment,
butwhichnoonewilldeliberatelyhaveprovokedandnoonewill
beabletoprevent.Eventsthatmightprovokeasocialrevolution
wouldbe,forinstance,adisasterinawarwithsomeforeign
power,agrave
industrialand
agricultural
crisisorfinancial
bankruptcyonthe
part
ofoneormore
greatEuropeanpowers.
Butthereisno
certainty
thattheoccasionthatwillforce
therevolutionary party
toactwillbethebest
imaginable
forit.There isno
tellingwhether,atthatmoment, its
forceswillbeinthebest
possibleshapeandtheforcesofits
adversaries sufficiently disorganized. However, the
longer
thefavorablemomentforstartingtherevolution is
delayed
in
coming,thelessfavorable itwillbefortherevolutionaries. It
isdifficulttokeepupany
sortof
agitation
inthemassesfor
verylongwhennothingConcrete
is
beingdonetoenablethem
toseea
probability
of
realizing
theidealspropoundedbythe
agitation.
InFranceandafewothercountriesthehabitsand
traditionsofarmedsocialconflicthavebeenpreservedandare
still
strong.Butifanygreatlength
oftimewerestilltoelapse,
theywouldbeweakened,andtherewouldbeacompletelackof
leadersofthenecessaryexperienceand
prestige
ina
positionto
directthecourseofarevolution.
10.Inanycase,supposewe
grant
thataviolentmovement is
avoided.Supposewe
grant
eventhattheso-called"evohi*

363. 30 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
tionarywing"
succeedsinmaintaining
suchapreponderance
intheranksoftheradicalsthatit,canprevent
anarmedoutbreak
forthepresent,
orfor
generations
tocome.Evenso,social
democracy
willnotceasetobeaviolent
disintegratingagency
inmodernsociety,andifthenewdoctrine isnotsubduedthe
orderof
thingsnow
prevailing
will
always
remaininastateof
instabilityandhavetobeupheld
toa
great
extentby
sheer
physical
force.Now
physical
forcemay
sufficetoprevent
the
outbreakofaviolent
catastrophefromday
to
day,butitcannot
restoretothesocialbodythemoralunity
essentialforastable
order.Aswehavealready
seen
(chap.VII, 10),bruteforce,
takenallbyitself,cannotsuppress
orevenrestrainacurrentof
ideasand
passions
unlessitis
applied
withoutscrupleandwithout
consideration, unless,thatis,itis
applied
witha
cruelty
that
doesnotfalteratthenumberofitsvictims. Asidefromthefact
thatsuchauseofforceisundesirable, itis
impossible
inour
dayand
age,ourmannersandmorals
beingwhattheyare,
unlessatleastitis
provokedby
similar
outragesonthe
part
of
therevolutionaries. IfEuropean
civilization isforcedtokeep
longand
incessantlyonthedefensive
against
thetendenciesofthe
varioussocialistschools,itwillbeforcedbythatvery
factintoa
decline,andthedeclinewillcomewhetherourcivilizationtriesto
compromise,makeconcessionsandcometoterms,oradoptsa
pol-
icy
ofabsolutecoercionandresistance. Inordertomaintainthe
latter,itwillhavetoabandonmostofitsidealism,restrict
liberty
ofthoughtandadoptnew
types
of
governmentwhichwill
representareal
retrogression
inthe
safeguarding
of
justice
andin
juridical
defense.
Manyremedieshavebeen
suggested,and
certainlymany
amongthemarenottobe
rejected.Theymay
increasethe
patient'spowers
ofresistance,evenifthebestofthemwillnot
removethecauseofthemalady.
Ifnationaleconomicsystems
areimproved,
iftaxesarelowered, if
justice
ismademore
equitableandeffective, ifallabusesthatcanbedoneaway
witharedoneawaywith,thatcertainly
willbeofnomeanbenefit
to
society.Butsocial
democracyaspirestoabsolute
justice,to
absolute
equality,andthesecanneverbeattained. Social
democracy,therefore,will
certainlynotdisarminconsideration
ofsuchbenefits. Itwillnotpardonbourgeoissocietymerely
becausebourgeoissocietyconfessestosomeofitssinsanddoes

364. 10] DECLINEOFTHEFAMILY 321
penance. UnliketheGodoftheChristians,therealsocialist,
sofarasthepresenteconomicorderisconcerned,wantsthe
deathofthesinner.Hedoesnotwanthimtoreformandlive.
Thereisasecond
type
ofremedyonwhichstatesmen,and
somefewmodern
sovereigns,havepinnedgreathopes.
It
consistsin
applyingthe
principle
ofstatecontroltocuring
or
reducingmanyofthe
injustices
or
sufferingsthatresultfrom
economicindividualismandfromthemercilesscompetition
in
whichpropertyowners,manufacturersandthe
captains
of
big
industry
areengagedbothofwhichcausemiseryanduncer-
tainty
ofthemorrowforthewage-earning proletariat.We
have
alreadyexpressed
our
opiniononthis
point(chap.VI,
3-4,above).Therewesaidthatthereisnotasocial
question,
butmany
social
questions,andthatthe
principle
ofcontrolby
thestate,inotherwords,by
thebureaucracyandother
organized
directinggroups,
istobe
justified
or
rejected
caseby
case.
Certainly
thereareexampleswherestatecontrol,usedinmodera-
tion,maybewelcome,asinthe
regulation
of
workinghoursand
types
ofworkforwomenandchildren.Thereisnodenying,
either,thatas
regardscharities,publicassistanceandmutual
aid,oursocial
organizationtoday
isinadequate.Wehaveno
organizations intermediatebetweenthestateandthe
large
municipality,whichinEurope
isaninstrument ofthestate.
Suchunitsaretoo
large.Withinthemtheindividualdisappears
andis
forgotten.Ontheotherhand,thereisnothing
inter-
mediatebetweenthemunicipalityandthemodern
family,which
hascometobereducedtotheutmostsimplicity,
tothelowest
possibleterms.Evenbrothersandsistersnowadays often
feelno
responsibility
foreachother.
Thereweresuchintermediate
organizations
intheolddays
inEurope,andtherestillareinothercivilizations. InIndia,
forinstance,ineverytownor
village,membersofthesamecaste,
orratherofthesamesubdivisioninthecaste,assisteachother.
Mutualaidiscustomary
inMohammedan countriesamong
membersofthesametribe.InChinathefamily
isamuch
morecomprehensive thingthaninEurope.Descendants of
thesameancestordowntothethirdgenerationordinarily
live
togetherandareconsciousofacommunity ofinterests. In
Japan,theinhabitantsofthesame
village,orofthesamequarter
ina
city,considerthemselvesobliged,asamatterofcourseto

365. 3 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
succoraneighborwhohascomeuponmisfortune. Ifhishouse
burnsdowft,forinstance,they
buildhimanotherattheircommon
expense.
In
antiquity,
intheMiddle
Agesanddowntoa
centuryago,
the
corporationsandbrotherhoodsofthetradesand
professionsperformed justthosefunctions in
Italy.Such
institutionsimposecertainobligationsontheirmembers,but
they
alsorecognizethatthemembershavecertain
rights.Their
mainadvantage
isthattheykeeptheindividual,orthefamily,
thatissmittenbytemporarymisfortunefrombeing
leftinthe
lurchanddrivento
despair.Beyondanydoubt,something
has
tobedoneonthatscore,and
perhaps
itwouldbe
just
aswell
if
governments
weretokeephandsoff,sothatnaturalsolidarities
mightgrowupagain
oftheirownaccord.Themainrequirement
wouldbealongperiod
of
stability
inpopulationandineconomic
interests.
InwesternEurope,especially
in
largetowns,thefamilyfrom
whichassistancecanbeexpectedcomesdown
practicallytothe
father,themotherandminorchildren. Ifthroughsomemis-
fortunetheheadofthefamilywhoisworking
fora
living
chances
tolosehiswages
forsomemonths*time,heiscertaintoface
povertyand
despair.Nowwhatiscalled"individualism" in
Europe the
principleandthefactofeachmanforhimselfand
Godforallhascomeabout
virtually
inourtime,partlybecause
ofthefrequentchanges
offortunethatbreakorstrainbondsof
family,neighborhood
or
professionalassociation,partlybecause
of
large-scalemovementsinpopulationthathavebeenduetothe
growth
ofnewindustrialcenters,especiallynewcities.Great
citiesareinhabitedin
largepartbyfloatingpopulations.A
familyrarely
livesinthesamehousefortenyears
insuccession,
andapersonscarcely
everknowshisnext-door
neighbor.Under
suchcircumstancesthemostpainfulcasesofdestitutionoccur.
Livingaloneinthemidstofa
greatthrong,anindividualora
familycan
literally
starve.
Butwhatis
ordinarilyexpected
ofstatecontrolissomething
farmorethanmerereliefofdistress.Manypeoplewantthe
statetoinfluencethedistribution ofwealth
directly.They
wantittodeprivetherichoftheirsurplusthroughtaxationand
give
ittothepoor.Thisideaisbeingviewedwithconsiderable
sympathyevenamong
conservatives. Itisthesortofthing
thatappealstoournumerous "socialistoids," or
"pinks,"

366. 10]
, DECLINEOFTHEFAMILY
astheyareoftencalledthat
largebody
of
peoplewhodonot
joinany
collectivist oranarchistpartybutcreatethesym-
patheticenvironmentinwhichsuchparties
flourishand
prosper.
Nowthe
proposal
inquestion
isatrulydangerousone.Any
verywide
application
of
it,suchas
striking
atcapitaltoo
severely,
or
trying,
forexample,
to
specify
the
crops
thatshallberaised
oncertainlands,wouldkillthe
goosethatlaysthegoldenegg.
Itwouldcauseaserious
falling
offintheproductionofwealth
andincreasemiseryanddiscontentatallsociallevels.Such
asystemwouldnot
give
uscolectivism. Social
inequalities
wouldnotdisappear,andradicalswouldstillhave
something
substantialtoaskfor.Butthewholeeconomy#fso-called
bourgeoissocietywouldbe
seriously
disturbedandits
functioning
wouldbethoroughlydisorganized. ThatthefollowersofMarx
shouldfavorthetemporaryapplication
ofthesystem
isnatural
andlogicalenough.
Itwouldbeoneofthosebestcalculatedto
reducesociety
toalevelwhereanexperiment
incollectivism
wouldbecomedesirable.Butitdoesseem
strange
that
people
whodonotaccept
collectivisttheoriesshouldhope
tocombat
andneutralizethemwithapolicy
thatwouldmaketheeconomic
situationofeverybodyworse,andreducealmosteverybody
tolookingupon
collectivismasanimprovement.
Thereareothermeasureswhichmanypeoplefavor,regarding
themasveryproper
concessionstosocialistdemands. Ofthese
wemightmentionthe"right
towork,"inotherwordsan
obliga-
tiononthe
part
ofthestatetopay
salariestoalltheunemployed;
thecompulsorybreakingup
of
great
landed
properties,which
wouldbetantamountto
forcingtheintroduction ofsmall-scale
agriculturebylaw,evenin
regionswherenaturalconditionsare
notcongenial
toitsexistence;amaximumeight-hourworking
day,
establishednotby
themutualconsentofworkersand
employers
butbystatute;aminimum-wage scale,alsoestablished
bylaw;a
singleandheavilyprogressiveincometax.Anyone
whohasevenamoderateknowledge
oftheworking
ofeconomic
lawscanseeata
glance
thatthe
application
ofsuch
provisions
woulddestroyprivatecapital
inthecourseofafew
years.At
thesametime,itmustbeconfessed,thegovernments
ofnota
fewEuropean
countrieshavegone
sofarincertaindirections
thattheycan
hardlyreject
thesedemandsofsocialistsandnear-
socialists,andotherproposals
ofth^samesort,withoutdoing

367. COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
grievous
violenceto
logicand
equity.
Ifthe
price
ofbreadis
going
toberaised
artificiallyonthe
speciouspretextthat
landownersmustbeguaranteedafair
profitonwheat,howcan
theworkingman
berefusedafairminimum
price
forhislabor?
Christian socialism,andCatholicsocialism in
particular,
are
regardedbymanypeople
astoolsthatarewelladapted
to
neutralizing atheistic,materialisticandrevolutionary
social-
ism.Well-intentioned effortshavebeenmade,andarestill
beingmade,intheseChristiandirections,andtheyhavenotbeen
altogether
ineffective. However,weshouldnothaveunlimited
faithinaflankcounterattack. Itistrue,aswehavealready
seen,that.bothChristianityandsocialismtakeadvantage
of
thehunger
for
justiceandtheidealthatiscommontoallhuman
beingswhoareneverthelessobliged
toliveinaworldwhere
therearemany,manyiniquities
forwhichthey
arethemselves
responsible. ButbothChristianity andsocialismdepend
uponothersentiments besidesthehunger
for
justice,and
suchsentimentsarebynomeansidenticalinthetwodoctrines.
Theirmethodsofpropagandaandtheir
aspirations
arealso
essentiallydifferent,and
very,very
differentaretheintellectual
settingswhichtheyrequire
fortheirgrowthand
prosperity.
ThebasisofChristianity
isfaithinthe
supernatural,
inaGod
whoseesthetearsofthepoor
andsorrowful,consolestheminthis
lifeandrewardstheminthelifetocome.Socialism
originates
intherationalistphilosophy
ofthe
eighteenthcentury.
It
takesitsstandonmaterialisticdoctrines,whichteachthatall
happiness
liesinthesatisfactionof
earthly
instinctsand
passions.
Christianityandsocialismarethereforetwo
plants
ofavery
differentnature.Theymay
wellviewitheachotherforthe
sap
inthe
ground,
buttheycannotpossiblybe
graftedoneach
other.Vain,therefore, isthehopethataChristianshoot
insertedintoasocialisttrunkwilleverchangethefruit,eliminat-
ing
allitsbitterflavor,itseverharmful
quality,andleaving
it
sweetandwholesome. Christian socialism isnothing else,
andcanbenothingelse,thananewname
appliedtoanold
thing,
inotherwords,Christian
charity.
Christian
charity,doubtless,
isabletorender
great
servicestoEuropeansociety;butitcould
notwhollydestroy
atheisticandrevolutionary socialismunless
theworldwere
again
tobeasthoroughlysteepedintheChristian
spirit
asitwasinthelesstutoredcenturiesoftheMiddleAges.

368. 11] DEMOCRATICMETAPHYSICS
11.Undertheconditionsthatatpresentprevailin
European
civilization,theoneremedy
thatcanstriketheevilattheroot,
cutoffthesupply
ofvital
saponwhichthegrown
treeflourishes
andcauseittowitheraway,
isofavery
differentorder. Social
democracy
ismorethananything
elsetheintellectualmalady
ofour
age.Tobesure,itfounda
propitious
moralenviron-
ment. Itfoundasoilpreparedby
alltherancors,ambitions
and
greeds
thatnecessarilyresultedfroma
longrevolutionary
periodandfromthe
shiftings
offortunesthatwereboundup
withsucha
period.Supremelybeneficialtoithasbeenthe
world'sdisappointment withparliamentarydemocracy,which
setouttoinaugurate
a
reign
of
justiceand
equality
intheworld,
andhasfailedmiserably
tokeep
that
promise. Nevertheless
thisnewdoctrine
originates
inasystem
ofideaswhichis
nothing,
afterall,butthe
logicalconsequence
ofthesystem
inwhichthe
puredemocracy
oftheolddaysfoundits
inspiration.
Beliefinthe
possibilitythatgovernmentcanemanatefrom
themajority;
faithinthe
incorruptibility
ofthemajority;
confidencethatoncetheyhavebeenemancipatedfromevery
principle
ofauthoritythatisnotrootedinuniversalconsensus,
fromeveryaristocratic,monarchicaland
religioussuperstition,
menwillbeabletoinauguratethe
politicalsystemthatwill
bestservethe
general
interestsandtheinterestsof
justicesuch
isthecontentofthebody
ofideasandsentimentsthathascom-
bated,andiscombating,Christianbeliefsinthepeople,andis
thechiefobstacletoanycompromisewiththechurch. Ideas
andsentimentsofthesamesorthaveproducedparliamentary
democracyand,aswehaveseen,arenow
preventingtheapplica-
tionofradicalremediestoparliamentarism. Thesamebody
of
ideasandsentiments, finally,
is
sweeping
usinexorablytoward
socialism,andultimatelytowardanarchy.
Thereisnostoppingalongtheroad.Onceexperiencehas
shownthatmere
politicalequality
asembodiedinuniversal
suffrage
failstoproducepoliticalequality
inthefactandmain-
tainsthe
politicalpreeminence
ofa
given
classandofcertain
socialinfluences, itisnaturaland
logicalthatasystemshouldbe
contrivedwhichwilldestroydisparities
in
privatefortunesand
place
allwho
aspire
toruleoversociety,andthereforeneed
thevotesofthepeople,onanequalfooting.Andafterasome-
what
riperexperiencehasmadeitclear,ormadeitmerelyplausi-

369. COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
ble,thatnoteveninthatwaycanone
get
agovernmentthatisa
genuine
emanation ofthemajority will,muchlessabsolute
justice,wewillhave,asthefinal
implicationofa
metaphysical
conceptthathasvainlysought
toconcretize itself,adoctrine
thatfavorsendingany
sortofsocial
organizationwhatever,and
therefore,anarchy.
Nowdemocraticdoctrinehasrenderedundeniableservices
tocivilization. Embodied intherepresentative system,
for
whichEngland
setthe
pattern,
ithascontributedtoimportant
improvements
in
juridicaldefense,whichhavebeenattained
throughasystem
offreediscussionthathasbeenestablished
inmanyparts
ofEurope.Butnowthatwehavecometoits
last
logicalimplication,andmenare
trying
torealizethe
prin-
ciplesonwhichitwasbaseddowntotheirremotest
consequences,
thesamedoctrine is
disorganizing
thecountriesinwhichit
prevailsand
forcingthemintotheirdecline.
Thiswouldnotbethefirstcasewherea
societyhasretrogressed
from
trying
tocarrytotheir
logical
conclusions
principles,
doctrinesandmethodswhichatthestartcontributedtoits
greatness.
Intheearlydays
oftheRomanEmpirestrong
bureaucraticorganizationwasa
greatsourceof
progress,
and
thankstoittheempirewasabletoassimilatea
largepart
ofthe
world.Lateron,excessivebureaucratizationbecameoneofthe
mainfactorsinthedeclineoftheempire.Fanaticismandblind,
exclusivefaithintheKoranwerethemostimportant
factors
intherapidspread
ofMohammedan civilization. Ascenturies
wentby,theybecamethechiefreasonforthefossilizationand
decadenceoftheMohammedanworld.
Thingscouldnotbeotherwisewithdemocracybecause,at
bottom,underpseudoscientific appearances, thedemocratic
doctrine is
altogetheraprioristic.
Its
premisesarenotinthe
slightestdegreejustifiedby
thefacts.Absolute
equality
has
neverexistedinhumansocieties. Politicalpowerneverhas
been,andneverwillbe,foundeduponthe
explicitconsentof
majorities.
Italwayshasbeen,anditalways
willbe,exercised
byorganizedminorities,whichhavehad,andwillhave,the
means,varying
asthetimesvary,toimposetheirsupremacy
onthemultitudes. Onlyawiseorganization
of
societyanda
trulyunprecedentednumberoffavoring
historicalcircum-

370. 11] POSITIVEPOLITICS 8*7
stanceshavemanaged
torenderthepreeminence
ofa
ruling
classlessburdensomeandlessabusiveinourtime.
RenanwrotethattheRomanEmpirecouldhavearrestedthe
spread
ofChristianityononeconditiononly
ifithadconsented
toapositiveteaching
ofthenaturalsciences. Scientificknowl-
edgewastheonlything
thatcould,byshowingthatnatural
happenings
inourworldobeyunchanging laws,developa
senseof
realityandsucceedin
eradicatingfromthehuman
spirit
thebeliefinmiraclesandinthecontinuousintervention
ofthesupernatural.
1
Butatthattimethenaturalscienceshad
barelyreachedtheirembryonicstage,and
Christianitytriumphed.
Intheworldinwhichweare
living,
socialismwillbearrested
only
ifarealistic
political
sciencesucceedsin
demolishing
the
metaphysicaland
optimisticmethodsthat
prevail
at
present
insocialstudies inotherwords,only
if
discoveryanddemon-
strationofthe
great
constantlawsthatmanifestthemselvesin
allhumansocietiessucceedinmaking
visibletotheeyethe
impossibility
of
realizingthedemocraticideal.Onthiscondi-
tion,andonthisconditiononly,
willtheintellectual classes
escapetheinfluence .ofsocialdemocracyandformaninvincible
barriertoitstriumph.
Sofarstudentsofthesocialsciences,andmore
especially
economists,haveexaminedthisorthat
postulate
ofsocialism
fromthestandpoint
ofshowing
itspatentfallacy.Thatisnot
enough.
Itis
something
likeshowing
thatonemiracleor
anotherisfalse,withoutdestroying
faithinthe
possibility
of
miracles.Awhole
metaphysicalsystemmustbemetwithawhole
scientificsystem."Inhighereducation/*a
distinguished scien-
tistwrites,"thetheoriesofscientificeconomicsand
sociology
mustbesetup
in
oppositiontotheerrorsofMarxism,sothat
youthfulmindswillnotbeleftprey
tochimericalfanciesthat
aresetbeforethemasthelatestresultsofscience."
2
Wise,
soundwords!Buttheymerelyexpressa
praiseworthy
desire.
Theydonotpointtoaremedy
ofswiftandcertain
efficacy.
Thestudy
ofeconomicsisanexcellent
thing,butit
isnotinitself
sufficientto-cleansethe
publicmindofthechimericalfancies
1
Tbiisopinion
is
implicit
inallofKenan's
writings.
Itis
developedmost
scientificallyinMarcAurele,chap.XXL
2
Garofalo,La
superstizione socialista,p.
240.

371. 828 COLLECTIVISM [CHAP.XI
alludedto.Economicsciencehas
penetratingly investigated
thelawsthat
regulatetheproductionanddistributionofwealth.
Ithasas
yetdonelittlewiththerelationsofthoselawstoother
lawsthatoperate
inthe
politicalorganization
ofhumansocieties,
Economistshavenotconcernedthemselveswiththosebeliefs,
thosecollective illusions,whichsometimesbecome
general
in
givensocieties,andwhichformso
large
a
part
ofthe
history
of
theworld ashasbeenwellsaid,mandoesnotliveby
bread
alone.Asfor
sociology,weareinclinedtothinkthat,inthe
majority
ofitsdoctrinesatleast,ithassofarnotshownitself
tobeamaturescienceproducing
resultsthatcannotbeques-
tioned.Inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturythedemo-
cratic-socialistmetaphysichadtocompeteonlywithsystems
thatstyledthemselvesas
positivebutwerejust
asmetaphysical
asitwas,findingevenlesssupport
intheactuallivesthatnations
havelivedandbeingevenlesssusceptible
of
practicalapplica-
tion.Asbetweenanumberofdifferent
metaphysicalsystems
itisnaturalthatpredominance
shouldhaverestedwiththe
system
thatbesthumoredthekeenestandmostuniversal
passions.
Arduous,therefore,isthetaskwhichissetfor
politicalscience,
anditwillbeallthemorearduousinthatthetruthswhichitwill
beitsmissiontorevealwillnotbe
generallypopular,
sincethey
willshockmanypassionsandcrossmany
interests. Itis
highly
probable,then,thatin
spite
ofthetraditionsoffreediscussion
that
distinguish
our
age,
the
propagation
ofthesenewscientific
resultswilloncemoreencountertheobstaclesthathaveretarded
progress
inotherbranchesof
learning.
Thereislittlelikelihood
thatthenewdoctrineswillfindmuchsupport
inour
govern-
ments,orinour
rulingclasses,whichneverthelessought
to
support
them. Interests,whatevertheirnature,love
propa-
ganda,
not
impartial
discussion.Theysupportonlythe
theory
thatservesthe
particularandimmediate
purpose,
that
justifies
theman,thatsustainsthe
given
administrationor
party.They
havenouseforthetheory
thatcan
yieldpractical
results
only
in
thegeneral
interestsof
society
andinafuture
relatively
remote.
Ifsciencetriumphs
intheend,its
victory
willbethenas
always
duetotheconscientiousness ofhonestscholars,whoseduty
it
is,
aboveeveryconsideration,toseekand
expound
thetruth.

372. CHAPTERXII
THEORYOFTHERULINGCLASS
1.'Thedoctrinethatinallhumansocietieswhichhavearrived
atacertaingrade
ofdevelopmentandcivilization
political
con-
trolinthebroadestsenseoftheterm(administrative, military,
religious,economicandmoral
leadership)
isexercisedalwaysbya
specialclass,orbyanorganizedminority,
isolderthaniscom-
monlysupposedevenbythosewhosupport
it.1
Thefactsonwhichitsfundamentalassumptions
restare,of
course,soobviousandcommonplace
thattheycouldnever
entirelyhaveescapedtheobservation oftheplainman,espe-
ciallyonefreeof
special
theoreticalbias.Vague
allusionstoit,
fairly
clearperceptions
ofit,maybenotedhereandtherein
somefew
political
writersbelonging
to
periods
ratherremote
fromours.Machiavelli,forinstance,declaresthat"inanycity
whatsoever, inwhatsoevermannerorganized,neverdomore
thanforty
or
fiftypersons
attainpositions
ofcommand."
1
But
ignoringsuchcasualallusions,onemaysay
thatthefundamental
outlinesofthedoctrineweretracedina
fairly
definiteandclear-
cutfashionalittleoverahundredyearsago
inthe
writings
of
Saint-Simon,anauthorwhosedepthand
originalityhavenotso
farbeensufficientlyrecognizedand
appreciated.
{Examiningmoraland
politicalconditionsinmedieval
society,
andcomparingthemwithsocialconditionsatthebeginning
of
thenineteenthcentury,Saint-Simoncametotheconclusionthat
militaryand
theological
elementsprevailed
intheformer,and
thatthereforepriestsand
military
leadersstoodattheapex
of
the
politicalpyramid.
Inthelatterperiod,he
thought,the
mainfunctionsthatwereessentialtosociallifewerescientific
andindustrialincharacter,andso
politicalleadershippassedto
menwhowerecapable
ofadvancingscienceand
directing
eco-
nomic
production.
Inthis,notonly
didhe
implicitly
assert
theinherentnecessity
ofa
ruling
class.He
explicitlypro-
claimedthatthatclasshasto
possess
the
requisitesand
aptitudes
*Deca,XVI.
329

373. 880 THEORYOFTHERULINGCLASS [CHAP.XII
mostnecessary
tosocial
leadership
ata
given
timeandina
given
type
ofcivilization.
1
AnintellectualoffshootofSaint-Simonwashis
pupilAuguste
Comte.
2
Comte'sSyst&me
de
politiquepositive,ouTraitide
sodologie 9waspublishedaboutthemiddleofthenineteenth
century(1853). Itdeveloped,withmodifications,someofthe
fundamental ideasofComte'sformerteacher. Itheldthat
controloversocietywasto
belong
inthefuturetoascientific
aristocracy,whichComtecalledascientificpriesthood,and
declaredthatsuchaformofgovernmentwouldbeanecessary
consequence
ofthe"positive"stagewhichthehumanmindhad
attainedinthenineteenthcentury,
incontradistinction toa
theologicalstagewhichhad
prevailed
inclassical
antiquityand
toa
metaphysicalstagewhichhadprevailed
intheMiddle
Ages.
Abouttwentyyears
later
(1872),
inhisAnrienregime,Taine
gave
a
masterlyexplanation
ofthe
origins
ofthe
greatFrench
Revolution,holdingthatitresultedfromtheneedof
substituting
anew
ruling
classforanold
ruling
classwhichhadlostits
original
capabilities
of
leadershipandhadnotsucceededin
acquiring
the
capacitiesthatanewerademanded.AlittlebeforeComte,
MarxandEngelshadformulateda
theorythatinthe
pastthe
statehadalwaysrepresentedtheclassthatownedtheinstru-
mentsofeconomicproduction,andthatthesamewastruein
theirday
in
bourgeoissociety.According
totheMarx-Engels
doctrine,an
evolutionaryprocess
in
societywould
inevitably
leadtocollectivismandtothefounding
ofa
system
of
political
andeconomicmanagement
inwhichthewhole
collectivity,now
ownerinitsturnoftheinstruments of
production,wouldno
longerbe
exploited
forthebenefitofthe
minority.
Somorethan
sixtyyearshadpassedsinceSaint-Simon's
publications,andthefirst
single
rivulethad
alreadybranched
1
SeeRodriquez,Saint-Simon etsonpremier
6crit.SeealsoOeuvreadeSaint*
Simonetd'Enfantin(inthis
greatcollection,writings
ofSaint-Simonaretobe
foundinvols.XV,XVI,XVIII-XXIII,XXXVII,XXXIX).Theconcepts
werefertoarefundamentalsinSaint-Simon's doctrinesandarerepeatedin
almostallofhis
publications. OneneedhardlysaythattheSaint-Simonian
ectwhichroseandspreadsomeyears
afterSaint-Simon'sdeath,ranged
far
fromtheideasofthefirstmaster. See,inthisconnection,Janet,Saint-Simon
etleSainl-Simonisme.
*
OntheinfluenceofSaint-SimononComte,seeDumas,Psychologic
dedew
memes
positivirtes,pp.$55f.

374. 1] COMTE,TAINE SSI
intoanumberofwidelydivergent
currents.Towardtheend
ofthe
pastcentury,and
during
the
earlyyears
ofthe
present,
thisnewvisionofthe
politicalworldwasproclaimedand
pro-
mulgatedbyanumberofwritersinanumberofcountries.
Oftentheyhadreachedthe
goal
overseparatepathsandwith
imperfect,
ifany,acquaintancewitheachotherorwiththeir
originalpredecessors.
Ifthisindependencedid,onoccasion,add
atouchof
spontaneousness
and
originality
totheobservationof
suchwriters,itledthedoctrineonotheroccasionsintoblind
alleys,
orcluttereditupwithirrelevaaciesorwith
easily
refutable
mistakes.Whenthehistory
ofth$newdoctrineoftheruling
classcomestobewritten,itwillnotbehardto
apportion
toeach
writerhisshareofmeritforcontributingnow
good,nowmediocre,
nowunusablematerialstothe
risingedifice,andtodeterminealso
whichmaterialswere
strictlynewandwhichweresecond-hand.
Forthetimebeing
itwillsufficetonote,asamatterofrecord,
thatin1881Gumplowicz'sDerRassenkampfappeared.
1
That
volume
recognized
theexistenceineverypoliticalorganism
of
two
rulingclasses,oneofwhichheld
governmentaland
military
control,whiletheotherexercisedindustrial,commercialand
financial control.Gumplowicz explainedthedifferentiation
betweenthetwoclassesandtheirpredominanceoverthegov-
ernedclassbydiffering
ethnic
origins.
In1883we
publishedour
Teoricadei
governi.Thereweexaminedtheinnerworkings
of
democraticsystems
andshowedthatevenindemocraciesthe
needforan
organizedminoritypersists,andthatin
spite
of
appearances
tothecontrary,andforallofthe
legalprincipleson
whichgovernment rests,thisminority
stillretainsactualand
effectivecontrolofthestate.In
yearsfollowingcamethefirst
editionofthepresentwork,Elementidiscienza
politico,,and,
amongothers,worksbyAmmon,Novikov,Rensi,Paretoand
Michels.
2
1
Gumplowicz
restatedandelaboratedtheideashehadexpressedinDerRassen-
kampf
inhisQrundrissder
Sociologie,
1885.
2
Earlierinthesepages(chap.I,10),weconsideredthedoctrinesofGobineau
andLapougeregarding
racialfactorsinthe
superiority
of
rulingclasses,Ammon
publishedDienaturlicheAuslesebeimMenschen(NaturalSelectioninHuman
Beings)
in1893,andin1898thefirstGermaneditionofhis
Oesellschaftsordnuny
(SocialOrder)
,Inthelatter,Ammonfullydevelopsa
theorythattheruling
class
necessarily
existsbecauseofanaturalselectionthattakesplace
inthe
higher
socialstrata.AsfortheotherwritersmentionedseeNovikov,Conscience et

375. 8S& THEORYOFTHERULINGCLASS [CHAP.XII
Today
itmaybesaidthatinthemoreadvancedcountries
ofEuropetheideathata
ruling
classnecessarily
existshasmade
itswaymoreorless
definitely
intothemindsofeverybodywho
thinks,speaks
orexpressesopinionsabouthistoricaland
political
phenomena.
Thisisduetotheinfluenceofthewritersmen-
tioned. Itis
probablydueineven
greaterpart
toanautomatic
enrichment ofcollectiveexperience
inourworld,wherebythe
thought
ofone
generation,whenitdoesnotfossilizeintoblind
adorationofthe
teachings
oftheforefathers,goes
alittle
deeper,
atleast,thanthethought
ofearlier
generations.
Inanyevent,itisnowacommonthing
toseethesetbacksof
onenationoranother,orthecatastrophesthatthreatenthem,
ascribednotsomuchtotheignorance
ofthemassesortothe
wickednessofmenippower
astotheincompetenceandinade-
quacy
of
ruling
classes.A
logicalreasoningought
thereforeto
leadto
ascribingsuccesses,whentheyarewon,totheenlightened
activity
ofthesameclasses. Parallelwiththe
spreading
ofthe
attitudementionedhascomeaslowerosionof
optimistic
con-
ceptions
ofhumannature.An
eighteenthcenturyproduct,
as
wehaveseen,thisoptimisticviewoccupiedapreponderant
positioninEuropeanthinkingduringalmostallthenineteenth
century.
Itwascommonly
believedthatonce
legalinequalities
weredestroyed,themoralandintellectual levelofallsocial
classescouldbe
definitely
raisedandtheywouldallbecome
equallycapable
ofmanagingpublic
affairs.This
point
ofview
isobviouslytheonlyonethatcouldfurnishamoralandintellec-
tualbasisforwhatiscommonlyunderstoodas
democracy,
in
otherwords,governmentbynumerical
majorities
ofcitizens.
2.Inviewofthisveryconsiderablebackground,onemight
reasonablywonderatthe
slightpractical
influencewhichthis
newdoctrinehashadandisstill
havinguponthedevelopment
of
political
institutionsanduponpractitioners
ofofficialandnon-
officialscience.Eventhosewhodoadmittheexistenceofa
wlonttisocwle
t1897;Rensi,Gli"ancieqsrSgimes"
elademocraziadiretta,1902;
Pareto,LeaSystimessodalities,1902,andTrattatodi
sociologiagenerate,1916;
andMichek,Zur
SoziologiedesPwrteiwesens (oftentranslated), 1911.In
thisbookMichelsproveswithverysoundargumentsthateventhegreatdemo-
craticandsocialistpartiesareinevitably
ledbyorganizedminorities,andoften
withanirondiscipline.

376. ] DEMOCRATICOPPOSITION 333
ruling
class(andnottoadmititwouldsometimesbeequivalent
todenyingtheobvious)oftenfailtoreasonasthoughthefact
wereinevitable theydonotdrawthenecessaryconsequences
fromitandsodonotutilizethetheory
asthe
guidingthread
thatmuststeerusaswegolooking
intothecausesthatmature
andproduce theeffectswhichattimes liftsocietiesto
prosperityandpowerandatothertimesengulfthemin
anarchyandruin. Itisofnoavailtocredittheruling
classfor
successes,ortoblameitforfailures,unlesswescrutinizethe
intricatemechanism,intheoperation
ofwhichtheexplanation
forthestrength
orweaknessoftheclasscanbefound.Andin
thiswehavealreadyglimpsed
oneofthecausesforthefailureof
thenewdoctrinetoBearmorefruitin
practice.
Thesecauseswemust,therefore,go
intosomewhatcarefully.
Inordertomakeiteasiertokeeptheminmind,supposewe
dividethemintotwo
groups:
extrinsiccauses,whichare
foreign
totheessenceandstructureofthedoctrineproper,andintrinsic
causes,whichareduetodefectsorshortcomings
inthedoctrine
itself.
Firstandperhapsforemostamong
theextrinsiccausesisthe
factthat,sofar,alltheinstitutionsthathavebeen
functioning
inEuropehavebeenbasedonotherdoctrines,someofwhichare
differentfromthedoctrinewearehereconcernedwith,and,so
to
say,
irrelevanttoit,whileothersare
directlyantitheticalto
it.
Representativegovernmentsnow
prevail
almost
everywhere
incountriesofEuropean
civilization.Someofthemaremodeled
alongthelineslaiddownbyMontesquieu,whosawtheessence
and
guarantee
of
politicalliberty
ina
tripartiteseparation
of
sovereignpowers.Morenumerousare
governmentsthatfollow
the
principle
ofRousseau,thatthosepowersonly
are
legitimate
which
represent
thewillofthenumerical
majority
ofcitizens,
whilethe
right
of
suffrage
isregarded
asaninnate
rightfrom
whichnoindividualcanreasonablyand
properlybebarred.
Nowinitselfthedemocraticsystemprobablyhas
greater
powers
of
self-preservation
thanothersystems.Thatisbecause
itsnaturaladversarieshavetomakeashowof
accepting
itif
they
wishtoavoidits
consequences
toa
greaterorlesserextent.
Allthosewho,bywealth,education,intelligence
or
guile,have
an
aptitude
for
leadingacommunity
ofmen,andachanceof
doing
soinotherwords,allthecliques
inthe
ruling
classhave

377. 884 THEORYOFTHERULINGCLASS [CHAP.XII
tobowtouniversal
suffrageonceitisinstituted,andalso,if
occasionrequires,cajoleandfoolit.Onnootherconditioncan
theyparticipate
inthecontrolofthestateandreach
positions
fromwhichtheycanbestdefendtheinterestsoftheir
particular
clique.Thefact,then,thatthenaturaladversariesofdemoc-
racy
are
obliged
t6pay
officialhomagetoitpreventsthemfrom
openlydeclaringthemselvesfollowersoftheoriesthat
explicitly
deny
the
possibility
ofdemocraticgovernment
ascommonly
understood.Andthesamefactalsoimpedes
theformationof
thecoalitionsofsentimentsandintereststhatare
necessary
ifa
doctrine istobecomeanactiveforce
capable
of
transforming
institutions ifitistopenetratepeople'smindsandsotakehold
ofthemasto
modify
thetrendofa
society
atall
appreciably.
Michelshasveryproperly
stressedthe
pointthat,incountries
whichhaverepresentative governments, conservative
parties
are
obliged
topayhomage
todemocraticdoctrines.
1
Then
again,anewconception
in
politics
or
religioncannot
haveaverygreatefficacy
in
practice
untilthe
conception
that
has
preceded
itinthe
public
consciousnesshasexhaustedallits
powers
of
expansion, or,betterstill,hascarriedout,soto
say,
thehistoricmissionwhichitwasborntofulfillandwhich
explains
itsmoreorless
rapid
success.Themoderndemocraticconcep-
tionishardlymorethanacenturyandahalfold.Itspread
like
wildfirebecause, firstinFranceandsoonafterthroughout
westernEurope,th0-*&e$g.ruling
classatoncemadeuseofitin
ordertooustthe
nobilityand
clergyfromtheir
privilegesandin
largepart
tosupplantthem.Butrapidasitsprogresshadbeen,
thedoctrinesurelyhadnotcompleted
itshistorictaskattheend
ofthenineteenthcentury,anditdidnotbegintoinfluencethe
countriesineasternEurope
till
veryrecently.
AhundredandoddyearsagoSaint-Simonthoughtthatthe
democraticdoctrinehadalready
fulfilleditshistoricmission,
andinanopen
lettertoLouisXVIIIhesuggestedthatthat
sovereign"hadbetternotbotherwiththewould-bedogma
of
popularsovereignty,whichwas
justastrawmanthat
lawyers
and
metaphysicianshadsetupagainstthedogma
ofdivine
rightjustanabstractionprovokedbyanotherabstraction,"
andthat"thetwodogmas
weremerehangoversfromaconflict
1
Parteiwesen. Seealsohis"Lademocrazia ela
legge
ferreadelToli-
garchia.
"

378. $8] DEMOCRATICOPPOSITION 885
already
settled."
1
Butinthat,evidently,Saint-Simonwas
makingabad
guess.Hewas
forgetting,
orhemayneverhave
realized,how
exasperatinglyslowhistory
isin
moving,
atleastas
comparedwiththebrevity
ofhumanlife.Ooemightfurther
explainthatSaint-Simon
regarded
theruleof
juristsandmeta-
physicians
assymptomatic
ofaperiod
oftransitionbetweenthe
dominionof
priestsandwarriorsandthedominionofscientists
andbusinessmen.Healsobelievedthat
juristsandmetaphy-
sicianshadbeenwellfittedfor
destroying
theancientworldbut
hadshownthemselvesineptatreconstructing
themodernworld.
Saint-Simonthought
thatdivine
rightwasdeadndburied
evenbeforehistime.Asamatteroffact,withCharlesXand
Polignac,
itwasstill
trying
toholdoninFrancein1830,when
Saint-Simonwasalreadydead;andinGermanyandRussiait
breastedthetideofthetimeswellonintothetwentiethcentury.
Meantimethemetaphysic
ofpopularsovereigntydidnot
geta
good
footholduntiluniversalsuffragewasestablished. That
measurewasadopted
inFranceearlierthananywhere
elsein
Europe,andnottill1848.Sofar,inallthecountriesthathave
adopted
universalsuffragemoreorless
recently,theeducated
andwell-to-do classeshavemaintained theirruleunderits
aegis,though
theirinfluencehasbeentemperedmoreorlessby
theinfluenceofthepettybourgeoisieandof
representatives of
theinterestsofcertaingroups
inthe
proletariat. Thattype
of
democracy
isnotsovery
differentfromthesortofgovernment
thatSaint-Simonapproved
ofandwhichhewantedLouisXVIII
tousehisauthoritytoinaugurate governmentbybusinessmen,
scientists,scholarsandartists.Democraticinstitutionsmaybe
abletoendureforsometimeyetif,invirtueofthem,acertain
equilibriumbetweenthevariouselementsinthe
ruling
classcan
bemaintained, ifour
apparentdemocracy
isnot
fatallycarried
awaybylogic,
itsworstenemy,andbytheappetites
ofthe
lowerclassesandtheirleaders,andifitdoesnot
attemptto
becomerealdemocracybycombining politicalequalitywith
economicandcultural
equality.
8.Onthemainintrinsiccauseforthe
slightsuccessthathas
sofarbeenenjoyedbythedoctrinethata
ruling
classneces-
sarilyexists,wehave
alreadytouchedverybriefly.
1
OmtvresdeSaint-Simon etd
9
Enfantin,
vol.X^Ifp,fcll.

379. 336 THEORYOPTHERULINGCLASS [CHAP.XII
Adoctrine isathreadbywhichthosewhoare
examininga
givenbody
offacts
try
to
guide
themselvesinthemazewhich
thefactsseemtopresent
atfirst
glance;andadoctrinebecomes
themoreusefulin
practicethemoreitfacilitatesand
simpli-
fiestheunderstandingand
analysis
offacts.Inthismatterof
politicaltheory,
asinsomanyothermatters,appearances
are
oftenas
satisfactory
to
people
asthesubstancewouldbe.The
oldclassifications ofthevariousformsofgovernment the
classification ofAristotle,whodividedgovernments
intomon-
archies,aristocraciesanddemocracies,andtheclassification of
Montesquieu,whotrisectedthemintodespotic,
monarchicaland
republicangovernments
answeredthatpurpose
well
enough.
Following
the
Stagiriteandtheauthorofthe
Esprit
des
lots,any-
onecouldget
his
bearings
in
politicaltheorybydeciding
in
just
whatcategorythegovernment
ofhisowncountry,
orthegovern-
mentsofneighboring
orevendistantcountries,belonged.Once
thatpointwassettled,hecouldwellbelievehimselfauthorized
togoonand
point
outthevalues,defectsanddangers
ofthisor
thatformofgovernment,
andtoansweranyobjectionsthat
might
bemadetoitbysimplyapplyingthe
precepts
ofthemaster
hefollowed,orthemaster'ssuccessors.
Ontheotherhand,merely
toassertthatinallformsof
govern-
menttherealandactualpower
residesina
rulingminority
is
todismisstheold
guideswithout
supplyingnewones itisto
establisha
generic
truthwhichdoesnottakeusatonceintothe
heartof
politicalhappenings,present
or
past,andwhichdoesnot
explainby
itselfwhy
certain
politicalorganismsare
strongand
othersweak,nor
suggestwaysandmeansof
preventing
their
decadenceor
repairing
theirdefects.To
assign
allcreditfor
the
prosperity
ofa
society,
orall
responsibility
forits
political
decrepitude,
toits
ruling
classisoflittlehelpwhenwedonot
knowthevariousways
inwhich
ruling
classesareformedand
organized.
Itis
precisely
inthat
variety
oftypethatthesecret
oftheirstrengthandweaknessmustbesoughtandfound.
Thecomprehensiveand
generic
demonstration thata
ruling
class
necessarily
existshastobesupplemented, therefore,with
ananalyticalstudy.Wemustpatiently
seekouttheconstant
traitsthatvarious
ruling
classes
possessandthevariabletraits
withwhichtheremotecausesoftheir
integrationanddissolu-
tion,whichcontemporaries
almostalways
failtonoticejare

380. 8] RULINGCLASSANDPOLITICALSCIENCE 337
boundup.
Itisa
question,
afterall,ofusingtheprocedurethat
issomuchusedinthenaturalsciences,inwhichnoendofinfor-
mationthathasnowbecomeanindestructiblepatrimony
of
humanknowledge
isduetohappyintuitions,someofwhich
havebeenconfirmed,othersmodified,butallelaboratedand
developedby
successiveexperimentsand
experiences.
Ifit
shouldbeobjectedthatitisdifficult,andwemightadd*vir-
tuallyimpossible,
tomakeexperiments
incaseswheresocial
phenomena
areinvolved,onemightanswerthat
history,
statis-
ticsandeconomicshavebynow
gatheredsucha
great
storeof
experimentaldatathatenough
areavailabletopermitusto
begin
oursearch.
Historians so
*
farfollowinganopinionprevailing inthe
public
at
largehave
especially
stressedtheachievementsofthe
supremeheadsofstates,ofpeoplewhostandatthevertexof
the
politicalpyramid,and
occasionally, too,themeritsofthe
lowerstratainthepyramid,
ofthemasses,whowiththeirtoil
andoftenwiththeirbloodhave
suppliedthesupremeheads
withthematerialmeans
required
for
accomplishing
the
things
theyaccomplished.
Ifthisnew
perception
oftheimportance
ofthe
ruling
classisto
gainahold,wemust,withoutdenying
the
greatimportance
ofwhathasbeendoneatthevertexand
atthebaseofthepyramid,showthat,except
fortheinfluenceof
theintermediate socialstrata,neitheroftheotherscouldhave
accomplishedverymuchofanysignificanceand
permanence,
sincethetype
towhicha
politicalorganismbelongsandthe
efficacy
ofitsactiondependprimarilyuponthemanner
inwhich
theintermediate strataareformedand
function.!Oncethat
proof
isobtained,itbecomesevidentthatthesupremeheadsof
stateshave,in
general,
beenabletoleave
enduringmarkson
historyonlywhentheyhavemanaged
totaketheinitiativein
timely
reformsof
rulingclasses,andthatthe
principalmeritof
thelowerclasseshasalways
lainintheirinborn
capacityfor
producingfromwithinthemselvesnewelementsthathavebeen
abletorulethem
wisely.

381. CHAPTERXIII
TYPESOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION
1.Aglance
atthevariousmethodsbywhichhumansocieties,
whichhaveachievedacertaindevelopmentandacquiredaplace
inworldhistory,haveconstitutedthemselvesandhavefunc-
tionedfurnishesperhapsthemostsuitableway
of
bringingout
theimportance
thatthe
ruling
classhasinany
social
organization.
Theanatomicaldifferences,soto
speak,
thatwefindinsuch
societiesandthe
types
intowhichthedifferencescanbegrouped
correspond
tothedifferingformationsandthe
differingmanners
offunctioning
oftheirruling
classes.
An
investigationsomething
liketheoneweareabouttomake
wasundertakensomeeightyyearsagobySpencer,andafter
himby
themembersofhisschool.In
trying
tofoundtheir
newscience,whichthey
called
"sociology,"followingComte's
example,theythought
itexpedient
todivideall
politicalorgan-
izationsintotwofundamental types,themilitantandthe
industrial.Theinadequacies
ofthatclassificationwenoted
above(chap.Ill, 11-12),andwealsosawthatthegermof
truthitcontainedwassterilizedandlostbecauseofaone-sided
andincomplete
viewofthefactsofwhichitwas
supposedto
facilitatean
analysis.
Theoutlookthatgoverned
theresearchesofthe
Spencerians,
andthematerialstheyusedtobuildupthenewsciencewhich
theywere
trying
tofound,doubtlesscontributedverysubstan-
tiallytothebarrennessofthatparticularclassification,andin
general
ofall
corollarydoctrinesofSpencerandhisfollowers.
They
startedoutontheassumptionthatthe
simplestandmost
primitivetypes
ofsocial
organization,
andthereforesmalltribes
of
savages
orsemisavages,
revealinembryonicformthevarious
typesof
politicalorganizationthatiretobefoundin
peoples
whohavereachedacertainlevelofcivilizationandhave
organ-
izedintopoliticalunitsofsomemagnitude.TheSpencerians
derivedtheirfacts,therefore,largelyfromthenarratives of
338

382. }1] PRIMITIVEMONARCHY 339
travelerswhohadhadclosestcontactswiththemore
primitive
peoples.
Ignoring
otherobjections
tothismethodthatmightbemade,
itseemstousobviousthat,ashappens
inthecaseof
plantsand
animals,inwhich
primitivetypesnecessarilyresembleeachother
becauseonesimple
cellwillalwaysbelikeanothercell,differen-
tiationinsocialorganismsnecessarilybecomesgreater
in
pro-
portionastheorganismsdevelopandgrowcomplex.Asmall
hordeof
savages,
suchasstillwanderaboutintheinteriorof
Australia,willbepeacefulorwarlikeaccordingtotheabundance
orscantinessofitsmeansofsubsistenceorthenatureofthe
peopleswithwhichitcomesintocontact;but
politicalorganiza-
tioninsuchahordewillcomedowntothemerepredominance
ofthe
strongest,mostintelligentandshrewdestmale,and
generally
ofthebesthunterorthebest
fightertheexperience
ofsomeoldmanorwomanmaywellbeheldinacertainesteem.
Butitseemsimpossiblethatdistinctionsofclasscouldexistin
primitive social
organisms
ofthis
type.Suchdistinctions
canbebasedonlyuponapermanent
differentiationin
occupation.
Thereconiesatimewhentheprimitivestage
hasbeen
definitely
passed,whenthesubsistenceofthehordeisbasedon
pastoral
pursuitsandevenonarudimentaryagriculture. Suchahorde
isatribethatincludes,according
tothecase,variousgroups
of
huts,orevenatownoranumberof
villages.Acertain
special-
izationoffunctionbeginstotakeshape,andthereforeacertain
orderofsocial
ranking.Evenso,the
politicaltypesthatwe
meetinallsuch
organisms,whichhavenotpassedthefirst
phases
oftheirdevelopment, presentconsiderable similarities
inallracesandinalllatitudes.Whetherthetribeisstillnomadic
orseminomadicor
already
hasafixedabode,itwillalwayshave
achiefwhoissupremejudge,militaryleaderand
priest(when
thetribehas
specialprotectinggods).Butinall
questions
of
importance
thischiefmustconsultacouncilofelders,and
hemakesnodecisionswithouttheirconsent. In
questionsof
greaterimportance
thedecisionshereacheswiththeelders
havetobeapprovedbytheassembly
ofallthemembersofthe
tribeinotherwords,alltheadultswhoarenotslavesnor
outsiderstowhomthetribehasaccordeditsprotectionbutwhom
ithasnot
yettakenintoitsmembershipbyadoption
orbysome
other
legalfiction.

383. 340 TYPESOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIII
Thatisthe
organizationwefinddescribedinHomer.
1
Almost
identicalisthe
organization
thatTacitusmetamong
theGermans
ofhis
day,
2
andwefindthesamething
intheArabtribesof
AsiaortheArabo-Berber tribesofNorthAfrica,though
in
thelatter,becauseofthe
prevailingIslamism,thechiefhas
virtually
lostall
religious
status.Norwouldanyothertypeof
organization
be
possible
undersuchsocialconditions.Though
thechief
belongsordinarily
totherichestandmostinfluential
family
inthetribe,hecannotenforceobedienceunlesshehas
firstcometoanunderstanding
withothermemberswhoare
influentialbecauseofwealthandnumberofsupporters
or
becauseofsome
specialreputation
forwisdom.Themassof
freemen,further,when
gathered
inassembly,doesnottakean
activepart
indiscussion,asarule. Itlimitsitselfto
approving
theproposals
oftheeldersbyapplauseor
disapprovingthemby
grumbling.Theleaders
usuallyhavetakenthe
precaution
of
firstcoming
toanunderstandingwitheachother,and,already
skilledintheartsofmob
leadership,theysometimeshave
appor-
tionedtherolesthey
aretorecitebeforehand.
3
Inthese
politicalorganismsthatareinan
earlystage
of
development,arudimentary
differentiation ofclasses
usually
begins
totakeform,basedupon
inheritance ofeconomicand
politicalposition. Oftenthe
position
of
high
chiefis
hereditary;
but,ashappenstodayamongtheArabo-Berber tribes,thesonis
notlikely
tosucceedthefatherifhehasbyanychanceshown
himselfincompetent
toholdthesupreme
officein
respect
of
intelligence,
tactandcharacter,andunlessheis
supportedby
largenumbersofrelativesand
dependentsandhasaconsider-
ableprivatefortune.Soitiswiththeelders.Theyarealways
esteemedforancestralluster,butthataloneisnotenough
to
enablethemtoholdtheir
politicalposition. Insometribes
1
IliadII.Thiscantocontainsadetaileddescription ofacouncilof
eldersandofa
generalassembly
ofwarriors. SeealsoIliadIX,andOdyssey
II,VII.
*GermaniaXI:"Deminoribusrebus
principesconsultant,de
majoribusomnes
(Theleaderssitincouncilonminormatters;majormattersarefor
all)."By
"all"hemeansallthewarriorsbelongingtothetribe.
8
SointhesecondcantooftheIliad.OftheGermansTacitusgoesonto
say*
.t.Ea
guoque,quorumpenesplebem
arbitrium est
tprincipespraetractentur
(Theleadersagreeinadvanceonmattersonwhichdecisionrestswiththerank
and
file)."

384. 2] THENEAR-EASTERNEMPIRE 341
thereisnorealchiefbecause
jealous
elderswillnottolerateone.
Butthereisalmostalwaysoneamong
theelderswho
manages
toacquireadefacto
leadership. Thatseemstobethesituation
today
inanumberofArabo-Berber tribesin
Cyrenaica. Often
twofamiliesofinfluencearerivalsforfirst
place.So
originate
thecofs,or
parties,thatoftenthrowtheArabo-Berber tribes
intoturmoil.AndHomerrelatesthatAntinous,sonofEupeithes
oneofthesuitors aspiredtobecomeking
ofIthacabykilling
Telemachus,sonof
Ulysses.
1
Ofcourse,lateron,whenthe
tribehasdeveloped
farenoughtobeasortofnation,withsome
tensofthousandsofinhabitants, its
politicalorganizationtends
to
change;andthe
changeoccurs,in
general,
inthedirectionofa
greater differentiation between social classes.Theelders
acquiregreater
influenceand
try
to
strengthenand
systematize
theircontroloverthemasses. Gallicpopulations
ofthetime
ofCaesarwerefartheradvancedeconomicallyand
politically
thantheGermansofthetimeofTacitus. Caesar
says
oftheir
politicalorganization:"Quitegenerally
inGaulthepeoplewho
countforsomething
innumbersor
prestige
areoftwoclasses
[Druidsand
knights].Thecommonpeople
are
virtually
slaves.
Theytakenoinitiativeoftheirownandareadmittedtono
council."
2
TheSaxonsofCharlemagne'sdaywerecertainly
fartherdeveloped sociallythanTacitus'sGermans.
Clearly
distinguishableamongthemaretwoclasses,thenobles,or
edelings,andplainfreemen,or
frilings.
2.Butamomentmusthavecome-weshallprobablyne\er
know
justwhenwhenonetribewasabletoabsorbor
subject
enoughneighboring
tribestodevelopintoanation,createa
civilizationandsetupa
politicalorganization
ofsomemagnitude
and
sufficientlycompact
tocombineandcoordinateindividual
effortsand
energies
inconsiderablenumbers,andtodirectthem
toward
attainingcommon
publicends,whetherofwaror
peace.
Thismeansthatitmusthavebeenableto
organizefairlylarge
and
fairlywell-disciplined
armiesandkeeptheminthefield.
Itmayhavebeenabletoconstructimpressivebuildingsand,
1
OdysseyXXII.
2
Debello
gallicoVI,18:
**
InomniGalliaeorumhominum
quialiquo
sunt
numeroethonoresuntduo.Nam
plebspoene
servorumhabeturloco,quae
nihil
audet
per
se
tnulliadhibeturconsilio."

385. 842 TYPESOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIII
moreprobably still,toincreasetheproductivity
ofthesoilby
complexand
carefullyplannedirrigationsystems.
Naturecouldnothaveadvancedbyleapsand
spurtsinthis
development,
either.Theriseofthefirst
greatstatesmust
havefollowedlongperiods
of
gradualelaboration,duringwhich
theprimitivetown,whichwasthetribal
capital,began
tobea
city.Progress
in
agriculturemusthavebeensuchastopermit
a
relativelylargenumberofmentoliveclose
together
ina
relatively
small
territory,andtoallow
politicalorganization
to
becomemore
vigorousandlessrudimentarythananything
describedabove.
During
thispreparatoryperiod
certainarts
andtradeshadprobablyadvancedtosomeextent,andafirst
accumulation of
capitalhadoccurredintheformofstoresof
foodor
implements
ofwarandpeace.
Inthatearlyday,writing,
though
still
imperfect,musthavebegun
tofixremembrances
ofthepastandtofacilitatetransmissionoftheideasand
expe-
rienceofonegenerationtogenerationsfollowing.
Thefirstfounding
ofa
greatempire
thatcanbedated
approxi-
matelyby
historicaldocumentswasthatoftheempire
of
Sargon
I,calledtheElder,king
ofAkkadinChaldea,about3000B.C.
Itis
possiblethatsimilareffortsmayhavebeenmadea
century
ormoreearlierbythekings
ofLagashandSumer.Sargon
's
empireextendedfromthePersianGulftotheMediterranean
andtheSinai
peninsula.
Ifit
reallywasthemostancientofthe
greatpoliticalorganisms,
itmarksadecisivestep
inthe
history
ofhumancivilization. Itseemstohavelastedlessthana
century,however,fallingapart
intoanumberofrivalkingdoms
afterthedeathofNaram-Sin,thirdinlineofsuccessionfrom
Sargon.Butthe
example
setby
that
earlyconquerorwasto
findimitators,andother
greatempiresweretorisein
epochs
still
remote,firstinlower,andlaterin
upper,Mesopotamia. Baby-
loniawassituatedinanalmostintermediatepositionbetweenthe
upper
'andthelower
valleys
oftheEuphratesandthe
Tigris.
Forsixteencenturies,thelongerathat
elapsesbetweenHam-
murabiandNebuchadnezzar, theBabylonianempirevery
probablyrepresentedthe
greatestconcentration of
population,
wealthandculturethattheworldhadseendowntothattime,
Perhapssometimebeforetheday
of
Sargon,Menes,founder
ofthefirstEgyptiandynasty,
hadweldedthelittlestates,
intowhichupperandlowerEgypthad
previouslybeensub-

386. S] THENEAR-EASTERNEMPIRE 343
divided,intoa
single
state.Soresultedanempireandacenter
ofcivilizationwhichrivaledtheMesopotamian empireand
weretolastas
long,withseveral
periods
of
eclipse.
Thelittleweknowaboutthe
politicalorganization
ofthese
twovery
ancient
empires
inMesopotamiaandEgypt
indicates
thatatthevertexofthesocialpyramidstooda
sovereign.He
hadasacredcharacter,offering
sacrificestothenationaldeity
inthenameofthepeople.The
deity
heldthe
guardianship
ofthe
empire.AtThebes,inEgypt,
hisnamewasAmmon,in
Babylonia
itwasMardukandinNinevehiAsshur
(seeabove,
chap.Ill, 3).Allcivilandmilitarypowerswereexercised
inthenameofthe
sovereignby
a
largebody
ofofficials,whowere
chosen
ordinarilyfromthenotablesbelonging
totheracethat
hadfoundedthe
empire. Subjectpeoples
oftenkepttheir
hereditary
localleadersand
preservedacertainautonomy.
Sometimestheywerewhollyabsorbedbytheconqueringpeople
andblendedwithit.Insuchcaseslocalofficialswereappointed
anddismissedbythekingdirectly,
orratherbythecourtand
inthecourt. Ithasbeen
possible
toestablishthat
during
the
immenselylong
lifeofthe
Egyptiannationalitythetwosystems
replacedeachotherseveraltimes,according
asthe
empire
wouldgrowstrongerandmorecentralizedforatime,orweaker
andmore
centrifugal.The
ruling
classwas
usuallymadeup
of
generalsand
priests,butbothinEgyptandinChaldeathe
priestswerethe
repositories
ofallthe
learning
oftheir
day.
Theyaloneknewthelaws,andtheadministration ofthelaw
devolveduponthem.Therewereevencaseswherethe
high
priestsmanaged
to
replacesecularpowersandexercised
royal
authority. SoinupperEgypt,
intheninthcenturyB.C.,the
highpriests
ofAmenexercisedwhattodaywouldbecalled
temporalpower.
Asforthesystem
of
recruiting
civiland
military officials,
ithasbeen
possible
todeterminethatmethodsvaried
widely,
especially
inancientEgyptduring
thethreethousand
years,
moreorless,ofits
history.Aswehaveseen
(chap.II, 6,8),
therewereperiodswhenexactknowledge
of
hieroglyphicwriting
wasthekeythatopenedthedoorsto
higheroffices,whether
civilor
military,andtherewerecaseswherecommonersattained
high
rank.
1
Butasarule,eveniftherewereno
reallyclosed
1
Mosca,Teoricadei
governi,chap.II,$2.

387. 844 TYPESOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIII
castesin
Egypt,thesocialhierarchydidhave
greatstability,
andamanwasthechildofhisfatherratherthanofhisown
works.In
Babylonia,
slaveswerenumerous,andalmostall
Egyptiandocumentsandmonuments
testifytotheluxury
thattheupper
class
displayedbothinthislifeandinthenext,
whileanintenseandoftenforcedmanuallaborwasthenormal
lotofthelowlyplaced.
Greekwriters
incidentallythrowagood
dealoflightonthe
socialand
politicalconditionsthat
prevailed
inthePersian
empire,
thelast
greatgovernmenttoflourishintheNearEast
beforetheChristianera.Greecehad
frequent
contactswithit.
It
appearsthatbirthhad
greatimportance
intheconstitution
ofthe
politicalhierarchy. Herodotus relatesthatthefalse
Smerdiswasabletobecomekingbymakingpeople
believe
thathewasthesonofCyrus.Afterhewasmurdered,seven
Persiannoblemenoccupiedthethroneinturn.According
to
Xenophon,whentheyoungerCyrusdiedatCunaxa,theGreek
mercenaries offeredthecrowntoAriaeus,commander ofthe
Persiantroops
thathad
foughtwithCyrus.Ariaeusrefused,
onthegroundthathewasnotnobleenough,thatthePersian
grandeeswouldneveraccepthimas
king.TheGreeksalso
preservethefactthatthePersianempirewasatbottomamore
orlessvoluntaryconfederation of
peoples
of
differingand
moreorlessancientcivilizations,underthehegemony
ofPersia.
Some
peoples,
suchastheArmenians,theCiliciansandthe
citizensof
Tyre,kept
theirautonomyandtheirnationalsover-
eigns. Others,suchastheLydiansandtheBabylonians,were
governedbysatraps,whowerechosenfromamonggreatnobles
atthePersiancourtofSusa.Overthemthecourt
kept
strict
surveillance. Almost allthe
subject
nations
paidannual
tributetothecourtofSusa,accordingtotheirwealth,andthey
furnishedauxiliarytroops
as
required. Inthefullmidstof
subjectprovinces,
certainmountaineerpopulationsmaintained
asavagedefactoindependence. Thatwasthecasewith
theKarduchians,whocorrespond,roughly,
totheKurdsof
today.
1
IntheMiddleAges,
theMohammedan statew$sfounded
largely
onthepattern
oftheNearEasternstate.Nodoubtit
borrowedsomefewdetailsofitsadministrativeand
political
1
Xenophon,
Anabasis, Seeabove,chap.IV,&

388. 2] THENEAR-EASTERNEMPIRE 345
systemfromByzantium,buttoamuchgreater
extentitfollowed
theexamplesandtraditionsoftheneo-Persianempire
ofthe
Sassanids.
1
Persianinfluencebecamepreponderant especially
undertheAbbassid
caliphs.Thevery
titleoftheprimeminis-
ter,"vizier,"wasofPersian
origin,However,in
spite
ofthe
stiff
religiouscementthatwasthe
strength
ofitsdominantclass,
in
spite
ofthefactalsothatatcertain
periods
itdevelopeda
high
levelofculture,theMohammedan .statehadinnateweak-
nessesthatinevitablyproducedamoreorless
rapiddisintegra-
tionofthe
greatpoliticalorganismswhichtheoverpowering
impetuousness
ofthe
earlyIslamicgenerationshadcreated.
\Almost
allsocialand
politicalrelationsintheMussulmanworld
were
regulatedbya
religiouscode,inotherwordsbytheKoraq.
This,inthelongrun,arrestedMohammedan
development
But,ignoringthat,oneofthemostfrequent
causesforthe
rapid
breakingupoftheMussulmanstateswasthepractice
of
allowing
governors
of
separateprovinces
to
conscripttroops,andtocollect
directlythetaxesthatpaid
forthem.Suchaconcentration of
power
intheirhandsmadeiteasy
forthemtocreatepersonal
followings
intheirarmies,sothattheycouldproclaimtheir
independence,
oratleastbecomeindependent
infact,though
paying
anominaldeferencetothe
caliph.
Thisdefectwas
notedbyAverroes,oneofthe
strongest
intellectsthatMoham-
medancivilizationproduced
initsbest
days.
2
China,too,downtoafewyearsago,wasorganizedpolitically
along
thelinesoftheNearEasternstate,butoverthecourseof
long
centuriesshebroughtthetypetoalevelof
perfectionthat
itattainednowhereelse.ThiswasduetothefactthatChinese
civilizationwasbasedona
nonreligious, positivemorality,
to
the
greatunity
ofculturethattheChinese
peoplesachievedover
many
centuriesofcommonhistoryand,finally,tothedemo-
craticsystem
of
recruiting officials,whowereappointedand
promotedbycompetitive
examination. In
spite
ofthese
good
points,thestrength
oftheChinesestatewasalmostnever
propor-
tionatetoitssize,andtheinferiority
ofits
politicalmachine
becamepromptly
manifestonceitcameintocontactwith
modernEuropean
states.Inordertoconserveherindepend-
enceandherancientnationalspirit,Japanwas
obligedrapidly
1
Huart,HistoriredeaArabes,vol.I,chap.XIII.
a
Renan,Avem& etrAv&mfisme,chap.II,p.
161,

389. 846 TYPESOPPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIII
tooverhaulher
political,administrativeand
militaryorganiza-
tionandconformtothemodelsthatthecountriesofEuropean
civilizationsupplied.
The
organization
of
empiresoftheNearEasterntypehas
alwaysproved
inferiortothe
organization
ofmodernstatesof
European
civilization. Itwasinferiortothe
organization
of
theancientRomanEmpireand,inmanyrespects,eventothe
organization
ofthelittleHellenicstatesoftheclassical
period.
However,thevicissitudesoftheancientempires
oftheNearEast
are
graduallycoming
to
light,
astheold
hieroglyphicandcunei-
form
inscriptionsaredeciphered. Itwouldbeunfairtoforget
thatthroughthemmankindwasabletoaccumulatethefirst
storesof
experienceandwealththatwererequired
formaking
intellectualandeconomic
progresspossible.Onthebanksofthe
Tigris,
theEuphratesandtheNilethe
groups
ofeldersthathad
onceruledscatteredtribesfusedforthefirsttime,and
organized
real
ruling
classeswhichhadachancetoconceiveanddevelopthe
ideathattherewere
great
intereststhatcouldbecommonto
millionsofhuman
beings.
Inthoseclasses,forthefirsttime,a
process
ofselectionwasabletooperatewherebyacertainnumber
ofindividualscouldbefreedofthematerialcaresoflife.Shel-
teredby
the
organization
ofwhichtheywerea
partfromthe
greedandtheviolenceofthosewho,in
everyageandinevery
society,are
eager
to
getthebest
positions
forthemselves,such
privileged
individualswereenabledtodevotetheirtimeto
observingmanandtheworldhelivesin,andto
elaborating
the
firstrudimentsofamorality
forthefamilyandforsocial
groups.
Thoserudimentswefindstatedaboutfourthousand
yearsago
in
theCodeofHammurabi,which
already
sanctionsmany
ofthe
rulesthattheindividualhastoobserve if
society
istoendure.
TheancientEgyptianBookoftheDeadisin
partsolderthan
theCodeofHammurabi,someofitstextsgoingbacktothe
eleventhdynasty,andthemostrecentonestothe
eighteenth
(about1400
B.C.).Thiscollectionofsacred
preceptswasplaced
intombs,perhaps
asasacred
gesture,perhaps
sothatthedead
mighthavesome
guidance
inthelifetocome.Thetextsformu-
lateforthefirsttimeanumberofmoral
preceptsandrulesof
brotherlyconsiderationthatlaterweretobecomebasicinthe
great
universal
religions
forexample:"Feedthehungry/'
"Givethe
thirsty
todrink/*"Cheatnottheworkerofhiswage,"

390. 3] THEGREEKCITY-STATE 347
"Eschewfalsehood,""Bearnofalsewitness.** Inthose
empires,
finally,
thefirsttrialsweremadeinthedifficultartof
public
administration. Thatart,inthelast
analysis,comesdownto
enabling
a
greatsociety,withtheleast
possibleconstraint,tosee
toitthatthe
activitywhicheachindividualcarrieson
spon-
taneously
forhisown
advantage
shallbeusefultothegroup
as
awhole.
3.IfEuropean
civilizationhasbeenabletocreateatypeof
politicalorganization
thatisprofoundly
differentfromthatofthe
NearEasternempire,
thefactisduein
verylargeparttothe
intellectuallegacy
leftbyGreeceandRome.Thereareof
coursewidedifferencesbetweenagreatmodernEuropean
or
AmericanstateandtheAthenianorSpartanstate,ortheRoman
stateduringtherepublicanperiod;buthaditnotbeenforthe
writings
of
politicalthinkersoftheclassical
age,whoseminds
wereformedbythe
politicalinstitutionstheycouldsee
operating
beforetheir
eyes,modernEurope,andthecountriesthatwere
colonizedbyEuropeansbeyondtheseas,wouldnothave
adopted
the
politicalsystemsthat
distinguishthemso
sharplyfromthe
Asiatic
empires.
Greeceborrowedmanyelementsofhercivilizationfromthe
nearestoftheAsiaticempiresandfromEgypt.Thefirstinfil-
trationsmusthavetaken
placeduring
a
prehistoricperiod,when
a
pre-Hellenic
civilizationflowered,withCreteasitscenter,and
thenvanished,leavingonlyvaguememoriesofitself.Butthis
civilizationdevelopedtherudimentsof
agriculturalscienceand
madeothermaterialadvances. Such
thingsmaydeteriorate,
oncetheyhavemadetheirwayintothecustomsofacountry,but
theyseemneverwhollyto
disappear,evenifthenationor
civilizationthatfirstinventedoradoptedthemis
destroyed.
OtherinfiltrationsfromEgyptandtheNearEastcameinthe
periodwhenatruly
Hellenicculturewas
reawakening,
inother
wordsby
thebeginning
oftheninthcentury
B.C.Atthattime
thePhoenicianswerethemainintermediariesbetweenGreece,
EgyptandtheNearEast.Onthisoccasionthenewseedsthat
were
transplanted
tothesoilofHellasboresomewhatdifferent,
andinmanyrespectsbetter,fruitsthandidtheplantfromwhich
theycame,especially
inthe
respects
of
art,scienceand
political
organization,

391. 348 TYPESOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIII
TheHomerickingdom,
whichwefindatthedawnofthe
secondGreekcivilization,wasnotvery
differentfromthesemi-
primitivetype
ofsocial
organization
thatappears
inall
peoples
whichhaveascendedonly
thefirst
rungs
oftheladderthatleads
tothe
greatmodern
political
structures.TheHomericking
in
manyrespectsresembledthechiefoftheArabianorGermanic
tribe.His
authoritywas
primarilymoral,andithada
religious
aspect.Hegoverned
withtheaidofacouncilofnotablesand,
in
weightiercrises,summonedhiswarriors,orthefreemenwho
belonged
tothetribe,toanassembly. Yet,inaspace
oftime
thatcannotbegreaterthanthreecenturies,thistypeof
political
organization,
whichhadfewunusualtraitsaboutit,
istrans-
formedintothehighlyoriginalGreekcity
oftheclassicalera.
Asforthecausesofthisdevelopment,
itmaybenotedfirstof
allthatthetopography
ofGreecehampered
theformationof
greatempiressuchaswereabletoriseinthebroad,levelvalleys
oftheTigris,
the
Euphrates,
theNileandtheYellowRiver.
ThesurfaceoftheGreekpeninsula
issobrokenthatevery
dis-
trict,everytown(withtheterritoryroundabout),
iscutoffby
fairly
seriousnaturalbarriersfromneighboring
districts.The
Greektribes,therefore,acquiredrelativelystableresidences,
and
privateownership
oflandhadbecomecustomarybythe
timeofHomer.Thesetwocircumstancesallowed
agriculture
todevelop
sothata
largepopulationwasabletosubsistona
smallterritory,AGreek
city
oftheclassicalperiodgenerally
layagoodday'sjourneyfromitsnearestneighbor.
Itsterri-
toryrarely
exceededathousandsquare
miles.Giventhe
agri-
culturaldevelopment
ofthe
period,thatamountoflandcould
supportthirty
orfortythousandpersons,including
ofcourse
slavesandresident aliens.The
village
or
primitivetown
becameapopulouscityveryeasily.Atticahada
territory
of
abouttwothousandsquare
miles.Initsheyday
its
population
mayhaveexceededtwohundredthousand. Syracuseand
Sparta
alsohad
larger
territoriesand
populationsthanthenor-
malGreekcity.NowAthens,Syracuseand
Spartawerethe
largestand
strongest
statesoftheancientHellenicworld.
1
Thepowerfulorganization
oftheancientGreekclansalsomay
havecontributedtothedifferent
politicaldevelopmentofGreece
1
0nthepopulation
ofaacientGreece,seeBeloch,Die
Bevdlkerung der
Griechwch-Romischen Welt,chap.Ill,pp.54-107.

392. 3] THEGREEKCITY-STATE 349
ascomparedwiththeNearEast.Everygroup
offamiliesthat
considered itselfdescendedfromacommonancestorretaineda
certainamountof
politicaland
religiousautonomy
inthe
begin-
ning,
sothatthe
citywasasortofconfederation ofclans.But
besidesthesefactors,theremusthavebeenothersofanintellec-
tualandmoralorderwhich,becauseoftheremotenessofthe
timeandthedearthofdocuments,wecannotdiscernoranalyze
veryexactly.Thesefactorsweareforcedtodefinewitha
verygenericandimperfectphrase,
as
products
ofthe
peculiar
"genius"
oftheHellenicstockand,lateron,oftheItalic.
Inanyevent,the
earlyGreekkingshipeventuallybegan
to
loseground,
andithadfallenintodesuetudeinHellasperhaps
lessthanacentury
afterHomer'stime.Hesiod
alreadyspeaks
of
kings
farless
respectfully
thanHomerdoes.Hewhowas
called"the
peasant'spoet"
accusesthemof
trafficking
in
justice,
describesthemoutright
as"devourers of
gifts"andwarmly
recommendsthathisbrotherPerseushave
nothing
todowith
them.Theking
eitherdisappeared
orlosthis
importance
alto-
gether
inthecouncilofnotables.The
citycametobe
governed
bytheheadsofthe
phratries,
orclans,orbygroups
oftheoldest
andmostinfluentialfamilies,whoownedthebestlandsandhad
themcultivatedby
slavesorbythethrong
ofne'er-do-wellsand
refugees
fromothercountrieswhomeverycityusedto
accept,once
aninfluentialcitizencouldbefoundtoaccordthem
patronage.
Thedominant
politicalorgan,therefore,wastheancient"sen-
ate,"orcouncilofelders,inwhichthe
principalfamilieswere
represented. Theoldassembly
ofallthecitizens
probably
continuedtofunction
alongside
thecouncilofelders.But,
becauseofagrowing
concentration of
propertyandthe
large
numberofclientsthatthe
leading
familiescouldcontrol,the
councilretained,forsometimeatleast,the
ascendancythat
ithadenjoyed
inthemonarchicalera.
Ina
periodthatmustcorrespond,roughly,totheseventh
centuryB.C.,progress
in
agriculture
andan
incipientcommerce
musthaveprovidedmany
ofthedescendants ofresidentaliens
of
longstandingwiththemeanstocreateindependenteconomic
positions
forthemselves. Theybegantocraveadmissionto
citizenship,that
beingtheonlyway
toshareinthefunctionsof
governmentandtoescapetheoneroussupervision
oftheelders.
Themovementmusthavebeensecondedbythepoorerand

393. 350 TYPESOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIII
obscurerfamiliesofoldcitizens,whoalsohadaninterestin
fightingthe
oligarchicalsystemwhichthericherandmoreillus-
trousfamilieshadinstituted.
Thesecausesareofaneconomicordermore
especially. There
wereothers.Achange
inarmamentandmilitary tactics
occurredaboutthistimeandmusthavecontributed tothe
democratization oftheGreek
city.Warchariotshadbeenin
useintheHomeric
age,when
theywerethearm,sotospeak,
thatdecidedtheoutcomeofabattle.Onlyverywealthyper-
sonscouldaffordchariots.Butnowtheycametobe
replaced
byplaincavalry,andlateronbyhoplites,
orheavilyarmed
infantrymen. Hoplitesformedthebackbone oftheGreek
armiesduringtheclassical
period.Theequipment
ofa
hoplite,
thoughrelativelycostly,waswithinthereachofamanof
moderateincome.InDraco'sconstitution,whichantedated
Solon's,participation
in
public
officeby
allwhoare
supplied
witharmsappears
asa
long-recognized right.
A
period
ofcivilconflictensued,during
whichthe
losing
parties
oftenhadto
emigrate.
Tracesofthis
period
arefound
inthepoets
ofthe
age,notably
intheversesof
Theognis
of
Megara.
Itwasattimesbrokenbydictatorships
of
popular
leaders,whowerecalled"tyrants." Suchconflicts
generally
endedincompromises
ofthesortthatSoloneffectedinAthensin
theearlydecadesofthesixthcenturyB.C.,andthecompromises
resultedinthatconstitutionoftheGreek
city-state
oftheclassical
agewhichwasdestinedtohavesucha
greatsignificance
inthe
politicalhistory
oftheworld.
Thebasesofthesecompromiseswereinthemaintwo:First,
admissionto
citizenship
ofacertainnumberofdescendantsof
oldresidentaliensor
emancipated
slaves.Therewasno
applica-
tionofthis
principle,however,tocases
arisingsubsequentto
thereformoftheconstitution.Newresidentalienswere,on
thewhole,stillbarredfrom
citizenship,
sothatevenindemo-
craticAthensthesonsofacitizenandawomanwhowasnotof
Athenianbirthcouldnotbeadmittedto
citizenship.
1
Second,
explicitrecognitionthatsovereignpower
restedwiththeassembly
ofallthecitizens.Overthisroutethecitizenassemblygradually
absorbedalmostalltheoldprerogatives
oftheclan,whichthe
headsofaristocraticfamilieshadformerlyexercisedoverpeople
1
Aristotk,Constitution
ofAthens,4.

394. 3] THEGREEKCITY-STATE 351
oftheirownblood.Thecouncilofelderslost
prestigepro-
portionatelyandasaruleitwastransformedintoasenate,which
wasveryoftenadirectemanationoftheassembly,theassembly
havingthe
righttodetermineitsmembership.
Classical
antiquity
neverknewthatclean-cutseparation
of
legislative,executiveand
judiciarypowerswhich,theoretically
atleast,isoneofthe
outstanding
characteristics ofmodern
constitutions. Evenintheperiod
oftheempire
inBorne,
completeseparation
of
judiciaryandadministrative functions,
whichisamostfamiliarconcept
tous,hadnotbeenintroduced.
1
TheRomanpraetor
couldexercisefunctionsthatwouldnowbe
called
legislative. ButinclassicalHellas,whatwouldnow
correspond
tothesovereignpowerparexcellence, inother
wordsthe
legislativepower,wasentrustedalmost
exclusively
totheassembly
ofcitizens,whilewhatwewouldcallexecutive
andjudiciaryfunctionsweredelegated
tobodies,orindividuals,
thatwerealmostalwayselectedby
allthecitizens,orchosen
by
lotfromamong
allcitizensor
specifiedclassesofcitizens.
Aristotleenumeratesthemanypublic
officesthatwereconsidered
necessary
fortheproperfunctioning
oftheGreekcommonwealth.
Theybusiedthousandsofcitizens,andtheincumbentswere
forthemostpartchosenby
lot.
2
Characteristic ofalmost a,lltheconstitutions oftheHellenic
citieswastemporary
tenureofoffice,theincumbents
generally
beingrenewedatleastoncea
year.
Justascommonwasthe
rulethatmorethanoneperson
shouldexercisethegivenpublic
function. Thiscustomwasdesigned
toprovidethatthepower
ofanindividualshouldalwaysbecontrolledandlimitedbythe
equalpower
ofoneormoreotherindividuals. Thatwasthe
ideaofthetwoconsulsinRome.The
principlewassocon-
scientiously appliedthat,inmanyGreek cities,command
ofthearmy
ornavy
inwarwasentrustedtoanumberof
pole-
marchsornavarchswhofunctioned inrotation. Character-
isticagain
ofthe
politicalandadministrative
organization
ofthe
Greekstatewasthealmostcomplete
lackofwhatwouldnowbe
calledsalariedofficeholders. Itisinterestingtonotethata
numberofjudiciary
andexecutiveprerogativeswhichwere
heldtobeof
greatimportance
were
ordinarily
reservedfor
1
Hartmann,DerUntergang
derAntikenWeU,chap.II,p.
46.
*
ConstitutionofAthens,42-62.

395. 352 TYPESOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [HAP.XIII
the
popularassembly.Theassemblyalmostalways
retainedthe
righttodeclarewar,tomake
peaceandtoapply
theheavier
penalties deathorexile.Atthevery
leastan
appeal
tothe
popularassemblywasallowedintheselattercases.
Therewasno
standingarmy.AsAristotle reports,
1
on
reaching
theage
ofeighteen
all
ephebi(sons
ofAtheniancitizens)
serveda
year
in
militarytrainingandthentwomoreyears
as
armedguardsonthecoastandatother
strategicpoints
inAttica.
Atbottom,therefore,Athenshadwhatwouldnowbecalled
"three
years'
service."However,therewasnopermanent
body
ofofficers.Thepeoplemerelychose,eachyear,
five
honorablecitizensover
fortyyears
of
agewhomanagedthe
affairsofthecorps
ofephebiand
superintended
thecommissary
eachephebus
receivedfourobolsaday
forhismaintenance.
Thenthereweretwoinstructorsingymnastics,who
taught
the
manualofarmsandcommandedmilitary
drill.Therewereno
standardregulations
for
disciplineandnomilitarypenal
code.
Intimesofpeaceatleast,theephebuswassubjecttothesame
jurisdictions
as
any^
othercitizen.Thereisnoindicationinthe
history
ofAthensthatwouldleadonetosupposethatthebody
of
ephebihadanything
todowithwhatwewouldnowcall
policeduty,thetaskof
upholding
thegovernment
orofmain-
tainingpublic
order.
4.Beginning
withHerodotus, alltheGreekwritersofthe
classicalperiodrecognizetheexistenceofthreeformsof
govern-
mentmonarchy,aristocracyanddemocracy. Herodotus
puts
intothemouthsofthreeofthePersiannobleswhokilledthe
falseSmerdisadispute
astothemeritsanddefectsofthe
threeforms.
2
Theanecdotehaslittle
plausibility
as
history,
butitproves
atleastthatas
early
asthemiddleofthefifth
centuryB.C.,morethanacenturybeforeAristotlebegan
to
write,theGreeks(notthePersians)werefamiliarwiththe
threecategoriesandwere
exercising
theircriticaltalentsin
debatingtheadvantagesanddrawbacksofeachtype
of
govern-
ment.ThatthethinkersofclassicalHellasshouldhavestressed
theimportance
ofthemonarchicalsystemamong
the
possible
formsofgovernment
isreadilycomprehensible. Memories
2
HistoriesIII.

396. 4] THEGREEKCITY-STATE 353
oftheHomericmonarchywere
prominent
intheir
literary
tradi-
tion.Therehadbeenrecentexamples
oftyrannies they
were
especiallycommonintheHelleniccolonies,inMagnaGraecia
andin
Sicily.Theold
patriarchalmonarchy
itselfsurvivedin
remotecornersof
Epirus.
Tracesofit
lingeredtenaciouslyon
in
Sparta.TheGreeks,finally,wereinfrequentcontactwith
barbarian
peoples,whoalmostalwayshad
kings.
ButtheHellenicstateoftheclassical
agefluctuatedalmost
alwaysbetweenaristocracyanddemocracy. Thosewerethe
twoconstanttendenciesthatwereinperpetual
conflictwithin
theGreek
city-state. Aristotle,infact,devotesagoodpart
ofhisimmortalPoliticstoanalyzingthatinevitablealternation.
1
Itis
important
tonotethattheGreekconception
of
aristocracy
differed
considerablyfromtheRomanconception,whichinturn
hascoloredmodernusage
oftheterm.FortheGreeksofthe
classical
period,thenotionof
aristocracywasnot
inseparably
boundupwiththenotionof
hereditarypower,wherebypublic
officesdescendfromgeneration
to
generation
inthesamefamilies.
Aristocracymeantsimplythatofficeswereentrusted,exclusively
or
preferably,
tomenwhostoodoutfromthemassofother
citizensthroughwealthorexceptionalmerit,whetherornot
theydescendedfromancestorswhohadbeen
equallyprominent.
SotrueisthisthatAristotle
explicitlydistinguishesaristocracy
from"eugenism,"whichwouldmeangovernmentbymenof
familiesof
long-standing prominence,
or"menof
family,"
pureand
simple.
2
And,infact,ithappenednot
infrequently
thatsome"manof
family"wouldleadthepeopleagainstan
"aristocratic"partycomposed
inthe
majority
ofmenofrecent
fortune.ThatwasthecasewithPericles.
Butas
regards
theconflictbetween
aristocracyanddemocracy,
onemaysaythattheGreekstatehadanaristocraticsystem
wheneverwealthsucceededin
prevailingovernumberamong
thecitizensandademocraticsystemwhenevernumber
prevailed
overwealth.Underthearistocratic system,public offices,
oratleastthemoreimportantpublicoffices,whentheywerenot
actuallyrestrictedby
lawtocitizenswith
specifiedproperty
qualifications,paid
nosalaries.Theywereaccessible
only
to
1
See,especially,VI,VII,VIII.
2
Ibid.Ill,7,7;VIII,1,7.Inthelatter
passageAristotlesays:"Forgood
birthisvirtueandancientwealth" ancientinthe
family,thatis.

397. 354 TYPESOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIII
peoplewhodidnothavetoworkfora
living
in
personandday
byday.Therewasnofeeforattendingmeetings
oftheassem-
bly,andthese,accordingly,wereunattendedbythepoor
but
assiduouslyattendedbytherichandtheirclients.Whenthe
systemwasdemocratic,public
officeswereremunerative,and
attendanceattheassembly
entitledonetoacounter,which
couldbecashed.
Underaristocraticregimes,public
officeswerealmostalways
elective,becauseat
periods
ofelectionsthewealthycombined
inmoreorlesssecretassociations("hetairies")andwithplenty
of
rustlingbytheirclientstheycould
easilymanage
toconcentrate
theirvotesontheirowncandidatesandtooutvotethe
poor,
whohadnosuchresourcesfor
organizing. Underdemocratic
regimes,public
officeswere
generally
distributedby
lotamong
the
citizens.Thatsystemwas
justlyregarded
asabsurd,evenby
thinkersofancientGreece;butafterallitwastheonlysystem
wherebytheinfluenceof
reputation,personal
connectionsand
financed
electioneeringcouldbeeliminated.
Aswehavealreadyseen,sincethepoorwerealwaysmore
numerousthantherich,aristocraticgovernments
leanedheavily
onclienteles,whichwerekeptupthrough
thepatronage
that
themanofwealthbestowedonacertainnumberofthe
poor,
andthroughthelavishnesswithwhichthosewhowere
following
politicalcareersshowered
hospitalityuponthelesspecunious
citizensinthemass. Aristotleexpressly
notesthatPericles
wasnotasrichasCimon,sonofMiltiadesandleaderofthe
aristocraticparty.Hecouldnotcompete
withCimononthe
terrainof
expenditure.Hethereforemadeabidtothepoorby
havingmanyposts,whichhad
formerly
carriedno
stipend,
paid
foroutofthe
publictreasury.
1
Thatsystem,making
the
properallowances, isnotexceptionaleventoday
incountries
thataredemocratically ruled.Wellknownto
politicians
is
thetrickof
offsetting
theinfluenceof
privatewealthbythe
squandering
ofpublicwealth.
Abuseof
aristocracy
intheGreekstate
generallylay
inthe
directionof
exaggerating
thesystemthatisto
say,
intrans-
formingaristocracy
into
oligarchy,
inwhichaclosed
clique
jealouslybarredfrompublic
officesall
elements
thatwerenotof
the
clique,whatevertheirwealthor
personalmerit.Other
1
ConstitutionofAthens,27.

398. 4) THEGREEKCITY-STATE 355
frequentabusesresultedwhenthemonopoly
of
publicmagis-
tracieswasutilizedfor
protectingand
increasingtheprivate
fortunesofthegoverninggroupandoftheirassociatesandclients.
Thiswasmanagedmore
particularlybyseeing
toitthatjudg-
mentsincivilandcriminalcaseswerehandeddownbypersons
whowereaffiliatedwiththefactionthatwas
rulingthestate,
orwhowereloyal
toit.
Viceversa,attimeswhenpovertywas
self-respecting,
anda
majority
ofthepoorwouldsucceedin
keeping
freeofclientage
totherich,abusesofdemocracywouldreadilydevelop.Impor-
tant
public
officeswouldthenbegiven
tothemenonwhomthe
lotsfell,noaccountbeingtakenoftheir
capacitiesand
aptitudes
for
fillingthem.Sincetheexerciseofall
public
functionswas
remunerated,thetreasurywassoonsooverloadedthatinorder
tomeettheenormousexpenditures,burdensome taxeshad
tobeleviedontherichandwell-to-do. Theseamountedto
maskedconfiscationsof
privatefortunes,andthepubliceconomy
was
accordingly upset.
AristotlecalculatesthatinAthens
intheday
ofPericlesabouttwentythousandcitizenswere
subsidizedbythe
publictreasury. Thismeantthatvirtuallythe
entire
citizenrywastransformedintoaclassofstatepensioners.
1
Thatwas
possible
foracertainlength
oftime
partly
becauseof
theincomewhichthe
city
derivedfromthesilverminesof
Laurion,butmainlybecause,asAristotle
againstates,the
contributionsthatthealliespaid
intoAthensfortheprosecution
ofthewar
against
Persiawere
regularlymisappropriated.
This
misappropriation wasnotbyanymeanstheleastinfluential
causeamongthemanythatbroughtonthelonganddisgraceful
warwhichwassoontobreakoutamongtheHellenes,andwhich
cametobecalledthePeloponnesianWar.In
gravercases,
somepopulardemagoguewouldkillofftherich,orelsebanish
them,confiscatetheirpropertyanddivideupthelootamong
his
partisans
oramong
the
foreignmercenarieswho
supported
him.Thiswouldmeanthatthenormal
functioning
ofthe
constitutionwassuspended
andthattherewouldbeadictator-
shipby
aleadersustainedbyafaction. Thiswascalled
"tyr-
anny,"andtheGreekwritersunanimously describe itasthe
worstofallformsofgovernment.
2
1
Ibid.24.
8
Aristotle,Politics;Plato,Republic.

399. 356 TYPESOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIII
Oneneedhardlysaythatthenormalfunctioning
ofthe
Hellenicstaterequireda
high
levelofeconomicprosperityanda
highgrade
of
intelligenceandmoral
integrity
inthe
majority
of
citizens.Suchthings
arenot
easy
to
procure. Infact,this
type
of
politicalorganization
lastedinfull
efficiency
forlessthan
twocenturies,thatisto
say,fromthe
beginning
ofthefifth
century
B.C.tothecloseofthefourth,a
period
thatcoincided
withthemaximum development
ofHellenic civilization.
Sincetherewasno
regularbureaucracy,andnopermanentpolice
forceentrustedwiththeexecutionofthelaws,themajority
of
citizenshadtopossessa
strong
senseof
legalityandthe
high
degree
of
publicspirit
thatwouldinducethemtosacrificetheir
individualintereststothe
public
interest.Suchvirtuestherefore
wereinculcatedandcelebratedin
everypossiblewaybyGreek
education.That
explains
in
largeparttheimportancethat
PlatoandAristotleattachtotheeducationoftheyoung,and
educationwasalreadyregarded
asoneofthefunctionsofthe
stateinancientGreece. Itwasalsoindispensablethatacertain
numericalproportionshouldbemaintainedbetweencitizens
andslaves. Ifthecitizenswereveryfew,theslaveswere
likely
torebel,asthehelotsoftendidatSparta.Ontheotherhand,
ifthepopulation
ofcitizensgrew
too
large,then
largenumbersof
theminevitablybecamepaupersandlostinterestinthemain-
tenanceoftheirinstitutions. Withan
eye
tothesedifficulties,
Plato,intheRepublic,proposed
theabolitionof
privateproperty,
andconsequently
ofthe
family,
atleastforthe
ruling
class.
Withgreaterpracticalinsight,
Aristotlerecommended
building
up
smallproperty,justlynotingthatthedoorstoodopen
toall
upheavalswhenafewverywealthy
citizensfacedahostofpoor
ones,whohadarmsandvotesattheirdisposalbutnointerest
in
defending
the
existingorderof
things.
1
By
thevery
characterofits
organicconstitution,theGreek
statewasdestinedtoremainasmallaffair,its
territorynever
exceedingthelimitsofatownofmoderatesize. Iftheancient
Greeksusedoneword,"polls,"
toindicateboththestateand
the
city,
itwasbecausetheycouldhardlyconceiveofastate
organized
intheHellenicmannerthatwas
biggerthanone
city
andtheimmediatelyadjacentterritorythatsupplied
itsmeans
ofsubsistence.Tobesure,whenAlexandertheGreateon-

400. 4] THEGREEKCITY-STATE 357
quered
thePersianempire,Greekcivilizationspreadtostatesof
largesize,suchastherealmsof
Syria,EgyptandMacedonia.
Butthoseweregreatmilitarymonarchies,andtheir
organization
hadnothing
todowiththe
politicaltypewithwhichPlatoand
Aristotledeal.Inthosemonarchies,besides,theHellenicele-
mentwasconfinedtoasmall
ruling
class.
Greeceproper
neverknewa
greatstateforthereasonthatthe
Greek
city
couldnotbecomeone.Thebasisofitsorganization
wastheassembly
ofcitizens.Inordertoattend
regularly,one
hadtoliveinthecity,orinitsimmediateenvirons.Norcould
theassembly
itselfbetoolarge.Otherwisethemajorportion
ofthosepresentcouldnothearwhattheoratorswere
saying.
ThatiswhyPlato,inthe
Republic,
limitsthenumberofcitizens
tofivethousand. Inaplanhedevisedforanidealconstitution,
Hippodamus
ofMiletus
suggested
tenthousand,andoftheten
thousandonlyathirdweretobe
supplied
witharmsandso
qualified,
asAristotleobserves,
1
totakepart
in
public
affairs.
InthesameconnectionAristotlespeaks
ofanotheridealcon-
stitutionthatwasputforwardbyPhaleasofChalcedon,pro-
posingan
equal
distribution oflandamongthecitizens.The
Stagirite,again
withmuchgoodsense,emphasizesthe
difficulty
of
establishing
suchasystemand
especially
ofkeeping
it
going
afterward. Aristotlehimselfdoesnot
specifyanumberof
citizens.Hesaysthattheremightbeasmany
ascouldheara
humanvoice,andnotthevoiceofStentor,either;andheadds
thatallcitizensshouldbeabletoknoweachother,inorderto
judge
ofeachothers'aptitudes
for
publicoffice,a
thing
that
wouldbeimpossible
ifthecitizensweretoonumerous.
2
Inher
bestdays,Athensprobablyhadmorethan
thirtythousand
citizens,butthatwasanexception. Syracusehadevenmorethan
that,butatSyracuse,beginningwiththefourthcenturyB.C.,the
normalorganization
oftheGreek
citywasno
longer
abletofunc-
tion,Intheday
ofAristotle,Spartahadfallentoasfewastwo
orthreethousandcitizens,
3
andcouldarm,hethought,notmore
thanathousandfighters.Thatestimatewasprobablytoolow.
AristotleadmitsthatinearlierperiodsSpartamayhavehad
aroundtenthousand citizens.Thenumberofwarriors, of
1
IMd.II,5.
2
im.iv,4.
Ibid.II,6.

401. 358 TYPESOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIII
course,wouldalwaysbesmallerthanthenumberofcitizens.
AsforAthens,Belochthinksthatin431B.C.,attheoutbreakof
thePeloponnesianWar,theperiod
ofthe
city'sgreatestprosper-
ity,thenumberofcitizensmusthavereached45,000,including
cleruchs(Athenian
colonistswholivedinother
cities).
1
Tocompensate
forthe
impossibility
of
forminga
greatstate,
whilekeeping
the
organization
oftheHellenic
cityintact,ancient
Greeceattempted
toapplythe
principle
of
hegemony,
thesuprem-
acy
ofa
largecityoveranumberofsmallerones.Theremedy
soonshoweditsawkwardnessandinadequacy. Ashappened
withAthensafterthebattleofAegospotami,andwithSparta
afterLeuctra,the
subject
citiesreclaimedtheirindependence
themomentthedominant
capital
sufferedareverse. Colonies
themselvesincreasedthepower
ofthemother
citybut
slightly,
becausethey
toowerecitiesandthereforesomany
statesin
themselves, retaining,
ifanything,a
religious
ormerelysym-
patheticbondwiththe
city
inwhichtheyoriginated.
Onemayreasonablywonderthatmany
ofthefundamental
conceptswhichlatercametoserveasbasesfortheconstitutions
ofthe
greatmodernstatesofEuropeantype
shouldfirsthave
beenworkedoutandembodiedinsuch
tinypoliticalorganisms.
Totellthetruth,theconcept
of
politicallibertywasnotalto-
gether
alientothe
peoples
oftheancientEastandof
Egypt.But
tothemitmeant
simply
thatonepeopleshouldnotbe
subject
toanotherofdifferentrace,religionandcivilization,andthat
thosewhoruleda
country
shouldbemenofthatcountryand
not
foreigners.Theconceptwasnever
interpreted
inthesense
thatanationalgovernmentalsystemcouldbethought
ofas
servitudefromthemerefactthatitwasabsoluteand
arbitrary.
TheOldTestamentshowsthattheHebrewsconsideredthem-
selvesenslavedwhentheyweresubjecttotheAmalekitesor
Philistines,orwhentheyweretransportedbyNebuchadnezzar
toBabylon;butnotwhentheyhadanationalking,thoughthe
harshand
arbitrarygovernment
oftheirmonarchswasverywell
describedtotheeldersofIsraelbySamuel.
ItwasinancientGreecethat,forthefirsttime,onlythat
peoplewasregardedas
politically
freewhichwas
subject
tolaws
thatthe
majority
ofitscitizenshadapproved,andto
magistrates
towhomthe
majority
itselfhaddelegated
fixedpowers
forfixed
1
Bevtflkerung,andseeGomme,The
PopulationofAthena.

402. 4] THEGREEKCITY-STATE 859
periods.
ItwasinGreecethat,forthefirsttime,authoritywas
transmittednotfromabovedownward,notfromthemanwho
stoodattheapex
ofthe
politicalhierarchy
tothosewhowere
subject
tohim,butfrombelowupward,fromthoseoverwhom
authoritywasexercisedtothosewhoweretoexerciseit.
Inotherwords,Helleniccivilizationwasthefirsttoassert,as
againstthedivineright
of
kings,
thehuman
right
ofpeoplesto
govern
themselves. Helleniccivilizationwasthefirsttocease
lookinguponthelawasanemanationofthedivinewill,orof
personsacting
inthenameofthedivinewill,andtothinkofitas
ahumanandvariable
-interpretation
ofa
people's
will.The
authoritythattheGreekstatewieldedoveritscitizenswas
great.
Sometimes itwasdisposed
to
regulateeventhedetailsof
family
life.Butauthorityalwayshadtobeexercisedinaccordwith
normswhicha
majorityhad
accepted.
Aswehave
alreadyseen,thosefundamentalconceptswere
adapted
asfaras
possible
toEuropean
societiesoftheeighteenth
andnineteenthcenturies,andtheyhave
helpedeffectivelyto
modifyEuropean politicalsystems.Theyhavemadetheir
influence feltwherevertherehavebeenpeoples
ofEuropean
origin,and
today,through
theintellectualcontactsthatthe
Eastishaving
withEuropeandAmerica,they
arereverberat-
ing
inJapanandChinaandamongotherpeoples
ofAsiatic
civilization.

403. CHAPTERXIV
EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION
1.The
politicalconstitutionoftheItaliccityhadmanypoints
incommonwiththeconstitution oftheGreek
city.
Thismay
havebeenduetoracialaffinitiesbetweentheItalicandHellenic
peoples,
ashasoftenbeen
suggested. ThroughtheGreekcol-
oniesin
SicilyandMagnaGraecia,Greekcivilizationmayhave
madeitsinfluencefeltupon
theItalicpeoples
inan
agemuch
moreremotethantheperiodduringwhichthosecolonieswere
conqueredbytheRomans.
Howeverthatmaybe,inthe
primitive
Italian
citytoo,we
finda
king,
acouncilofnotablesanda
popularassembly. There
arereferencesintheRomanhistoriestotheexistenceofthe
kingly
officeamongtheEtruscansandLatinsataperiodwhen
Romestillhad
kings,
orhadonlyrecentlydriventhemoutthe
caseofPorsena,forinstance. Veiiseemsstilltohavehada
king
whenitwascapturedby
theRomansin395B.C.Thenlater
on,attheendofthefourthcenturyB.C.,andinthe
earlydecades
ofthethird,whenthe
really
historicperiodbeginsandtheItalic
populations
arebeingforcedtorecognizethesupremacy
ofRome,
wefindnotraceof
hereditaryroyalty
itseemstohave
disap-
pearedeverywhereamongthem.Whatwedofindarerivalries
betweenaristocracyand
plebs.Theyareinfull
swing.
Itwas
the
generalpolicy
ofRometofavorthearistocrats inthese
quarrels
inothercities.Sheverysoundlyreasonedthather
supremacy
couldmore
safelyberesteduponsuchelements,as
moreinclinedtoconservatismandsocial
tranquillity. Thebetter
toattainthatend,she
grantedcitizenshipquitefreelytonotables
inthefederatedcities.
InaremoteageRomeherselfhadher
kings,hersenate,com-
posedoftheheadsofthevariouspatricianclansthathadcom-
binedinafederationtoformtheearlycity,andalsoherpopular
assembly,orcomitium.Thenhereditaryroyaltywasabolished,
asinGreece,andreplacedbytheconsulateandothermagis-
360

404. 1] ROMANCITIZENSHIP 361
trades.Thesewereelective,temporaryandalmostalways
"multiple,"thesamefunction
beingsimultaneously entrusted
todifferent
persons. InRome,too,conflictssoonarosebetween
theold
patriciancitizenry,madeup
ofmembersoftheancient
gentes,andanew
plebeiancitizenry,madeuplargely
ofdescend-
antsofsettlersfromotherplacesandoffreedslaves.Fora
time,virtuallytwocitiesseemtohavecoexistedwithinthecon-
finesoftheurbs,with
magistraciespeculiar
toeach.Thenthe
twocitiesalmost
completelyfusedinan
organizationthat
closely
resembledtheHellenictype
whichw$havejust
considered. This
Romanconstitution, liketheGreek,was
designed
tofita
city-
state,butitwasnevertheless
distinguishedby
anumberof
profoundlyoriginal
details.
Firstamongthem,andthemostfertilein
practical
conse-
quences,wasa
broadening
ofthe
right
of
citizenship,
itspreroga-
tives
beingsubdivided insuchawaythat,alongside
ofthe
full-fledgedcitizenship,therewasapartialcitizenshipwhereby
aresidentcouldenjoysomeofthe
prerogatives
ofthecitizen
andlittleby
little
acquire
theassimilationthatwasnecessary
ifheweretobecomeequal
beforethelawwiththemembersof
theRoman
cityproper.Theprerogatives
ofthefullcitizen
(civisoptimijuris)
werethe
juscommercii,the
jusconubii,the
jussuffragiiandthe
jus
honorum.Thefirstbestowedenjoyment
ofallthe
privaterights
oftheRomancitizen.Thesecond
allowedmarriageswithRomancitizens,maleorfemale.The
thirdgave
the
right
to
participate
inthecomitia,thefourththe
right
tohold
public
office.Thefirsttwo
rightsweregranted
quitereadily.Theyserved
ordinarilyasa
preparation
for
obtainingtheother
rights.
ThisdeviceadmittedofsuchanextensionoftheRomancitizen-
ship
thatmanypersonsenjoyed
itwholivedsofarfromRome
that,evenhaving
the
right,theycould
scarcely
availthemselves
ofthe
privilege
ofattendingthecomitia. Inaword,Romefound
away
tosnap
thefatalcirclethathadpreventedtheGreek
city
fromexpanding.Bygrantingcitizenshipto
peoplewholived
farfromRome,shebuiltsteps,
sotospeak,inthe
abysswhich,in
Greece,hadseparatedthemanwhowasacitizenfromtheman
whowasnot.InthatwayRomewasabletohave92,000
citizensinscribedonherrollsby265B.C.,the
year
beforethe
outbreakofthefirstPunicWar,anddespitethelossesshesuffered

405. 862 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
inthatwarshestillhad240,000citizensin246,intheinterval
betweenthefirstandsecondPunicWars.Soshewasina
posi-
tiontorecruitthemanylegionswhichenabledhertosurvivethe
terribletrialsshesufferedduringHannibal'sinvasionof
Italy.
1
Continuingalong
thesamelines,Romewasablelittleby
littleto
assimilateavast
territoryand"makea
city
oftheworld":
UrbemfeciMiquodprius
orbiserat.
Sosanganative
poet
ofRomanizedGaulinthefifthcentury
A.D.,theagethatwitnessedthedeathagony
oftheempire.
2
Thesecond
original
traitinthe
republican
constitution of
ancientRomelay
inthe
considerablymorearistocraticcharacter
whichitsucceededinmaintaining
ascomparedwiththeGreek.
TheRomansenateeventuallyceasedtobeanassembly
ofthe
patresfamilias
oftheoldclans. Itsmemberswerechosenbya
"censor"fromamongmenwhohadalreadyheld
high
offices.
Nottilla
periodrelatively
recentwerethecomitiacenturiata
reformedinsuchaway
astodeprivethe
highlypropertied
classes
oftheir
preponderance
inthem;and
quitetardily
alsowerethe
comitiatributa,inwhichnumbersprevaileddecidedly
over
property,admittedto
paritywiththecomitiacenturiata.A
democraticreformofthecomitiacenturiata,inthedirectionof
removingthemfromthecontrolofthepropertiedclasses,was
carriedoutinthe
periodbetween241and218B.C.,inotherwords
betweentheendofthefirstPunicWarandthe
beginning
ofthe
second.
Equalization
betweenthe
plebiscitesvotedbythe
comitiatributaandthelawsvotedbythecomitiacenturiata
issaidtohavebeenestablishedbyacertainHortensianlawofthe
year286,butauthoritiesreservedoubtsonthat
point.For
thatmatter,agoodmany
uncertainties
lingeraboutRoman
constitutionallaw,perhaps
becausewe
try
tofindinittheclean-
cutdelimitationoffunctionsbetweenthevariousorgans
ofstate
towhichwehavebecomeaccustomedinmodernconstitutions.
8
Buthoweverthecomitiawereconstituted,alawcouldnotbe
passedbythemexcept
intheforminwhichthemagistrateshad
1
DeSanctis,StoriadeiRomani,vol.Ill,p.
193.
*
ButiliusItinerarium I,66.Claudian,acontemporary
ofRutiiius,usesa
similarexpression,InsecundumconsulatumStiliconis,150-160.
'See,onthismatter,Facchioni,Corsodidiriitoromano,vol.I,periodII,
chap.IV.

406. 31 ROMANARISTOCRACY 363
proposed
itandthesenate,withallits
prestige,hadratifiedit.
Asforelectiveoffices,customratherthanlawprevented
their
being
conferredonrealcommonersdowntothelastdays
ofthe
republic.The
militarytribunatewasthefirststepthat
aspir-
antstoa
politicalcareerhadtomount.DowntothePunic
Warsthatgradewasopen,
asamatterof
practice,only
to
membersofthe
equestrianorder,anditseemssafetoassume
thatthefewcenturionswhoattainedtherankofmilitarytribunes
duringthePunicWarswereabletomeetthepropertyqualifica-
tionsofthe
equestrian.
1
Ferreroha$soundlynotedthatduring
theperiod
ofthecivilwars,except
inthecaseofCaiusMarius,
who,forthatmatter,seemstohavehadequestrian origins,
armieswerealwayscommandedbymembersofthegreatRoman
families.
2
Another
thing:Many
citizenslivedsofarfromRomethata
lawprovidedthatatrinundinum,anintervalofsixteenorseven-
teen
(or,asothersclaim,of
twenty-four)dayshadtoelapse
betweenthedateoftheconvocationofthecomitiaandthedate
oftheirmeeting.Howeverthetermtrinundinummaybe
definedbymodernscholars,it
represented
a
periodthatwas
long
enough
forthesenatetofindanynumberof
urgent
casesthat
required
itsattention. This
helped
tomultiply
thefunctionsand
expand
theauthority
ofthesenate,whichwasina
positionto
convenemuchmore
rapidly.Overthisroutethesenatecameto
hold,bytheendofthe
republic,virtuallyexclusivecontrolof
financialand
foreignpolicy.
2.
Following
theday
oftheGracchi
duringthelastcentury
ofthe
republic,
inotherwords thisaristocraticorganization
wasmodifiedor,rather,becameunabletofunction
normally.
Itbecamemanifestthata
city-state,organizedalongthelines
oftheHellenic
type,couldnotbecomeaworld-wide
political
body,howevermuchitmightbetinkeredwithorexpanded.
Thecomitiarepresented
the
legalassemblage
ofthewhole
sovereignpeople
intheforumofRome.Thatmust
already
haveseemed
prettymuchofa
legal
fictionbythetime
citizenship
wasextendedtothepeoples
of
Italy(88B.C.). Itbecamea
grandjestwhena
largepart,
ifnotanactual
majority,
ofthe
1
DeSanctis,StoriaMRomani,vol.Ill,pp.344r~&46.
8
QrandezzaedecadenzadiRoma,vol.I,p.112.

407. 864 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
citizenswerescatteredoverthewholeMediterranean basin,far
fromItalianshores.Acensustakenin28B.C.,three
years
afterthebattleofActium,placedthenumberofcitizensat
4,164,000.Thecensusofthe
year
8B.C.counted4,233,000.
Thelastcensusofwhichwehaveanyinformationtook
place
in
A.D.48,undertheemperorClaudius. Itcounted5,894,012
citizens.Malesunderseventeen
years
ofageandfemaleswere
notincludedinthecount.The
figures
oftheyear28B.C.,there-
fore,alreadycorrespondedtoapopulation
ofbetweenfourteen
andfifteenmillion
persons,amuch
largerpopulationthanItaly
couldthenaccommodate, especially
ifonethinksofslavesand
foreignresidents.
1
Norwastheannualalternationinpublic
officesanylonger
practicable,oncetheincumbentshadtobeabsentfrom
Italy
for
years,
inremoteprovinceswhere
theywereinvestedwith
almostabsolute
power.
Forthesamereasonthearmieslost
theircharacterasannually
recruitedcitizenmilitias. Gradually
theycametobemorelikearmiesof
professional soldiers,who
weremorecloselyboundtothe
generalwhocommandedthem
for
year
afteryearthantothestateat
large.
Itwasinevitable,
therefore,thattheoldcivitasromanashouldbetransformedinto
a
politicalorganism
thatwouldbeheldtogetherandgoverned
bya
professionalbureaucracyandastandingarmy.
Thistransformationtook
placewhen,touseordinarylanguage,
theempirereplaced
the
republic.Onecanseeno
prospect
ofan
endtothe
dispute
astotheactualintentionsthatAugustusand
hisconfederateshadwhentheyinaugurated
thenew
regime.
One
thing
iscertain:Theywerenottrying
toreplacetheold
systemwitheitheranabsolutemonarchy
oralimitedmonarchy,
asweunderstandthoseterms
to-day.Butitis
just
ascertain
thatthenewarrangementsthey
introducedmarkedadecisive
steptowardtransforming
theold
city-state
intoanewformof
politicalorganization,whichmadefareasierthetaskof
holding
together,governingandslowlyassimilating
thevastdominions
thatRomehadsucceededinconquering.
Itisalaw,andperhaps
aconstantlaw,thatas
politicalorgan-
ismsaretransformed, later
organisms
retainbroadtracesof
earlierorganisms, especially
ofthoseimmediately preceding.
Thenewedificeisbuiltmoreorlessontheruinsoftheold,and,
1
Marquardt,DeI*organisationfinancier
echezlesRomains,part2,p.387(note).

408. 2] THEROMANEMPIRE 365
inpart
atleast,ofmaterials
suppliedby
it.Thislawis
clearly
confirmedinthecaseoftheAugustan
reform.Thatreformdid
notdeprivethecomitiaof
legislativepower
atonestroke.
Thoseassembliescontinuedtobeconvokedfromtimetotime.
Theyfunctioned
intermittently
formorethanacentury
afterthe
battleofActium.Butthepower
of
enacting
lawswaslittleby
littletakenoverbythesenateandtheemperor,andintheend
entirely.Lawsapprovedbythecomitiaarestillimportantand
numerousunderAugustus.Theyarelessfrequent
afterhis
time,andthenare
graduallyreplacedbythesenatusconsultum
andeventuallybyimperialdecreesorinstitutes
(constitutiones
imperiales). Thelastlawknowntohavebeenapprovedby
the
comitiawasalex
agraria
enactedundertheemperorNerva
(reigned
A.D.96-98).
l
Asforwhatwouldcorrespond
totheexecutiveand
judiciary
powers
oftoday,
theseweredividedbetweenthesenateandthe
emperor.Theemperorwasregardedasacivilianmagistrate,
whoconcentratedmanypowers
inhisown
person,butleftmany
otherstothesenateinmattersthatconcernedthe
city
ofRome,
Italyandthesenatorialprovinces.Heassumedthefunctions
ofanabsolutesovereignfromthefirstinimperialprovinces.
Thesewerelookedupon
as
subject
tomilitaryoccupation.The
emperorgoverned
athisdiscretionthrough
abureaucracywhose
directorswerechosensometimesfromamong
thesenatorsbut
preferablyfromamongordinaryequestrians.
2
As
alwayshappens
inthecontactsandcompetitions
that
inevitably
arisebetweentheremnantsofanoldsystemanda
newsystemthatisbettersuitedtotheneedsofan
age,
theoffices
thatwerefilledbyappointees
ofthesenatekeptdiminishing
in
number.Intheendfewtracesofthemwereleft.InBorne
itself,beginningwiththefirstemperors
oftheJuliandynasty,
muchoftheworkdoneby
theoldhonorarymagistrateswas
takenoverbynewofficialswhowereappointedbytheemperor.
Graduallytheregularbureaucracy,mannedbyknightsandeven
by
the
emperor'sfreedmen,madeitsinfluencemoreandmorefelt
1
Pacchioni,Corsodidirittoromano,vol.I,periodIV,chaps.IX-XL
2
ForallthisevolutionoftheancientRoman
city-stateintoabureaucratic
empire,
seePacchioni,op.
dt.vol.I,periodIV;Hartmann,DerUntergang
der
AntikenWelt;Ferrero,OrandezzaedecadenzadiRoma,vol.IV;Bryce,TheHoly
RomanEmpire.

409. 306 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
throughouttheempire.Thesenateitselfcametoberecruited
fromthe
higherbureaucracyandfromthe
great
familiesof
Italy
andlaterofthewholeRomanworld.In
practice,afterthe
firstemperors,
itsauthoritywasconfinedwithinsuchlimitsas
theemperorsandtheircreatureswerepleased
todraw.
1
Theempirefacedaseriouscrisisinthesecondhalfofthethird
centuryandmanaged
tosurviveit.Butafterthat,Diocletian
andConstantinehadno
difficulty
in
suppressing
almostall
memoriesandsurvivalsoftheoldconstitutionofthe
city,
orat
leastin
reducingthemtoemptynamesthathadno
positive
content.Twoconceptsonlyweresalvagedfromthewreck.
Onewasthattheemperorderivedhisauthorityfromthe
people.
Thankstothe
lawyers,
thattheoryhungonuntilJustinian's
time.The
jurists
ofthatemperor'sdaygavethefamousdictum
ofUlpian,
"
Quodprindpiplacuitlegis
habetvigorem(The
Prince's
pleasure
islaw),"abroadinterpretationthatitprobablyhad
nothadatfirst;butinholdingthatthepeoplehaddelegatedlegis-
lativepowertothesovereign
invirtueofthelex
regia
de
imperio,
they
toopaidhomage
tothe
principle
ofpopularsovereignty.
2
Theotherwasthateverymagistratehada
sharply
delimited
sphere
of
jurisdiction
andshould,atleast
theoretically,
exer-
cisehisauthority
inaccordwiththelaw.Tothat
principle
maybeduepartlythefactthatadministrationby
theRoman
bureaucracywas
certainlymore
systematic,andthereforemore
effective,thananythingthattheancientNearEasternempires
hadknown. Sufficientproof
ofthatistheremarkableway
in
whichitsucceededinspreadingthelanguage,laws,mannersand
customsofRome,andinbringingalmostallthecivilizedworld
ofthattimeintomoralunity.
3.Theprimecausesforthedeclineofancientcivilizationand
the
disintegration
oftheRomanEmpireintheWestconstitute
perhapsthemostintricateandobscureproblem
in
history.
Whilestudiesofthelastcenturyhaveshedmuch
lightupon
them,notallthedarknesshasyetbeendispelled.
8
Themost
obscurepoint
inthat
greathistoricphenomenon
stillremainsits
beginning.Whythat
falling
offinthesupply
of
superiormen?
1
Pacchioni,loc.cit.,chap.IX.
2
Pacchioni,loc.dt.
tchap.XI.
8
Ferrero,"LaRuinedelacivilisationantique."

410. J8] DECLINEOFROMANEMPIRE 367
Whythatartisticand
literarydecadence?Theyare
already
manifestinthethird
centuryA.D.,whentheancientpagan
ideals
wereoutwornandthenewChristianidealhadnotyetspread
among
theeducatedclasses.
Certainly
thereweremanygrave
evilsinRomansocietyunder
theLowEmpire.Thesystem
oftaxationwasburdensomeand
absurd. Itexhaustedsourcesofwealth,anditfell
especially
uponthemiddleclasses,inotherwordsupontheprovincial
bourgeoisie
thatcomposedthedecurionateofthecitiesandtowns.
Thebody
ofdecurionswasmadeup
ofpeoplewhocouldmeet
the
higherpropertyqualifications.
Itexercisedfunctionsthat
weresomewhatsimilartothoseofourboardsofaldermen.But
italsohadcharge
of
collecting
directtaxes,andincasea
city
couldnotpay
its
assignedquota
infullthedecurionshadtomeet
thedeficitfromtheirprivatemeans.Theposition
ofdecurion
wasatfirstmuchsought
afterasa
sign
ofsocialdistinction.
Eventually
itbecameanabhorredone,andeverybody
triedto
evadeit.
Thedeclineofthemiddleclassesleft,facingeachother,an
aristocracy
of
greatlanded
proprietorswhichsupplied
officials
tothehigherbureaucracy,andanumerouspauper
classwhich,in
the
capitalandthe
largercities,wasalways
inturmoilandlived
partlyonthedoleofthestateandlateroftheChurch,orelse
driftedalong
inthecountry
inthe
semislavery
ofthetillersof
thesoil.Publicsafetywasaverysketchything,and
brigandage
wasrife.ThehistoriansmentiononeBulla,whofora
longtime
scoured
Italy
attheheadofagang
ofsixhundredbandits. In
Gaulbrigandagebyoutlawed serfs,calledbagaudae("wan-
derers,""knapsackers"?) longpersisted. Fortherest,tosee
howwidespreadbrigandagewasatthetime,onehasonly
to
readoneofthefewnovelsthatclassical
antiquitybequeathed
to
us,theGoldenAss(Metamorphoses)
of
Apuleius.Therich
defendedthemselves inthesecircumstancesbymaintaining
privateguardsstrong-armed
ruffianswhowerecalledbuccelarii
("hardtack"). People
ofmoderateorsmallfortuneshadno
way
ofdefendingthemselves.Theysimplysuccumbed. Public
hygienewasnotadvancedfarenoughtoallowthenormalincre-
mentinpopulationtofillthegaps
leftbyfamine,pestilence,
raids
by
barbariansandothercausesofunusualmortality.Ashap-
pens
inallverymaturecivilizationswhere
religiouschecksare

411. 368 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
weak,thebirthrateseemstohavebeenlow.Notevenbythe
fifthcenturyhadChristianitypenetratedtheruralplebsdeeply
enough
toovercomevoluntary
abortionsandexposures
ofthe
newborn.Thelatterpracticewassocommonin
antiquitythat
recognitions
ofexposedfoundlingswereamongthecommonest
themesintheancienttheater.
BeginningwithDiocletian'stime,inordertodealwith'the
gravedepressionthathadfallenupontheempireaboutthemiddle
ofthethirdcentury,thestateassumedextraordinarypowersand
exercisedextraordinary
functionsofcontrol. Itpresumed
to
discipline
thewholeeconomicsphere
oflife,fixingwagesand
the
prices
of
crops.
Inordertoassure
continuity
inwhatwe
wouldnowcall
"publicservices," it
prohibitedthosewhowere
employed
inthemfrom
leaving
their
positionsand
obliged
the
sontofollowthetradehisfatherhadfollowed. Administration
was
seriously
affectedwithadiseasethatisthecurseofbureau-
craticsystemsandthesourceoftheir
everyweakness
bribery,
venality,graft.TheRomanofficialoftheLowEmpiregenerally
paidmoreattentiontohis
private
intereststhantothe
public
interestwhichhewascharged
tolookoutfor.Itisknownfrom
themanycontemporary
allusionsthatevenatthehighestlevels
ofthebureaucratic scalenothingcouldbeobtainedwithout
lavish
gifts.When,forinstance,theemperorValensallowed
theGothstocrosstheDanubeandsettleintheterritories
ofthe
empire,
officialswerecommissionedtodistributefoodto
themandtakeaway
theirarms.Buttheofficialswerebribed
with
gifts.They
leftthebarbarianstheirarmsand
appropriated
the
supplies.Very
instructiveinthisconnection isthe
report
onan
inquiry
thatwasconductedin
Tripolitaniatowardthe
endofthefourth
century.
Itis
digested
indetailbyAmmianus
Marcellinus.
1
Ontheotherhanditmustnotbe
forgottenthatnohuman
society
iswithoutitsills,andthat
alongwiththemalmostalways
comesanatural
healing
forcethattendstomitigate
theireffects.
Theeasternempire
sufferedfromthesametroublesasthewest-
ern.Itwasnot
only
abletosurvivethem,butinthesixth
century,underJustinian,and
again
inthe
eighthandninth,under
theiconoclasticemperorsandtheMacedonian
dynasty,
ithad
noteworthyspurtsof
energy.Atthosetimesitmanagedtosave
jXXVIII,6,5.

412. 3] MEDIEVALFEUDALISM
mostofits
territoryandcivilizationfromthebarbarianswho
were
attackingfromthenorth,anditdidthesamelateron
againsttheArabs.
Anindividualdieswhenhisorgans
arewornoutbyageand
arenolongerabletofunctionnormally,
orelsewhenhehas
weakenedfromsomecauseorotherandisunabletoresistinfec-
tion.Atfirst
sight
itmightseemasthougholdage
couldnever
affectapeopleoracivilization,sincehumangenerationsalways
reproducethemselvesandeachnew
generation
hasallthe
vigor
of
youth.Yetsomethingthatis
altogethercomparable
tooldage
or
organic
debilitationdoesmanifestitselfinpeoples.There
cometimeswhenmoralbondsseemtoslacken,whenthe
religion,
orthe
patrioticsentiment,thathasbeentheinstrumentofsocial
cohesion,losesitsholdandwhenthenaturalhealingforce,the
power
toreact,failsto
operate. Thisisbecausethebetter
elementsin
society
are
paralyzed,andtheyareparalyzedbecause
theyhaveturnedtheir
activityandtheir
energiestopurposes
otherthanthethings
essentialtothesalvationofthestate.The
measureofthisinternalweakness istherelative
insignificance
oftheexternalshockthatproducesthe
catastrophe.Wesee
greatpeoples
fallbeforeonslaughtsbypeopleswhowerebut
recently
theirinferiors inarmament, inknowledgeandin
discipline.
The
great
intrusionoftheGermanic
peoplesupontheRoman
Empirewas
precipitated
attheendofthefourthcenturybythe
impact
oftheHuns.Theempire
inthewestwascalleduponto
meetthatshockatacriticalmoment,whentheideasandsenti-
mentsthathadconstitutedthemoralfoundations oftheold
classicalcivilizationhadlanguishedandawaveofmysticismwas
sweeping
the
empire,deprivingthestateofallitsbetterelements,
ofalmostallindividualswhowere
distinguishedby
loftinessof
characterormind,and
givingthemtotheChurch.
1
Theeastern
part
oftheRomanworldsurvivedbecause,owing
toitsgeo-
graphicalposition,perhaps,
ithadtimeto
getpastthecritical
momentand
rally
itsforces.Thewestern
portion
didnot.It
wasalmostwhollyunderthecontrolofthebarbariansbythe
middleofthefifth
century.
Itisnoteworthythattowardtheendofthefourthcentury
andinthefirsthalfofthefifth,whilethewesternempire
is
1
Mosca,Teoricadeigwernitchap.II, 6,p.87.

413. 870 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
crumbling,theChurch
glitterswithaconstellation ofsuperior
men St.Ambrose,St.Jerome,St.Augustine,
St.Paulinusof
Nola,PaulusOrosius,SalvianofMarseillesandothers still.
Withthe
exception
ofTheodosius,andtheunfortunateMajorian,
oneofthelastemperors
intheWest,thereishardlyanative
Romanofanycharacterorbrainswhodevoteshimselftothe
serviceofthestate. Characteristic inthisconnection isan
anecdoterelatedby
St.Augustine.AcertainPontitianuswas
attendingtheemperoratthecircusatTrierinGermany.He
wentforawalkwiththreeotherofficersofthe
imperial
retinue
inthegardens
nearthewalls.Theychancedtoenteramonas-
teryandbegan
toexamineamanuscript
ofthelifeofSt.Anthony
aswrittenbyAthanasius,archbishop
ofAlexandria. Theread-
inghadsuchaneffectonthemthattheyimmediatelyresigned
fromtheimperial
serviceandenteredtheChurch.
4.Afterthebarbarianshadsettledinalltheoldprovincesof
thewesternempire,
the
process
of
politicalandcivil
disintegra-
tionthathadbegun
inthethirdcenturyA.D.wentrapidly
on.In
thebeginninganumberofthe
earlybarbarian rulers,espe-
cially
theOstrogothTheodoric,seemtohavemadeaneffortto
retainthe
personnel
oftheoldRomanciviladministrationasfar
as
possible,reservingthemilitarydefenseofthe
country
tothe
invaders.Butthenew
regimescouldhardlyadaptthemselves
tothecomplicatedbureaucraticmachineoftheRomans.The
oldsystempresupposedanadministrativeexperienceanda
legal
educationthattheconquerorsdidnothave.Thebarbarian
kings,besides,foundthemselves
obliged
torewardtheirfollowers
withmostofthelandsofthe
conquered. Thatcouldnotfailto
upset
thesociety
ofthetime.Theupper
classesofRoman
origin
eitheradaptedthemselvestothelifeandways
ofthebarbarians,
orelsedisappeared
intotheplebs.Theredistribution ofland
meantimemusthaveprepared
theway
forthedevelopment
of
thegreatlanded
proprietor
intothelocalhereditarysovereign.
Thereisanotherfactoralso.Aftergrowingsomewhataccus-
tomedtoRomancivilizationandinstitutions,the
earlyinvaders
oftenwere
replacedbyothers,wtowere
completely
uncivilized.
SotheGothswerereplacedby
theLombards. Itiseasy
to
understand,therefore,thataftera
century
ortwoalmostnothing
oftheoldRomanstatemachineshouldhavebeen
left,andthat

414. 4] MEDIEVALFEUDALISM 371
thenewregime
shouldproveutterlyincompetent
inthe
long
runtokeep
thestructureofa
great
statesoundandsolidundera
singlegovernment.
Thenewsystemwasmodeledontheinstitutions,andfounded
onthesentiments,withwhichtheGermanictribeshadbeen
accustomedtogovern
intheirnativehomes,inotherwords,on
thereciprocal
tiesofpersonalloyaltythatboundthehigh
chief
ofthewarriorbandtohissubordinates. Theruinofthe
great
barbarianmonarchywasarrestedfortwoorthree
generationsby
the
energetic
Prankishdynasty
oftheHeristals,and
especially
byCharlemagne,a
trulygiftedsovereign,whotriedtorevive
theRomantraditionofunityandcentralization. Butafter
Charlemagne'sdeaththeprocess
of
disintegrationwentonwith
rapidaccelerationunderthe
pressure
ofnewincursionsbyHun-
garians,NormansandSaracens.Bythetenth
century
the
independence
ofthelocalchiefsas
regarded
thecentralpowerwas
virtuallycomplete,andthesystemthatwaslatertobecalled
"feudal"wasfunctioning
inthefact.
Feudalismwasnot,andcouldnotbe,areversionpureand
simpletothesituationthatRomehadfoundinthewesternworld
beforesheconquered
itacongeries
ofmutuallyhostiletribes
andsmall
peoples. Certainintellectualadvanceshadbeenmade
theadoption
ofacommonlanguage,
forinstanceand
espe-
cially
materialimprovements. Suchthingsonce
acquired
are
never
entirelylost,evenwhenthe
politicalorganizationthat
hasmadethempossible
dissolvescompletely.A
peoplethathas
grownaccustomedto
living
inone
territory,
toan
agriculture
baseduponprivateproperty,
toacertaindifferentiationinsocial
classes,doesnotlosethosecharacteristichabitsofmind
entirely,
evenafteralongperiod
ofanarchy.Someofthematerialsof
whichthefeudaledificewasbuiltwere,moreover,mere
develop-
mentsandcontinuationsofinstitutionsoftheLowEmpire.We
know,forinstance,thatserfdom,thechainthatboundthe
populous
classof
agricultural
laborerstothesoil,goesbackinto
theRoman
period.
Inruraldistricts,therefore,thenew
regime
merelytransformedthevillaoftheoldRoman
proprietorinto
thefortifiedcastleofthebaron.
Feudalismintroducedanumberofnovelties forone
thing,
the
politicalsupremacy
ofan
exclusivelywarriorclass.That
lefttothe
clergy
thetaskofkeepingsuchbitsofcultureashad

415. 372 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.
survivedthecatastrophe
oftheancientworldalive.Another
characteristic ofthefeudalsystemwasthecentralization ofall
administrative functions,andallsocialinfluence,inthelocal
militaryleader,whoatthesametimewasmasteroftheland
theoneinstrument,virtually,
fortheproduction
ofwealthwhich
stillexisted.
Feudalism,finally,createdanewtype
ofsovereigntythatwas
intermediatebetweenthecentral,coordinatingorgan
ofthestate
andtheindividual. Oncetheirpositionhadbecome
hereditary,
themoreimportant
localleadersboundlesserleaderstothem-
selvesbysubgrants
ofland,andtheselesserchiefsweretiedby
oathsoffeudalhomageand
fidelity
tothemanwhomadethe
grant.They,therefore,hadnodirectrelationswiththehead
ofthefeudalconfederationasawholethe
king.Infact,they
feltobliged
to
fight
the
king
iftheleadertowhom
they
were
directlyboundwasatwarwithhim.This,certainly,wasthe
maincauseofthe
long
resistancewhichthefeudalsystemoffered
tothecontinuouseffortsofthecentralpower
to
destroy
it.
5.Brycewrotethat"thetwo
great
ideaswhich
expiring
antiquitybequeathed
tothe
ages
thatfollowedwereofaWorld-
MonarchyandaWorld-Religion."
1
Infact,downtothefour-
teenthcentury,thememory
oftheold
unity
ofallcivilizedand
Christianpeoples,guided
in
religious
mattersbytheRoman
pontiff,wholittleby
little
gainedrecognition
assupremehierarch
oftheuniversalchurch,andin
temporal
mattersbythesuccessor
oftheancientRomanemperor,lingered
aliveand
vigorous
in
theintellectualclassestheclergyandthedoctorsofthelaw.
Unlesssuchmemorieshadbeenverymuchalive,weshouldbe
atalosstoexplain
theattempt
torestoretheempirethattook
placeunderCharlemagneandPopeLeoIIIintheyear800,or
anothersomewhatmoresuccessfulattemptthatwasmadeby
OttoIofSaxony
in962.
Anameandanideamay
exercisea
great
moralinfluence,but
they
arenotenough
torestoreacentralized,coordinated
political
systemoncethatsystem
hasfallentopieces.Inordertoeffectsuch
arestoration,theyhavetohaveamaterial
organizationattheir
disposal,andinordertohavesuchan
organizationthe
agencies
required
forestablishing
itmustbeavailable. Such
agencies
1
TheHolyRomanEmpire,chap.VII,p.
87.

416. 5] THEMEDIEVALEMPIRE 373
Charlemagne's
successorsandtheGermanicemperors
lacked.
Theyhadneitherasoundfinancialorganization
nora
regular
bureaucracynor,finally,
a
standingarmy
thatwas
capable
of
enforcingobedienceto
imperial
edicts.
InCharlemagne'sday,theoldGermanicbandstillfurnished
a
fairlywell-disciplined
militiaforthePrankisharmies,andthe
locallordswerenot
yetomnipotent. Forthesamereasonthe
emperors
oftheHouseofSaxony,andthefirsttwoemperors
of
theHouseofFranconia,couldcountonthecooperation
ofthe
Germanmilitaryclass,whichwasnotyetsolidlygroupedabout
afewleaders. Imperialand
regalpower
attaineditsmaximum
efficiency
inGermanyunderHenry
IIIofFranconia.That
emperormanaged
forsometimetokeep
afewofthe
principal
duchiesunfilled,ortohavethemoccupiedby
relativesofthe
reigning
house.Heheldtheduchy
ofFranconiaand,foratime,
theduchy
ofSwabiaunderhis
personaldominion,andfurther
retainedtheexclusive
right
tonametheholdersofthe
great
ecclesiastical fiefs,bishopricsandabbacies,whichwerenot
hereditary,andwhichcoveredalmosthalfofthe
territory
of
Germany.HenryIIIdiedanuntimelydeath.HenryIVat
thatmomentwasaminorandhewas
personallyweak.His
struggleswiththepapacypermittedthe
higherGerman
nobility
to
regaintheground
ithadlost.
1
Butthemomentthefeudalsystemhadtakena
stronghold
inGermanythemilitarybaseoftheempirebecame
shaky.Then
thestrugglebetweentheempireandtheChurchgavethelocal
sovereigntiesthesupport
ofagreatmoralforceintheirclash
with
imperialauthority.Theefforttoreestablishtheworld-wide
politicalunity
ofChristianpeoples,whichCharlemagnehad
madeandwhichOttoIofSaxonyhad
repeated,maybecon-
sideredacompleteandfinalfailurewiththedeathofFrederickII
ofHohenstaufen.
Butthestateofsemibarbarismwhichcharacterizedthedarkest
period
oftheMiddleAges
incentralandwesternEuropewasnot
tobeeternal. Civilizationwastorise
again.The
processof
reabsorbing
localpowers
intothecentralorgan
ofthestatehad,
therefore,tostartanewunderadifferentform;and,infact,what
the
representative
oftheancientRomanEmpirehadbeenunable
todobecamethetaskofthevariousnationalmonarchies.
1
Bryce,TheHolyRomanEmpire,chap,IX,

417. 874 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [C*AP.XIV
Meantime,fromabouttheyear1000on,anothersortoflocal
sovereigntyhadbegun
torisealongside
ofthefiefthemedieval
town,thecommune.Thecommunewasafederationof
guilds,
neighborhood organizationsandtrade
corporations
allthe
variousassociationsofpeoplewhowereneithernoblesnor
subject
vassalswhichwere
organized
inthemoretroublous
periods
of
feudalanarchy
inorderthatthosewhobelonged
tothemmight
enjoy
acertainmeasureofpersonalsecuritythroughmutual
defense.Thecommunesbecamepowerful
firstinnorthern
ItalyandtheninGermanyandFlanders,andinthosecountries
theywereoneofthe
greatest
obstaclestothegrowth
ofthepower
oftheHolyRomanEmperor.Theyachievedmoremodest
positions
inFrance,England,
theIberiankingdomsandsouthern
Italy.Inthosecountriestheysupportedthecrown
against
feudalism.
In
general,
thenationalmonarchiesclaimedhistoricalconnec-
tionswiththeoldbarbarianmonarchies,whichthe
invading
GermanshadsetupontheruinsoftheancientRomanEmpire.
Butaftertheperiod
of
political
dissolutionthatoccurredunder
Charlemagne's
firstsuccessors,theybegantotakeshapeagain
followinggeographic
and
linguistic
linesratherthanhistoric
traditions.TheFranceofSt.Louis,forinstance,didnotcor-
respondtotheold
territory
oftheFranks.Inonedirectionit
embracedancientSeptimania,whichthe
Visigothshadformerly
controlled. IntheotheritwithdrewfromFlanders,Franconia
andtheRhineland,whichwereallGermanicterritoriesandwere
eventuallyattractedintotheorbitoftheHolyRomanEmpire.
Furthermore,though
histitlemightderive
officiallyfromthe
titleswithwhichtheoldbarbarian
kingshadadornedtheir
persons,thenationalkingwasatfirst
onlythehead,andsome-
timesthenominalhead,ofafederationof
greatbarons first
amongthem,butfirstamongpeers.HughCapetandPhilip
Augustuswerelookedupon
in
just
thatway
inFrance.King
Johnof
Englandappears
inthat
guise
inthetextoftheMagna
Charta,andsodothe
kings
ofAragon
intheoathwhichthey
were
obliged
totakebeforetheCortes,Asiswellknown,the
baronsofAragon,incouncilassembled,invitedthenewkingto
swearthathewouldkeep
alltheoldagreements. Beforeenum-
eratingthem,theyrepeatedadeclaration:"We,whoonebyone
Eireyourequalsandallunitedaremorethanyourequals,name

418. 5] BUREAUCRATICABSOLUTISM 875
you
ourkingonthe
following
conditions."Andwhenthecondi-
tionshadbeenread,theyconcluded:"Andotherwisenot."
Morethansixcenturiesofstruggleandslowbutconstant
fermentwereneededforthefeudalking
todevelopintothe
absolute
king,
thefeudalhierarchy
intoaregularbureaucracy,
andthearmymadeup
ofthenoblesinarmsandtheirvassals
intoa
regularstandingarmy.Duringthosesixhundredyears
therewere
periodswhenfeudalismwasabletotakeadvantage
of
criticalmomentsthatcountryandcrownchancedtobepassing
throughand
regainsomeofitslostground.Butintheendvic-
tory
restedwithcentralizedmonarchy.Thekings
littleby
little
succeededin
gathering
intotheirhandsassemblages
ofmaterial
agenciesthatwere
greaterthanthefeudalnobility
couldmatch.
They
alsomadeshrewduseofthe
support
ofthecommunesand
ofpowerfulandconstantmoralforces,suchasthewidespread
beliefthat
reigningdynastieshadbeendivinelyappointedto
rule,oratheory
ofthedoctorsoflawthatthe
king,
likethe
ancientRomanemperor,wasthe
sovereign
willthatcreated
lawandthesovereignpower
thatenforcedit.
Theprocessbywhichfeudalmonarchyevolvedintoanabso-
lutebureaucraticmonarchymightbecalled
typical
ornormal,
sinceitwasfollowedinFranceandinanumberofothercountries
inEurope. Nevertheless, therewereother
processeswhich
led,ormight
haveled,tothesameresults.Thecommuneof
Milan,forinstance,inthevalley
ofthePo,developed
firstinto
a
signoria,
or
tyranny,andthenintoaduchy.Inthefirsthalf
ofthefifteenthcentury
it
subjectedmanyothercommunesand
acquireda
fairly
extensive
territory.
Itmighteasilyhave
becomeamodernnationalkingdom. Elsewheregreatfeuda-
toriesenlarged
theirdomainsandtransformedtheminto
king-
doms.Thatwasthecasewiththemargraves
of
Brandenburg,
whobecamekings
ofPrussiaandthen
emperors
ofGermany,and
withthedukesofSavoy,whobecamekings
ofSardiniaand
finally
of
Italy.
Economiccausesseemtohaveexercisedvery
littleinfluence
onthetransformation ofthefeudalstateintothebureaucratic
state,andthatevolutioncertainly
isoneoftheeventsthathave
mostprofoundly
modifiedthehistory
oftheworld.Systems
of
economic
production
didnotundergoanyveryradicalchanges
betweenthefourteenthcenturyandtheseventeenth,especially

419. 376 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
ifwecomparethemwiththechangesthattook
place
after
bureaucratic absolutismwasfounded.Ontheotherhand,
betweentheendofthefifteenthcenturyandthesecondhalfof
theseventeenth inotherwords,duringtheperiodwhenthe
feudalsystemwas
losinggroundeverydayandwas
beingper-
manentlytameda
far-reachingrevolutionwastakingplace
in
militaryartand
organization,owing
toimprovements
infirearms
andtheirwiderandwideruse.Thebaronialcastlecouldeasily
and
rapidlybebattereddownassoonascannonbecamecommon
weapons.Theheavycavalryhadbeenmadeup
ofnobles,the
only
oneswhocouldfindtimefor
longtraining,andmoney
for
theexpensiveknightlyequipment. Butcavalryceasedtobethe
armthatdecidedbattles,oncethearquebushadbeenperfected
andthe
infantryhad
generallyadopted
it.
Wesawabove
(chap.XIII, 3)thatchanges
inarmamenthad
averyperceptible
influenceon
politicaldevelopments
intheHel-
lenic
city
intheseventhandsixthcenturiesB.C.Soin
Japan,
at
theendofthesixteenthandthe
beginning
oftheseventeenth
century,monarchical centralization, withtheshoguns
ofthe
Tokugawafamily,prevailed
overfeudalismshortly
afterthe
introductionoffirearms,whichweremadeknowntothatcountry
bythePortuguese.
1
6.Theabsolutebureaucraticstatemayberegardedasperma-
nentlyestablishedand
fullydeveloped
inFranceatthebeginning
ofthepersonalteign
ofLouisXIVin1661,thatis.Atthe
sametime,orsoonafter,thestrengthening
ofcentralauthority
andtheabsorption
oflocal
sovereigntiesbecamemoreorless
completely generalizedthroughoutEurope.Thefewstates,
suchasPolandorVenice,thatwouldnot,orcouldnot,movewith
thetimesandtransformtheirconstitutions, lostpowerandcohe-
sionand
disappeared
beforetheendoftheeighteenthcentury.
Thustheorigins
ofabsolutemonarchyare
relatively
recent.
Insideit,andunderitswing,new
rulingforces,newintellectual,
moralandeconomicconditions,rapidlygrewup,sothatinless
thana
centuryandahalfitstransformation intothemodern
representative statebecameinevitable.The
rapidity
ofthat
evolutionstrikesusasoneofthemost
interestingphenomena
in
history.
1
LaMazeli&re,Le
Japon,
vol.III.

420. 6] RISEOFMIDDLECLASSES 377
Themostimportant
factorinthetransformationwastherapid
growth
ofanewsocialclass,whicharoseandasserteditspower
inbetweenthecommonpeopleandthedescendants oftheold
feudal
aristocracy.The
bourgeoisie,
inthebroadsenseofthe
term,comprisesthenumerousclassofpeoplewhofindemploy-
mentintheliberal
professions,
incommerceandinindustry,and
whocombinemoderatemeanswithatechnicalandoftenascien-
tificeducationthatisfarsuperior
tothatofothersocialclasses.
Itcameintobeing
inEuropeduringthe
eighteenthcentury.To
besure,evenbeforethattimetheraiiksofthearistocracyhad
notbeenimpenetrable,A
greatlawyermightsometimeshope
togainadmittancetoit.Insomeofthe
largecommercialcities
powerful
familiesofmanufacturersandbankersendedbymin-
glingwiththeoldfeudal
nobility
orsupplanting
it
outright.But
downtothe
beginning
oftheeighteenthcenturynorealmiddle
classhadexisted.Themodestartisanclasscouldhardlybe
regarded
assuch.Inhiseconomicandintellectualstatusthe
artisandidnotdifferverygreatlyfromthemanofthelowest
classes.
Iftheelementsthatwerebestfittedtoformanewsocial
stratumwereabletodetachthemselvesfromthelowerclasses
ofthe
population,theyowethatsuccesstotheabsolutistsystem,
whichguaranteedpublicorderandrelativepeaceand
pried
the
nobility
loosefromits
griponlanded
property. Lossofancient
sovereignrights,andthe
necessity
ofkeeping
closetothecourts
inorderto
intrigue
forlucrative
positions,inducedmanynoble
familiestoleavetheirestatesandsettleinthe
capitals.Absence
fromtheirlands,asalmostalwayshappens,madeitnecessary
forthemintheendtorent
parts
oftheirrural
properties,
or
eventosellthem
outright.Promsuchtenants,ornewowners,a
rural
bourgeoisie
arose.Atthesametimethisnewsocialstratum
absorbedthelesswealthyandmoreactiveelementsoftheold
nobility
alsoandformedtheclassthatcametobeknownin
RussiaandGermanyby
theveryexpressiveterm
"intelligentsia.'*
Thisnewmiddleclassissharplydistinguishedfromthe
laboring
classesby
itsscientificand
literaryeducation,by
itsmannersand
habits.Ontheotherhand,becauseofitseconomicstatus,it
sometimes
mingleswiththemorewell-to-doordersof
society,but
then
againattimesdrawswhollyapartfromthem.Theclass,
aswehaveseen,began
tobenoticeableinsomecountries
during

421. 378 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
thelastdecadesoftheseventeenth
century.
Itdevelopedand
becameinfluentialinallcentralandwesternEuropeduring
the
eighteenthcenturyandinthefirsthalfofthenineteenth. Its
development
inawayruns
paralleltothedevelopment
ofsecond-
ary,
classicalandtechnicaleducation,andtothegrowth
of
universities.
Thisclasshadnosooner
developed
itscharacteristic traits
andacquiredconsciousness ofitsownpowerandimportance
thanitperceivedthatitwasthevictimofagreatinjustice.
It
discoveredthattherewere
privilegeswhichthenobilityhad
retainedinallabsolutistcountries,butmore
especially
inFrance.
Wehavealreadyencountereda
virtuallyconstantlawin
history,
thateverynew
political
edificemusttosomeextentbebuiltof
rubbishandremnantsfromthestructurethatithasreplaced.
Followingthatlaw,theabsolutistsystemhad
necessarily
derived
almostalltheelementsofthenewciviland
militarybureaucracy
thatbegantorulethestatefromthe
nobilityandthe
clergy,
whomithaddeprived
oftraditionalterritorialsovereignties. For
themembersofthe
nobility,
in
particular,
ithadreservedallthe
highestandmostlucrative officesingovernment.
Allthat
seemednaturalenough
as
long
astherewas
onlya
plebsbelow
the
nobility,andaslongasatraditionalhabitofcommanding
wasthebestand
practicallytheonlyrequisite
for
leadership. But
itcametolooklikeahatefulandharmfulparasitismonsociety
themomenteducationandtechnical
preparation,
inwhichthe
privileged
classesgenerallyallowedthenewmiddleclasstosur-
passthem,becamethe
requisitesthatweremostindemandfor
exercisingthehigherpublicfunctions.
Nowitisconceivablethatthe
bourgeoisiemighthaveman-
aged,
firsttounderminethe
privileges
ofthe
nobility,andthen
to
destroythemorreducethemtoemptyforms,withoutmaking
any
radicalchange
intheorganization
ofthestate.Thismight
actuallyhavecometopasshadnotanew
politicalpsychology,
whichwas
profoundly
differentfromtheonethatpreceded it,
grownupinthecourseoftheeighteenthcentury.
Itmight
havecometopasshadtherenotbeenaEuropeancountry
in
which,becauseofitsinsularposition,politicalorganizationhad
hadaverydifferent
historyfromthatofcontinentalsystems,
so
thatbythe
eighteenthcentury
ithaddevelopedaformof
govern-
mentthatseemed,atleast,tosupplya
practicalmodelofa

422. 6] ORIGINSOFREPRESENTATIVESYSTEM 379
constitutioncapableof
realizingthe
aspirationsbornofthenew
psychology
mentioned.
Divine
right,
asBossuetunderstoodthe
principle
attheend
oftheseventeenth
century,meantthatthepeoplecouldnever
rebelagainst
theirrulers,howeverwickedtheymightbe,and
thatrulerswereaccountableonly
toGodforthewaytheyexer-
cisedtheirpower.The
principlehadneverbeeninterpreted
in
thatmannerbymedievalwriters,norbywritersafterthemdown
totheseventeenth
century.
St.Thomas,forinstance,inthe
Summa, justifies
rebellionincertaincases,andadmitsthat
peopleschooseforthemselvestheforlnofgovernmentthatthey
considermost
appropriate.Heshowsapersonalpreference
for
a"mixed"government,
inwhichthethreeformsoftheAristo-
telianclassification,monarchy,aristocracyanddemocracy,are
blendedandbalanced.
NowonthecontinentofEurope,religioussentiment,which
alonewas
capable
of
furnishing
amoralbasisfortheprinciple
ofdivine
right,had
greatlyweakenedbytheeighteenthcentury.
Allmemoriesandsurvivalsoftheoldfeudalsystemhadfallen
intodiscreditasrelicsofabarbarous
age.
All
sovereignties
intermediatebetweenthestateandtheindividualhadbeen
destroyed.
Inthosecircumstances eighteenthcenturyminds
fedmoreavidlythaneverontheclassical
politicaldoctrinesof
GreeceandRome.Theoldconcepts
of
liberty,equalityand
popularsovereignty,whichclassicalwritershadformulatedwith
themodeloftheancientGreekandRoman
city
beforetheir
eyes,
camebackinto
greaterhonorthanever.DuringtheRenais-
sance,a
generalreshaping
ofthementalmoldofEuropehad
comeaboutinliteraryandartisticfieldsthroughthestudy
of
classicalmodels.Asimilarreshapingcameaboutthreecenturies
laterinthe
political
fieldundertheinfluenceofthesamemodels.
Thisrevolutionin
politicalthinkingoccurredbeforethedevelop-
mentofhistoricalsciencehadenabledpeople
inEuropeclearly
toperceivehowgreatlytheconstitutions ofthe
city-states,on
whichthe
politicalideasofGreekandRomanantiquityhadbeen
based,differedfromanything
inthemodernworld.
Apartfromthisnewpsychology,apartfromthisnewvision
of
political
lifethathadsoprofoundlypenetratedtheconscious-
nessoftheintellectualclassesoftheeighteenthcentury,one
wouldbeatalosstoexplain
therapidsuccessoftheSocial

423. 380 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
ContractofRousseau. InthatbooktheGenevanphilosopher
startedwiththehypothesis
ofastateofnature,whichmenhad
abandonedastheresultofacompact
inwhichthemoraland
legal
foundations of
political
associationhadbeenlaiddown.
Thathypothesistoohadalreadycometoforma
part
ofthe
intellectualbaggage
oftheeighteenthcentury.Hewentonto
reachtheconclusionthatthe
onlycompact,
or
agreement,
that
waslegitimatewasonewhichmadethelawthe
expression
ofthe
willofthenumericalmajorityamong
theassociatedcitizens,and
whichentrustedtheexecution ofthelawtothosewhohad
receivedthemandatetoexecuteitfromthatsamemajority
fora
specifiedlength
oftime.Thisconcept,
asisapparent,
cor-
respondedexactly
totheconcept
ofclassicaldemocracy,with
thesoledifferencethattheancientsneveradmittedthebulkof
theirmanuallaborersintothemanagement
ofthestate.Their
slaveswerealwaysbarredfromvotingandfrom
publicoffice,and
theywerenotallowedtobeararms.
But,intheeighteenthcentury,
bureaucraticabsolutismhad
prepared
theground
forthe
application
ofthesenewdemocratic
theoriesinone
respectonly:
Ithaddestroyed,
orreducedto
emptyforms,everysovereigntythat
layintermediatebetween
thesupremepowerandtheindividualcitizen.Thismadeit
possibleandplausible
toconceiveof
popularsovereignty
asthe
sovereignty
ofthenumericalmajority,pureand
simple,
ofthe
peoplewhobelonged
toacountry.
Thathadnotatallbeenthemedievalview,whichasamatter
offacthungonthroughthesixteenthcenturyandintothefirst
decadesoftheseventeenth. TheMiddleAgeshadconceivedof
popularsovereignty
asthe
expression
ofthewillofthe
hereditary
and"natural"leadersofthepeople,suchasthefeudallords,or
therepresentatives
ofthecommunesand
corporations. The
political
writersoftheMiddleAgesandevenofthesixteenth
andearlyseventeenthcenturymerelyadaptedtheconcept
of
popularsovereignty,whichtheyhadinheritedfromclassical
antiquity,
toconditionsinthesocietiesinwhichtheywere
living.WhenSt.Thomas,MarsiliusofPadua,Hubert
Languet,
Buchanan,JohannesAlthusius,speak
of"the
people"they
think
ofitalways
as
legitimatelyrepresentedby
its"natural"leaders-^"
thebaronsandtheheadsofcorporationsandcommunes,whom
theyvariouslydesignate
asselecti,ephori,andsoon.Theidea

424. 7] THEOEYOFPOPULARSOVEREIGNTY 381
thateach
separateindividualshouldhavean
equal
shareinthe
exerciseof
sovereigntycouldhavearisen
only
afterbureau-
craticabsolutismhadbrokenup
theoldgroupsand
destroyed
all
sovereignpowersintermediatebetweenthestateandthe
individual.
1
Inallother
respects withitscomplexandcentralizedbureau-
cratic
organization,withits
standingarmy,withitsauthoritarian
traditions,theabsolutistsystemwas
poorlyadapted
todevelop
insuchaway
astomake
possibleanypracticalapplication
of
democratic
principles
thathadbeenworkedoutonthemodel
oftheGreekandLatin
city-state.
ButtherestoodEngland.Bythe
eighteenthcenturythat
countryhadalreadyadopteda
politicalsystemwhichdidoffera
practicalmodel.TheconstitutionofEnglandseemedtodemon-
stratethattheconstitutionoftheabsolutestatecouldbeworked
overintosomethingthatwas
fairlyconsistentwiththeideas
thathadbeeninheritedfromclassicalantiquityand,more
important still,withthedesireofthe
bourgeoisie
to
participate
extensively
insovereignpowers.Hadthatnotbeenthecase,
onemaydoubtwhetheranyadaptationwhateverwouldhave
been
possible,andwhetherthe
history
ofcontinentalEurope
intheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturieswouldnothavebeen
differentfromthehistory
thatthethreeorfour
generations
preceding
oursweretowitness.
7.Politicalinstitutionshadhadan
originaldevelopment
in
England, especiallyfromthe
beginning
oftheseventeenth
century.Thatdevelopment
differedinsubstantial
respectsfrom
anything
thathadtaken
placeontheContinent.Thefeudal
systemhadbeentransplanted
toEnglandbytheNormancon-
quest,butfromthevery
outsetitshowed,beyondtheChannel,
anumberofdistinctivecharacteristics. Inthe
earlydaysthe
conqueringNormanshadbeen,asitwere,encamped
inan
enemyterritory.Theyhadthereforebeen
obligedto
gather
in
closerandbetter-disciplined unionaroundthekingthanthe
1
ThelateSenatorRuffinihasrecentlycontended,
"
Guerraeriformecosti-
tuzionali,"thatMarsiliusofPaduaunderstoodpopularsovereignty
inthe
modernsense,as
sovereignty
ofthenumericalmajority
ofassociates. Thisla
hardlythetimeortheplacetodebatethepoint,but,in
spiteofRuffini'sgreat
authority,wedonotsharehis
opinion.

425. 38 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
ruling
classontheContinenthadeverdone.Withina
century
andahalf,moreorless,the
conquerorsandtheconqueredhad
fused,andthehighnobilityhad
forciblywrestedMagnaCharta
fromtheking,arealtwo-sidedagreementbetweentheking
andthebaron,inwhichthe
reciprocalrightsanddutiesof
eachwereestablished.
1
Inthatwayoneoftheusualfeudal
organizations
wasarrivedat,which,asitcamegradually
to
develop,camemoreandmoretolimitthepowers
ofthecrown
as
against
thepowers
of
parliament.Andin
parliament,
sideby
sidewiththeupperhouse,theHouseofLords,andalmostasan
appendage
toit,alowerhouseof
representatives
ofthesmall
county
nobilitiesandofthemunicipalitiessoonrose,andits
memberswerethealliesandtoolsofthelordsandthe
high
nobil-
ityratherthanofthe
kings.
Inthesecondhalfofthefifteenthcentury
themonarchsonthe
Continentwerestill
strugglingfiercelywiththeir
great
vassals.
InEngland
a
long
civilwar,calledtheWarsoftheRoses,split
thegreat
lordsintotwo
bitterly
hostile
parties,whichextermi-
natedeachother.Whendomesticpeacewasrestoredin1485
withtheadventoftheTudor
dynasty,thecrownfoundbefore
itahigherhousethatwasmadeupalmost
exclusively
of
upstarts,
whohadrecentlybeenelevatedbythecrownitselftothe
dignity
ofthepeerageandhadneitherthematerialresourcesnorthe
prestige
oftheoldbarons.Meantime,nourbanorruralbour-
geoisiehadasyetemerged
inEngland,andtheHouseofCom-
monsremainedadocilebodythathadveryscantinfluence.
ForthesereasonsonemaysaythattheEnglishcrownattained
thepeak
ofitspower
inthesixteenth
century. GiovanniBotero
rightly
observesinhisRelazioniuniversal^publishedtoward
theendofthat
period,
thatthekings
ofEnglandcontinuedto
convokeparliamentregularly,
butthattheirpowerswerein
practicenolessextensivethanthepowers
ofthe
kings
ofFrance,
wheretheStates-Generalwere
beingconvokedmoreandmore
rarely,
ifnot
falling
intodesuetude. These"WorldReports"
ofBoteroareatreatiseon
physical
and
politicalgeography.
Thebookisacuteandmarvelously
wellinformedforthe
age
inwhichitwaswritten.Boteroevidentlydrewhisnoteson
thevariouscountriesfromtrustworthysourcesandhadaneye
fordistinguishingimportantfromunimportant
facts.Hestates
1
Mosca,Appunti
didirittocostituzionale,chap,V,pp.30-31.

426. 7] THEENGLISHCONSTITUTION 388
forinstance,thatthe
greatEnglishbarons,unliketheFrench,had
already
lostall
politicalsignificance. Theyhadceasedto
exerciselocal
jurisdictionsandno
longerhadfortifiedcastles.
1
Forthatmatter,thepredominanceofcourtandcrowninEngland
inthesixteenthcentury
is
generallyrecognized,andoneindica-
tionofitisthefactthatthe
religiouschangesthattookplace
during
thaterainEngland
werecarriedoutontheinitiativeof
Tudormonarchstwoofthem
queens,MaryandElizabeth.
Itmayhavebeen
largelybecauseoftheeasewithwhichthe
Tudors,andtheircourtiersandofficials,coulddirectthe
political
lifeoftheircountryalmostunopposed,thattheEnglishcrown
neglected
tocreateatthattimethetwomostessentialinstru-
mentsofmonarchicalabsolutism:astandingarmyandastable
and
regularbureaucracy. Partly
foreconomy'ssake,partly
becauseEngland'sinsularpositionensuredheragainstforeign
invasions,the
kings
oftheTudor
familyregarded
assufficientan
armedmilitiathatwasrecruitedineachcountyfromamong
its
natives,individualsoldiersreturningtotheir
ordinaryoccupa-
tionsaftersomedays
ofperiodicdrilling. Considerations of
economyseemalsotohavedictatedthe
policy
of
entrusting
the
civilofficesoflordlieutenant,sheriff,coroner,andsoon,inthe
provinces,
tolocalnotables.Thesemen
gladlyservedwithout
stipend,becausesuchpostslentprestigetothepersonswhoheld
themandlustertotheirfamilies.Buttherewas
always
the
chancethattheirloyaltymightwaverorbecomeconditionalon
occasionswhenpublicopinionhappened
tobe
againstkingand
court;andintheend,whattheEnglish
call"self-government"
becameoneofthemaincausesofthepredominance
of
parliament
overthecrown.
2
Early
intheseventeenthcentury,
infact,theStuartssetoutto
establishanabsolutistsystem.Atonceoppositionawakened
intheHouseofCommons,whichrepresented
theruralandurban
middleclasses.Thoseclasseshadbeenabletoemerge
across
theChannel (inacountry
thathadnotbeen
pauperizedby
1
Op.cti,partII,bookI,pp.257,260.
8
Self-governmentwastenaciousinEngland.Theprerogatives
ofhonorary
officialswerefirstdiminishedinthe
great
administrativereformof1884.Then
suchofficesweregraduallyabolished,electivecouncilsandapaid
civilservice
replacing
them.Theevolutionmaybeconsideredcompleteby
1894. Bertolini,
//governo
localeinglese.

427. 384 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
foreignandcivilwars,andwasthereforenotoverburdenedwith
taxes)somegenerations
earlierthantheydidontheContinent.
For
religiousreasons,amongothers,theyhadgrown
hostile
totheauthority
ofthecrown.Inthefaceofthis
opposition
theEnglishsovereignsfoundthemselveswithoutthematerial
agenciesthathadgivenroyalty
thevictoryoverfeudalismonthe
Continent. CharlesIcouldmeetthe
revolting
militiainthe
cities
onlywiththeruralmilitia,ledbytheCavaliers.Helost
thewarbecauseofhispersonallackofresolutenessandbecause
hemetan
antagonist
of
genius
inOliverCromwell,whowasthe
firsttosucceedin
establishingarealstandingarmy
inEngland.
1
Soaftermorethanahalfcentury
ofstruggle,
inwhichaking
losthisheadontheblock,theinfluenceofthe
political
forces
thatwererepresented
in
parliamentovercameonceandforallthe
influencesrepresentedbythesupporters
of
royalty.
Thisvictorytooktheformoflawinaseriesofactsof
parlia-
mentthatwere
duly
sanctionedbythecrown.Someofthem,
suchastheHabeasCorpusAct,weredesigned
toassurethe
personalfreedomofallEnglishmenbyputting
effectiverestraints
onthearbitrariness ofcrownofficials. Others,liketheBillof
Rights
of1689andtheActofSettlementof1701,contained
provisions
ofthesamesort,along
withnewones,whereby
the
crownwas
indirectlyobligated
togovern
inaccordancewith
lawsapprovedbyparliament. Oneneedmention
just
one
provision
intheActofSettlement,wherebynoactofthegovern-
mentwasvalidunlessithadbeen
countersignedbyamember
ofthePrivyCouncil,whothereforebecame
personallyresponsible
forits
legality.
This
history-making provision
iscontained inthefourth
clauseoftheact.Itenabledabsolutemonarchy
to
develop
intorepresentativemonarchy
alloverEurope.The
Privy
Councilwasa
consultingbody
of
high
officialswhoassistedthe
king
intheexerciseofexecutivepower.Towardtheendofthe
seventeenth
centurymeetings
ofthePrivyCouncilbegantobe
held
proforma.
Finallytheywereallowedto
lapsealtogether,
becauseitwastoo
largea
body.ThePrivyCouncilmeetings
werereplacedbymeetings
ofitsmoreinfluentialmembers,and
1
Cromwellusedhisarmy
laterontosetupa
militarydictatorship,butonce
theStuartswererestored,withCharlesII,thearmywasdissolved,Mosca*
Appunti
didiritiocostituzionale, p.
45.

428. 7] THEENGLISHCONSTITUTION 385
theseconstitutedwhatcametobecalledthecabinet.Withthe
adventoftheHanoveriandynasty
in1714,the
politicalpre-
ponderance
oftheelectivechambergainedgreatmomentum,
becausethecrownbeganhabitually
tochoosemembersofthe
cabinet,orshrunkenPrivyCouncil,whichwasentrustedwith
theexerciseofexecutivepower,fromamongoutstandingper-
sonalitiesinthelowerhousemajority.
By
theendoftheeighteenthcentury,therefore,theinde-
pendence
oftheEnglish
courtshadbeenguaranteedbythe
principle
oflifetenure.Guaranteesagainstarbitrary
arrest
andimprisonmenthadbeenacquired
foreveryEnglishman.
Asforliberty
ofthe
press,preventivecensorshipwasabolished
in1694.Thoughpunishment
of
press
offensescontinuedsevere
downtotheendofthe
century,
itbecamemuchmilderaftera
presslawhadbeenapproved
in1778,attheinstanceofFox.
InEngland,
inotherwords,aconstitutionalsystemprevailed
which,initsmainoutlinesandinitsdistinctivecharacteristics,
wasvery
likemodern
representative systems.The
great
originality
of
English
constitutional
history,
itshouldbenoted,
liesintheslowand
gradualtransformation ofthefeudalsystem,
asrecognized
intheMagnaCharta,intoamodernrepresentative
system.Thattransformationwascompleted
inthenineteenth
century,withoutthecountry'shavinghadtotraversethe
period
ofbureaucraticand
military
absolutismthatwas
exper-
iencedtoa
greater
orlesserextentby
allthecountriesofcon-
tinentalEurope.
ButtheresemblancebetweentheEnglishconstitutionasit
wasintheeighteenthcenturyandmodern
representative
organization
onademocraticbasisliesmoreintheformsthan
inthesubstance. Itis
great
ifwethinkofthe
functioning
ofthe
principalorgans
ofthestate. Itisveryslight,
ornonexistent,
ifwethinkoftheway
inwhichthose
organswereconstituted,
orofthe
political
forcesthattheyrepresented. Eventhenthe
English
electivechamberwasthepreponderantpower
inthe
state,butthe
right
tovotewas
grantedonlytoasmall
minority
ofcitizens,whoenjoyed
iteitherbecausetheywereownersof
landedproperty
intheruralcounties,orbyvirtueof
rightsand
customswhichoftentimes, intheboroughs,whichsometimes
comprisedfairlylargecities,wentasfarbackastheMiddlo
Ages.Asaresult,electionsof
largenumbersof
representatives

429. 380 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
dependedupon
afewhundredgreatproprietors,whoinaddition
oftensatbyhereditaryright
intheHouseofLords.
InhisContratsocial,whichwaspublished
in1762,Eousseau
demonstratedwithseeminglyrigorous,notto
saymathematical,
logicthattheonlylegitimateauthoritywasanauthoritythat
wasbasedontheconsentofthenumericalmajority
ofthe
associated citizens.Somefifteenyearsbeforethat,inhis
Esprit
deslvis>Montesquieuhadscrutinizedand,onemight
almost
say,
dissectedtheEnglishconstitutionofthetime,and
hehadreachedtheconclusionthatits
superioritylay
inthe
separationandindependence
ofthethreefundamentalpowers
ofthestate,which,inhisopinion,werethe
legislative,the
executiveandthe
judiciary.Nowtherepresentativesystems
ofthenineteenthcentury
resultedfromablendoftheideasofthe
Genevanphilosopher,which,furthermore,wereverysimilarto
theideasthatclassicalantiquityhadworkedout,withtheideas
ofthekeenmagistrate
ofBordeaux.Tomaketheelective
chambertheorgan
ofthepreponderant political
forcesandhave
itelectedbybroad-based,orevenuniversal,suffragewasenough
to
give
theimpression
thattheoldabsolute,bureaucraticstate
hadbeentransformedintoasystem
thatwasbasedon
popular
sovereignty
astheancientshadunderstood it,or,better,as
Rousseauandhisfollowersunderstood it.Ifonemayventure
thecomparison,
nineteenth
century
constitutionalsystemswere
likesuitsofclothesthathadbeencutonthepattern
oftheEnglish
constitution oftheHanoverian period,butweremadeofa
cloththathadathreadortwoof
principles
ofpuredemocracy.
8.The
generations
thatlivedduringthenineteenthcentury
wereinclinedto
regard
therevolutionthatoverthrewtheold
absolutistregimes
attheendoftheeighteenthcenturyandthen,
aftertheNapoleonicinterlude,establishedrepresentativesystems
firstinFranceandthen
gradually
inothercountriesofwestern
andcentralEurope,
asthegreatest
ofsocialcataclysms. That
point
ofviewisvery
likethecommon
optical
illusionwhereby
objects
thatareclosetousseemtobe
largerthanthosefaraway.
Asamatteroffact,thecataclysm
whichour
great-great-grand-
fatherswitnessed,andwhichwasfollowedbymany
smaller
onesinwhichour
grandfathers*
fatherswereactorsand
specta-
tors,seems
relativelyinsignificant
ifwecompare
itwiththe

430. 8] THEREPRESENTATIVESYSTEM 387
greatcollapse
ofhumancivilizationthatprecededandfollowed
thefalloftheRomanEmpire
intheWest,orwiththeterrible
Mongol
invasionsofthethirteenthcenturythatreachedfrom
China
intheEasttoHungary
intheWestand
sorely
trieda
truly
vast
portion
oftheworld. Ifitwerepossibletoforesee
thefutureatall
clearly,onemightventuretopredictthatthe
convulsionsthatwereoccasionedbytheadventand
spread
of
liberalinstitutionsandthe
representativesystem
willprobably
beconsideredtrivialascomparedwiththeonewhichmaybethe
cause,andatthesametimetheeffect,oftheirdisappearance
fromtheearth.
Among
theshocksthataccompaniedtheestablishment ofthe
representative system,
thefirstandmostviolentoccurredin
Franceinthelastdecadeoftheeighteenthcentury.Atthat
timeinFrancetherewasoneofthose
greatandsuddendis-
placements
ofwealth,tothedamage
ofoneclassandthegain
ofotherclasses,whicharewonttoattendallseriousanddeep-
reaching politicalupheavals. ButinFrancetheoverturn
camesuddenly,andtothegreatmajority
ofthepeoplethen
living
itwas
practically
unforeseen. Becauseofthe
political
unpreparedness
oftheold
privileged
classesandofthosewhich
aspired
tosupplantthem,itdidnotfindmenwhowerecapable
of
directingandcontrolling it,andtherevolutionarywavedis-
solvedtheoldstateorganizationwithouthavinganotherone
ready
to
replace
it.LateronNapoleonwasobligedtorecon-
struct
virtuallythewholestatebyutilizingtheelementsthat
werebestadaptedtothetask,andhefoundthattheywerenot
lacking
eitherintheold
privileged
classesorinthemiddleclass
thathadmadetherevolution. Butwhenthe
representative
systemcametobeadopted
inmostoftheothercountriesin
Europe,
itscominghadbeenlong
foreseenandwas
socially
ripe.
Itwas
possible
toinaugurate it,therefore,withoutserious
disturbances unlesswechoosetoregard
asseriousthemove-
mentsthattook
placeprettygenerallythroughoutEurope
in
1848and1849.
So,aboutthemiddleofthenineteenth
century,roughly,
anewtype
of
politicalorganizationcameintovogue.
It
naturallypresentsdifferingvarieties,or
subtypes,accordingto
thecountriesthathaveadopted
it.Aformoftheconstitutional
monarchy,
forinstance,wasinforceinGermanydownto1918.

431. 388 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
Theretheexecutivepowerdidnotemanatefromthemajority
intheelectivechamber. InthatrespecttheGermansystem
differedfromthetype
ofparliamentarymonarchy,
inforcein
EnglandandBelgium,
inwhichministries
resignwhenthey
lose
their
majority
intheelectivechamber.Aparliamentary
republican
stateisinforceinFrance,anda
presidentialrepubli-
canstateintheUnitedStates
(seeabove,chap.X,17).Inthe
lattercountry,
the
president
isheadofthestateandatthesame
timeheadofthegovernment.Weadopttheexpression
"
modern
representativestate"as
covering
allthemany
varietiesofthat
formofconstitution.
The
representative system,
aswehaveseen,resultedfrom
notionsandconcepts
thathadbeeninheritedfromclassical
antiquitybutwereadapted
totherequirements
ofnineteenth
centurysocietyavery
differentsortof
societyfromthesociety
thathadevolvedthe
city-state
ofGreeceandRome. Itwas
cuttoapatternthathadbeenworkedoutinEngland
inthetwo
precedingcenturies,almostempirically,andastheconsequence
ofveryspecialcircumstances inEnglishhistory. Nevertheless,
thenewconstitutionscorrespondedamazingly
welltotheways
ofthinkingandthesocial
requirements
oftheage
thathad
adoptedthem.Maintaininga
fairlygoodpublicorder,and
supportedbymarvelousscientificdiscoveriesthatsupplied
the
meansfor
achievinganeconomic
progressthathadnoteven
beendreamedofbefore,theywenthandinhandwithamaterial
prosperity
thatcannotbematchedinthe
history
ofotherages
andothercivilizations. Not
onlythat:During
thewhole
nineteenth centurytheymanaged
tomaintainundisputed
throughouttheworlda
supremacy
ofthe
peoples
ofEuropean
civilizationthathadbegun
totakeshapeacentury
earlier.
Thepreponderance
ofstatesofEuropeancivilizationoverstates
ofAsiaticcivilizationbecame
conspicuousearly
intheeighteenth
century,whenTurkeybegan
to
givesigns
ofweaknessascom-
paredwiththerestofEurope.That
countryhadmaintained
itsfulloffensive
vigordowntothe
siege
ofViennain1683.The
EnglishconqueredIndiainthesecondhalfofthe
eighteenth
century.TheFrenchmighthavedonethesamehadthey
realizedtheimportance
ofthegamethatwas
beingplayed
in
theOrientintime.Europeanpreponderanceheldonunshaken
duringthenineteenth
century. Inourday
itreceiveditsfirst

432. 8] THEREPRESENTATIVESYSTEM 389
powerfulshockinthe
victory
ofJapanoverRussia.The
Asiaticsarenow
beginningrapidly
tounderstandthattheycan
adopt
theadministrativeandmilitaryorganization
ofEurope
andAmericaand
profitbywesternscientific
progress,without
abandoning
theirowntype
ofcivilization.
Now,therehasbeen,astherecouldnothelpbeing,aprofound
andirremediablediscrepancybetweenthetheoreticalassump-
tionsofthenew
politicalsystemanditsfunctioning
in
practice.
In
spite
ofthegradualadoption
ofuniversal
suffrage,actual
power
hasremainedpartly
inthehandsofthewealthiestclasses,
andin
largerpartstill,especially
inso-calleddemocraticcoun-
tries,inthehandsofthemiddleclasses.Thoseclasseshave
alwayshadtheupperhandinthe
controllingcliques
of
political
partiesandinelectioneeringcommittees,andtheyhave
supplied
in
largepart,the
reportingandeditorialstaffsofthe
daily
press,thepersonnel
ofthebureaucraciesandarmy
officers.
1
Allthesame,fortheveryreasonthatacombinationofbureau-
craticandelectiveelements isinherentinthenatureofthe
representativesystem,
ithasbeen
possible,underthatsystem,to
utilizealmostallhumanvaluesinthe
politicalandadministrative
departments
ofgovernment,andthedoorhasbeenleftopento
allelementsinthegoverned
classestomaketheirway
into
ruling
classes.
Specialization
inthevarious
politicalfunctionsand
cooperation
and
reciprocal
controlbetweenbureaucraticandelectiveelements
aretwooftheoutstanding
characteristics ofthemodern
repre-
sentativestate.Thesetraitsmakeit
possibletoregardthat
stateasthemostcomplexanddelicatetype
of
politicalorganiza-
tionthathassofarbeenseeninworld
history.Fromthat
point
ofview,andfromothersaswell,itmay
alsobeclaimedthat
thereisanalmost
perfectharmonybetweenthe
presentpolitical
systemandthelevelofcivilizationthathasbeenattainedinthe
centurythatsawitcomeinto
beingandgrow
to
maturity.That
civilizationmayperhapshaveshownitselfinferiortosomeofits
predecessors
as
regards
thefiner
perfections
ofartisticandliter-
aryforms,asregardsdepth
of
philosophicalthoughtand
religious
sentiment,as
regardsappreciation
oftheimportance
ofcertain
greatmoralproblems.Butithasshownitselffar
superior
to
allothersinitswiseorganization
ofeconomicandscientific
1
Ostrogorski,LaD&mocratie etI*organisation
des
partispolitiques.

433. 860 EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
productionandinitsexactknowledgeandshrewd
exploitation
oftheforcesofnature.Therecanbeno
question
thatthe
politicalsystemnowprevailinghaswonoverthespontaneous
energiesandwillsofindividualhumanbeingsthesame
victory
whichthecomplex
ofinstitutions,instruments,knowledgeand
aptitudesthatformthecultureandthe
strength
ofour
genera-
tionshaswonovertheforcesofnature.
Certainly,
itwas
possibleyesterday,anditis
possibletoday,
forthe
special
interestsofsmallorganized
minoritiesto
prevail
overthecollectiveinterest,paralyzing
the
activity
ofthosewhose
duty
itisto
safeguard
thelatter.Butwemustrealizethatthe
statemachinehasgrown
so
powerfulandbecomeso
perfected
thatneverbeforeinEurope
orintheworldhassuchamassof
economicresourcesandindividualactivitiesbeenseentocon-
vergeupon
theattainment ofcollective
purposes theWorld
Warhas
recentlysuppliedaterriblebutirrefutableproof
ofthat.
Ifitbe
objected
thatsomeancientcities,and
perhapssomeofthe
medievalcommunes,onoccasionexertednolesseffortin
pro-
portiontotheirsize,theansweristhatthesmallertheorganism,
theeasieritistocoordinatetheactivitiesofthecellsthatcom-
pose
it.Athens,Spartaandcertainmedievalcommunesthatwere
large
fortheirdayhadterritoriesand
populationsahundredth
thesizeofthe
averagemodernstate.Rome
only,
atthetime
ofherPunicWars,andagainduringthefirsttwocenturies
oftheempire,whenshewas
successfullyextending
her
language
andcivilizationoverallofwesternEurope,obtainedresults
whicharecomparable
inmagnitude
totheresultsthatthe
politicalorganizations
ofourdayobtain,orwhichinsome
respectsmaybeof
greatermagnitude.
Buteveryhuman
organism,
whetherindividualorsocial,the
modern
representative
stateincluded,bearswithinitselfthe
germswhich,iftheyripen,maybringonitsdeclineanddestruc-
tion.Letusmentionhere
justafewsuchgerms
ofdecay,the
mainones,that
is,whichalreadycanbe
clearlyseenatwork.
Apparentatthismomentinmany
countriesinEurope
isa
considerableeconomicdeclineofthemiddleclass,the
prosperity
ofwhichmadetheadventoftherepresentativesystempossible.
Iftheeconomicdeclineofthatclassshouldcontinueforawhole
generation,
anintellectualdeclineinaUourcountrieswould
inevitably
follow.According
toAristotle,acertaindistribution

434. |8] DECAYOFDEMOCRACY 391
ofmoderatepropertyownershipwasanindispensable requisite
fortheproperfunctioning
oftheGreekcity.Sotheexistence
ofamoderately
well-to-domiddleclassis
necessarytoday
for
thenormallivelihoodofthemodernrepresentativesystem.So
trueisthisthatincountriesand
regionswheresuchaclassis
not
very
welldeveloped,
oriswithoutthe
requisites
formaintain-
ing
its
prestigeandinfluence,themodern
representativesystem
has
yielded
itsworstresults.
1
Ifthedeclinein
question
should
beaccelerated, ormerelycontinue,theformsofourpresent
organizationmightbeobservedforsometimestill,butreally
wewouldhaveeithera
plutocraticdictatorship,
orelseabureau-
cratico-military dictatorship,
orelseademagogicdictatorshipby
afew
experts
inmobleadership,whowouldknowtheartsof
wheedlingthemassesandofsatisfying
theirenviesandtheir
predatory
instinctsineverypossibleway,
tothecertaindamage
ofthe
general
interest.Worsestill,theremight
beacombination
oftwoofthese
dictatorships,
orindeedofallthree. Itisinter-
esting
tonotethatthisdangerwas
clearlyperceivedbyRousseau ;
"Takingtheterminitsstrictestsense,"hewrote,"therehas
neverbeenarealdemocracy
andthereneverwillbe.Itis
against
thenaturalorderthatthe
greatnumbershouldruleand
thesmallnumberberuled,"
2
Thisdangerwouldseemtobeallthe
greater
inthatitis
linkedwithanother,whichisa
logicalconsequence
ofthesystem
ofideasthathas
suppliedthemoralandintellectualbasisforthe
representativesystem.Wealludeheretotheframeofmind,so
widelyprevalenthitherto,thathasmadetheintroduction of
universalsuffragealmostinevitable. Duringthefirstdecades
ofrepresentativegovernmentthe
bourgeoisiewasdisposedto
compromise
withthedogma
ofpopularsovereigntyonwhich
therepresentative systemhadbeenfounded,andadopted
varietiesofrestrictedsuffragealmosteverywhere. Butlater
on,swayedmoreby
forceof
logicthanbyanyupthrustthat
camefromthelowerstrataof
society,andconstrained
especially
bythenecessity
ofseeming
tobeconsistentwiththe
principles
whichithadproclaimedandinthenameofwhichithadfought
1
Seeabove,chap.V,
0.
*
Contratsocial,bookIII,chap.
IV.Thepassage
isa
typicalexample
ofthe
perception
ofthe
necessity
ofarulingclasstowhichwereferredabove(chap.
XII, 1).ItdidnotescapeMichels,Parteiwesen,partII,chap.
III.

435. EVOLUTIONOFPOLITICALORGANIZATION [CHAP.XIV
andoverthrownabsolutism,the
bourgeoisieadopteduniversal
suffrage.
Universal
suffragecamefirstintheUnitedStates,
theninFrance,in1848,andafterthatinallothercountriesthat
weregovernedbyrepresentativesystems.
Nowneverhavethemany,especially
iftheywerepoorand
ignorant,
ruledthefew,especially
iftheywere
fairlyrichand
intelligent.Theso-calleddictatorship
ofthe
proletariat,there-
fore,couldneverbeanythingmorethanthedictatorship
ofa
very
restrictedclassexercisedinthenameofthe
proletariat.
Perhapssomeperception
ofthattruthmayhave
penetratedmore
orless
clearlyintotheconsciousness, orsubconsciousness, ofthe
ruling
classesandinclinedthemtoacceptuniversal
suffrage
withoutverymuchresistance.Butonceeverybodyhas
acquired
the
right
tovote,itisinevitablethata
cliqueshoulddetachitself
fromthemiddleclassesand,intheracetoreachthebetter
posts,
try
toseekleverage
intheinstinctsandappetites
ofthemore
populous classes,tellingthemthat
politicalequalitymeans
almostnothingunlessitgoeshandinhandwitheconomic
equalityandthattheformermayvery
wellserveasaninstru-
mentfor
obtaining
thelatter.
t
Thathascomeaboutandisstillcomingaboutallthemore
easily,
inthatthebourgeoisiehasbeen,inasense,theprisoner
notonly
ofitsdemocratic
principles
butalsoofitsliberal
prin-
ciples.Liberalismtakesittobeanaxiomatictruththat
every
belief,everyopinion,hasthe
righttobepreachedandpropagated
withouthindrance. Certainly
liberalismanddemocracy
arenot
thesame
thing,buttheyhaveacertaincommonfoundationin
anintellectualandemotionalcurrentwhichstartedinthe
eighteenthcenturyonthebasisofan
optimisticconception
of
humannatureor,rather,ofthesentimentsandideasthat
ought
to
prevail
inassociations ofhuman
beings. Justasdemocracy,
therefore,hastoadmitthatthebestgovernment
isthegovern-
mentthatemanatesfromtheconsentofthenumericalmajority
ofcitizens,soliberalismhastobelievethatthegood
senseofthe
people
isenough
to
distinguishtruthfromerrorandtotreat
harmfulorantisocialideasas
they
deserve.Our
ruling
classes
havemoldedtheirconducttofitthose
principles,anditisnot
tobewondered at,therefore,thatinmanycountriesanew
doctrine,indeedanew
religion,
is
beingwidelyproclaimedand
haswidelyspread.Fromatheoreticalstandpoint
thisdoctrine

436. 8] DECAYOFDEMOCRACY 893
couldbepresumed
tobeunfittedfor
reconstructingabetter,and
especially
amoremoral,system
ofsocialand
politicalorganiza-
tionthanwehaveat
present,and
practicalexperiencehas
shownittobeso.
Certainly
itcouldnotbebetterfittedfor
destroyingthe
presentsystem.
Toallthiswemustaddthe
greatcomplexity
ofthemodern
economicsystemandthe
resultingspecialization
inactivities
thatis
required
for
*
the
productionanddistribution ofthe
commoditiesandservicesthataremostessentialtothe
daily
lifeof
society
asawholeandthereforeofthestate. Ifwe
realizethatunderthesecircumstances itis
possible
forsmall
minoritiestocausethemostseriousdisturbances inthewhole
socialsystemsimplybyfolding
theirarms,weareina
position
to
gainsome
slightconception
ofthedestructiveforceofthe
elementswhichareat
presentcorroding
theframeworkofour
politicalandsocialstructureand
threatening
itsexistence.
1
1
Mosca,"Feudalism funzionale," "IIpericolo
delloStatomoderno,"and
"Feudalism eSindacalismo." Also,Appunti
didirittocostituzioncde, pp,
164-165:andsee
chap.XVIIbelow.

437. CHAPTERXV
PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES
INRULINGCLASSES
1.InhisdialogueontheLaws,whichwasoneofhislast,
Platowrotethatmonarchyanddemocracy
arethetwofunda-
mentalformsofgovernment,andthatfromthemallothers
derivethroughmoreorlesshappycombinations. Inthefirst
linesofthePrinceMachiavelliwrotethat"allstates,alldomin-
ionswhichhaveheldordoholdempireovermenhavebeenand
are
republics
ormonarchies." Thushetoo
recognizestwo
fundamentalformsofgovernment,oneinwhich
sovereignpower
isexercisedinthenameofanindividualandanotherinwhichit
isexercisedinthenameofthe
people.
Ifthatconcept
isproperlyinterpretedandsupplemented,
it
maybeaccepted
even
today.
\For,really,
inanyformof
political
organization,authority
iseithertransmittedfromabovedown-
wardinthe
political
orsocialscale,orfrombelowupward.
Eitherthechoiceofthelowerofficialislefttotheoneabovehim,
tillwereachthesupremehead,whochooseshisimmediate
collaborator;*^
thecaseofthetypicalabsolutemonarchy;
or
elsetheauthority
ofthegovernorderivesfromthegoverned,as
wasthecaseinancientGreeceandin
republicanRome.
Thetwosystemsmaybefusedandbalancedinvariousways,
ashappens
in
representativegovernmentstoday.The
present
formofgovernment
intheUnitedStateswouldbeagoodexam-
ple.Therethepresident
ischosenbythecitizensasawhole,and
heinturnappoints
allthe
principal
officialsoftheexecutive
branchofthefederalgovernmentandthemagistrates
ofthe
SupremeCourt.
|The
type
of
politicalorganization
inwhich
authority
istrans-
mittedfromthetop
ofthe
political
laddertoofficialsbelowPlato
calls"monarchical." Itmightmoreaccuratelybestyled"auto-
cratic,"becauseamonarch,inthebroadsenseoftheterm,is
justtheheadofastate,andthereis
alwayssuchahead,what-
804

438. 1] AUTOCRACY 895
everthe
politicalsystem.
Itismoredifficulttochoosetheword
thatisexactly
suitedtoPlato'ssecondtype.Following
his
example,onemight
callit"democratic/*Weconsideritmore
satisfactorytocallit"liberal,"forby"democracy"todaywe
commonlymeanaformofgovernment
inwhichallcitizenshave
an
equal
shareinthecreationofthesovereignpower.Thathas
notalwaysbeenthecaseinthepast
insystems
inwhich"the
people"
chosetheirgovernors,
because"thepeople"
often
meantarestrictedaristocracy.Oneneedonly
recallwhat
happenedundertheconstitutions ofGreeceandRome.Some
ofthemwere
unquestionably
"liberal,**Inmanymedieval
communesonlymenwhowereenrolledinthemajortrade
guilds
were
full-fledged
citizens.Thedesignation
"liberal"seemstous
allthemoreappropriate
inthatithasbecomethecustomto
regard
as"free"peoplesthosewhoserulers,according
tolawat
least,mustbechosenbyall,orevenbya
part,
ofthe
governed,
andwhoselawmustbeanemanationofthe
general
will.In
autocraticsystems,
thelaweitherhassomethingimmutableand
sacredaboutitorelseitisan
expression
oftheautocrat'swill
or,rather,ofthewillofthosewhoactinhisname.
Conversely,
theterm"democratic"seemsmoresuitablefor
thetendencywhichaimsto
replenish
the
ruling
classwith
elementsderivingfromthelowerclasses,andwhichis
alwaysat
work,openly
or
latentlyandwith
greater
orlesser
intensity,
in
all
politicalorganisms.
"Aristocratic"wewould callthe
oppositetendency,whichalsoisconstantandvariesin
intensity,
andwhichaimstostabilizesocialcontroland
politicalpower
inthedescendantsoftheclassthathappenstohold
possession
ofitatthegiven
historicalmoment!
Atfirstglance
itmightseem hatthepredominanceofwhatwe
callthe"autocratic"principleshouldgo
withwhatwecallthe
"aristocratic"tendency;andthatthe
oppositeprinciplewhich
wecall"liberal"shouldgowiththetendencythatwecall
"democratic." Examining
anumber of
types
of
political
organizations,
onemightconcludethatacertain
affinitydoes
existbetweenautocracyand
aristocracyontheonehand,and
betweenliberalismanddemocracyontheotherlThat,never-
theless,wouldbearulethatissubjecttoa
greatmanyexceptions.
Itwouldbe
easy
tofindexamples
ofautocraciesthathavenot
recognized
theexistenceofclassesonwhichbirthconferred
legal

439. 896 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
privileges.
TheChineseempire,duringlongperiods
ofits
history,might
bementionedinthatregard.
Itwouldbeeasier
stilltofindexamples
ofelectivesystems
inwhichthe
electing
group
hasbeenmadeupentirely
ofhereditaryruling
classes.
ThatwasthecaseinVeniceandinthePolish
republic.
IInanyevent,though
itisdifficulttofinda
politicalsystem
whichcanbeshowntohaveabsolutelyprecluded
oneofthetwo
principles
oroneofthetwotendencies, itiscertainthata
strong
predominance
ofautocracy
orliberalism,orofthearistocratic
tendency
orthedemocratic,supplies
afundamentalandtrust-
worthy
criterionfordetermining
thetype
towhichtheconstitu-
tionofa
givenpeople,
atagiventime,belongs;
t
^.fBeyondanydoubt,autocracy
formedthebasisofthefirst
greathumanaggregations.
Alltheancientempires
ofAsiaand
Egypt
wereorganizedautocratically,andsowastheneo-Persian
empire
oftheSassanids.TheArabcaliphatesgave
lavish
recognition
totheautocratic principle.'Thefirstfourcaliphs
werechosenby
theMussulmancommunityor,moreexactly,by
themoreinfluentialmembersoftheMussulmancommunity,who
wereassumedto
represent
it.Afterwardthecaliphatebecame
hereditaryandremainedanappanage
ofcertainfamilies.Never-
theless,howeverabsolutetheMussulmansovereignmay
have
been,hecouldnotchange
thefundamental law.Thatwas
containedintheKoran,orelsecouldbeinferredfromthe
traditiontransmittedby
the
earlyinterpreters
oftheKoran.
Downtoafew
yearsago
thegovernments
ofJapanandChina
wereautocratic,aswastheoldgovernment
inTurkey,which
mightbeconsideredanAsiaticcountryfromthenatureofits
civilization. As
regardsEurope,thegovernment
oftheRoman
Empire
afterDiocletian'stime,andthegovernment
oftheByzan-
tineEmpire,maybecalledautocratic.VenderIvantheTerrible,
PetertheGreatandAlexanderIII,andduring
theearlydays
of
NicholasII,Russiawasgovernedbyapureautocracy|
Aswe
haveseen,eveninwesternEurope
asourgreatmodernstate
developed,
theintermediate sovereignties
thathadgrownup
underthefeudalsystemcollapsed,andthatgave
risetoauto-
craticgovernments,
whichlaterevolvedintoourmodernrepre-
sentativesystems.
IntheAmericas,finally,
thetwo
great
states
whichtheEuropeansfoundinexistenceonthenewcontinent,

440. 2] AUTOCRACY 397
MexicoandPeru,wereorganizedautocratically. InMexico,to
besure,theSpanishconquerorsfoundonerepublic
ofa-sort.
ThestateofTlaxcalaseemstohavebeenruledbyacouncilof
tribalchiefs. ItstruckanalliancewithCortezandprovidedhim
withabaseofoperation
forhisconflictwiththeAztecempire.
1
A
politicalsystem
thathasbeensowidelyrecurringandso
longenduringamongpeoples
ofthemostwidelyvariouscivili-
zations,whooftenhavehadnocontactsmaterialorintellectual
withoneanother,mustsomehowcorrespondtothe
political
natureofman.Theartificialor
exceptionalthingnevershows
such
greattenacity. Infact,whetherthesupremehead,who
standsatthevertexofthe
politicalpyramid,
exerciseshis
authorityinthenameofGodorofthegods,
orreceivesitfrom
thepeopleorfromthosewhopresume
to
representthe
people,
autocracysuppliesa
politicalformula,a
principle
of
authority,a
justification
ofpower,thatissimple,
clearand
readilycompre-
hensibletoeverybody. Therecanbenohuman
organization
withoutrankingsandsubordinations. Any
sortofhierarchy
necessarily requires
thatsomeshouldcommandandothers
obey.Andsinceitisinthenatureofthehuman
being
thatmany
menshouldlovetocommandandthatalmostallmencanbe
broughttoobey,aninstitutionthatgivesthosewhoareatthe
topaway
of
justifying
theirauthorityandatthesametime
helps
topersuade
thosewhoareatthebottomtosubmitis
likelytobeausefulinstitution.
Butaverysoundobjectionmightberaised
againstautocracy.
Autocracy,
onemightsay,maybeasystemthatiswelladapted
toforminggreatpoliticalorganisms suchastheancientempires
ofMesopotamiaandPersiaandinmorerecenttimesthoseof
China,TurkeyandRussiaandtoassuretheirexistencefor
indefinitelylongperiods.Butitdoesnotallowthe
peoplesthat
haveadoptedit,and
especially
their
rulingclasses,toattainall
ofthemoralandintellectualdevelopment
ofwhichcivilized
mankindis
capable.Theartandthought
ofGreeceandRome
wereonthewhole
superior
totheartand
thought
oftheNear
Eastern
empires.NotoneoftheAsiaticcivilizations,ancient
orrecent,hashadanintellectual lifeintense
enoughtobear
comparisonwithwhatwefindinthe
greatnationsofcentral
andwestern
Europe,
orinnineteenth
centuryAmerica.Butthe
1
DeSoils,Historiadelaconquista
de

441. 308 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
resplendentage
ofAthenslastedaboutacenturyandahalf.It
openedwiththebattleofPlataea,whichtookplace
in479B.C.,
andextended,atthelatest,downtotheLamianwar,which
began
in828B.C.Romecouldbegin
tobeconsidereda
great
stateandacenterofcultureby
theendofthesecondPunicWar,
around208B.C.Butcivilconflictwasbeginning
as
early
as
138B.C.,withTiberiusGracchus;andin81B.C.,aftera
century
ofalmostcontinuous tumults, proscriptions anddomestic
struggles,theancient
city-statewasreorganized
intotheempire
ofAugustus.
Amongthe
greatmodernnations,EnglandandtheUnited
Stateshavelastedlongestwithgovernmentsbasedonliberal
principles.ButwehaveseenthatEnglandwas
fightingabsolut-
ismdownto1689,whilethebirthdateoftheUnitedStatescan
befixedas1783.Inpower,wealthandintellectualworththe
England
of1689wasavery
differentcountryfromtheEngland
oftoday;anditiswellknownthat
virtuallydowntothemiddle
ofthenineteenthcenturythe
greatNorthAmerican
republic
wasa
largelyagriculturalcountry,sober,self-contained,attached
tooldtraditions,andvery
farfromtheopulenceandworld
importance
thatithasattainedinourtime. Itwouldseem,
therefore,asthough
theliberal
principlewere
likelyto
prevail
atthoseexceptionalperiods
inthelivesofthe
peopleswhensome
ofthenoblestfacultiesofmanareabletoshowthemselvesin
ailtheirintensityand
energy,andwhenseedsare
ripeningthat
willshortlyproduce
considerableincreasesin
politicalpowerand
economicprosperity. Butitalsowouldseemasthoughthose
periods,whichmarksomeofthemostimportantmilestoneson
theroadofcivilization,werefollowedby
other
periodsduring
whichhumansocietiesfeel,asitwere,anoverpoweringneedfor
alongsleep.
Thisthey
findinthe
political
fieldbyslowingdown
toanautocracythatismoreorlessmaskedandmoreorless
well-adapted
tothelevelofdevelopmentandculturethatthey
haveattained.
\Theautocraticsystemnaturallyassumestheexistenceofan
autocrat ofaman,thatis,who
personifies
theinstitutioninthe
nameofwhichallwhoareinvestedwithanypartor
particle
of
publicauthority
act.Nowautocracymaybe
hereditary,
in
whichcasewe
getacombinationoftheautocratic
principlewith
thearistocratic
tendency;
oritmaybeelective,inwhichcase

442. 2] HEREDITARYPOWER
we
get
acombinationoftheautocratic
principle
withthedemo-
cratictendency. However,autocratswhosecurelifetenure
invariablytendtomaketheir
positionshereditary. Ashappened
inRomeundertheempire,theautocratwhohasreceivedhis
mandatenominallyfromthepeople
isactuallycreated,nowby
theruling
classes
(or
ratherbythatgroup
intheruling
classes
whichhasthemosteffectivemeansofimposing
itswillupon
othergroupsand
classes),nowbya
clique
of
high
officialswho
holdtheleversbywhichthemachineofstateis
guided.The
mosteffectiveandcertaininstruments for
usingpowerhave
always
beenmoneyand,betterthanmoney,
soldiers* In
autocraticgovernments
thesuccessortothethronehasoften
beenchosenbythemenwiththestatetreasuryandthearmed
forcesofthestateattheircommand,especially
that
portion
ofthearmedforcesstationedinthe
capital
asa
guard
forthe
sovereign,
forthecourtandforthecentral
organs
ofgovernment
(seeabove,chap.IX,3).
Wheninheritance issowell
regulatedthattherecanbeno
doubtastotheheirtothethrone,thehereditaryprinciple
certainly
hastheadvantage
of
automaticallyassuringthestabil-
ityandcontinuity
of
power,andof
avoidingthesituationwhere
eachaccessionsuppliesareadypretext
forcivilwarsandcourt
intrigues
foror
against
anumberof
pretenders.Fromthispoint
ofviewthesystem
thathasbeenadoptedbytheEuropean
monarchies,wherebythe
legalfamilyhas
alwaysbeen,andstill
is,monogamous,andsuccessionalways
fallstothefirst-born
malechild,hasyieldedbetterresultsthanthesystemsthathave
beenusedinNearEasternmonarchies. IntheEastthe
right
of
successionhasneverbeenregulatedinsuchclearanddefinite
terms,andtherehasalwaysbeentheassumptionthatthe
reign-
ingsovereignwasat
libertytochange
it.This,naturally,has
openedthedoorto
intriguesbythefavoritesultana,byhigh
officialsandevenby
menialsinthecourtpersonnelwhohave
daily
accesstothe
sovereign. Forexample,eunuchsintheper-
sonalserviceofthesultanoftenhad
greatinfluenceinthe
courtatConstantinople;andeunuchsappearnot
rarely
inthe
history
ofChinain
periods
ofdeclineinone
dynasty
oranother.
[Autocraticdynastiesoftenoriginatewithsome
strongand
energeticindividualwhoattainssupremepowerandthenman-
agesto
acquireprestigewiththe
rulingclass,andalsowiththe

443. 400 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
masses,weavingsuchanintricatenetworkofinterestsand
loyal-
tiesamonghigh
officialsastomakeitseemwiseandnaturalthat
thesuccessionshouldbetransmittedtohis
descendants.)
In
Chinanew
dynastieshaveasarulebeenfoundedbyenergetic
andlucky
adventurerswhohaveledvictorious revoltsand
overthrown earlierdynasties.Thedynasty
oftheTokugawa
shogunsoriginated
in
justthatway
in
Japan,^n
India
duringthe
firstdecadesofthesixteenthcenturyaTurk,oneBaber,placed
himselfattheheadofa
greatbandofadventurers,alsoTurks,
andsucceededinfoundingtheempire
oftheGrandMogul
1
Such
thingshaveoccurredinEuropemore
rarely.Napoleon
didnotsucceedinhandingonhisthronetotheKing
ofRome.
ThesonofOliverCromwellheldthe
post
ofLordProtectorfor
lessthana
year.ThecaseofGustavusVasamightbecitedasa
westernillustration ofthegeneral
rule.SonofaSwedish
nobleman,butreducedtobecomingashepherdandthena
minerintheDalecarliainhisyouth,Vasaheadedarevoltofhis
countrymenagainsttheDanesandbecamethefounderofa
dynasty
whichreigned
inSwedenfromthefirstdecadesofthe
sixteenthcenturydowntothecoming
oftheBernadottes, also
adventurers. Themorefrequent
caseinEurope
isthe
dynasty
thatissmallandweakatfirstbutlittleby
little
strengthens
its
positionandexpandsthroughtheconsistenteffortsofanumber
of
generations. Exampleswouldbethe
Capets,thehouseof
Savoy,
theHohenzollernsandperhapseventhe
Hapsburgs.
Thereislittlelikelihoodthatthepersondesignatedbybirth
toholdthedifficultpost
ofsupremeheadofa
great
statewill
havethe
qualificationsrequired
for
filling
it
effectively. Hered-
ity,family
traditionandeducationmaycontribute
greatly
towardenabling
a
hereditarysovereigntodevelop
theoutward
demeanorandtolearntheformalitiesthatgo
bestwiththe
stationthatheistooccupy.Suchthingsundoubtedlyhave
theirimportance,
sinceeverybodilymovementand
everyword
ofasovereignmay
attracttheattentionofawhole
people.
Butthey
arenotenoughtomakeup
fordeficienciesinmore
substantial qualities-capacity
forwork,energy,
willtorule,
knowledge
ofmenand,also,acertainaffective
insensibility
that
isveryhelpful
torulers.Theymustnotbetoo
greatly
stirred
by
thesufferings
ofothers.Theymustknowhowto
repress
pangsandimpulses
oftheheartandmust
sedulouslyavoidthose

444. 2] RULINGCLASSANDAUTOCRACY 401
criticalmomentswhenthehumansoulis
irresistibly'impelled
tospeak
itsinnermost
feelingsandthoughts. Thereisthe
saying
ofLouisXIofFrance,"Qui
nesdtdissimularenesdt
regnare."Yetsomemaliciouscriticmight
feelthatthatsover-
eignwouldhavedonebettertorestcontentwith
practicing
the
precept,
ashedid,withoutformulating
itsoneatlyandhanding
itdownto
history.
"
N'ayezjamais
d
j
attachmentpourpersonnel
9
LouisXIVwrotewithhisownhandintheadvicehepenned
for
hisnephewPhilip,whowas
going
offtobe
king
in
Spain.
1
Thedeficienciesmentionedarecompensated forinthe
great
majority
ofcasesbydividing
thefunctionsof
autocracybetween
twoindividuals.Thetitularautocratisgiventherepresentative,
decorativepart
oftheoffice,whiletheactualpower
iswielded
by
another
person,whoiscallednowmajor-domo,nowprime
minister,nowvizier. Often,again,thetaskofgoverning
is
committednottoa
singlepersonbuttoacouncilmadeup
ofa
smallgroup
ofnotables. Suchwerethecouncilsofministers
thatassistedEuropeanmonarchsundertheold
regime,suchthe
Tsong-li-yamen
inChina,thedivaninTurkey,theBa-ku-fuin
theJapan
oftheTokugawas.
2
Butordinarilyinsuchgroups
thereisoneindividualwhocouplesa
greatercapacity
forwork
witha
strongerandfirmerwilltoruleandwho,therefore,comes
toovershadowtheothers.Whenthetitular
princereignsand
theprime
minister
governs,andcircumstances
requirearadical
change
in
policy,
thechangecanbeaffectedbychangingministers
and
leaving
thedynastyandthe
reigningsovereign
as
they
were.
Thatadvantage,
ofcourse,involvesadanger
too.Thedefacto
sovereign,
themanwhois
actuallygoverning,maytrytoretain
hispower
forlifeandevenpass
it
along
tohischildren.That
happened
inFranceinthedays
oftheMerovingianmayors
of
the
palace.
Ithastakenplacerepeatedly
inJapanwhere,long
beforetheshogunate
oftheTokugawaswasinstituted,thepower
ofthemikadohadbecomenominalandwasexercisedin
reality
bytheheadofoneoranotherofthe
great
feudalfamilies the
Tairas,theMinamotos,theHojos,
orthe
Ashikagas.
3
Itisnoteasytoformulateatheory
astohowandwhenthis
dividing
ofautocraticpowerbecomesnecessary. Itisinevitable,
1
Michels,Parteiwesen, p.
365.
2
LaMazeliere,Le
Japon,
vol.Ill,bookVI.
8
Ibid.,vol.II,bookII.

445. 40 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
certainly,whentheautocraticdynastyhasagedanddeterio-
rated,sothatthe
legalautocratremainsshutup
inhis
palace
amidenervating
sensual
pleasures,'
losesallcontactwithhis
noblesand
peopleand
forgetstheartofmakingthewheelsof
thestatemachinego
round.ButinEuropeespeciallythere
havebeenmanyexamples
ofdescendants ofolddynastieswho
havemanagedtorunthegovernments
oftheirstates
effectively.
OnethinksofCharlesVandPhilip
IIof
Spain,
LouisXIVof
France,VictorAmadeusIIofSavoy,
PetertheGreatofRussia
andFredericktheGreatofPrussia.Studyingoneby
onesuch
characters,orothersthatmightbementioned,wecanmakeout
that,amongwidelydifferingpersonaltraits,theyhavehadtwo
fundamental
qualities
incommon,namely,a
greatcapacity
for
sustained
physicalandintellectualexertionandastrong
willto
rule.
Onemight
surmiseoffhand,thatinthe
beginning
thechoice
oftheautocratcoadjutorwhoexercisesactualpowershouldrest
withthetitularautocrat,andthattheformermustfirsthave
succeededinwinningtheconfidenceofthelatter.Astimegoes
on,however,a
strongcharacter is
likely
to
acquiresuchascend-
ancyoveraweakercharacterthatthelatterwillnotdareto
recallwhatwasonce
freelyconceded. Inthatcasethemanda-
torywhowas
voluntarilychosenmaybecometheguardianwho
hastobeendured.Thefirstandmostpressingtaskofthevice-
gerent
istofillallhighpositions
withpersonsboundtohimby
tiesof
family,gratitudeor,betterstill,complicity
in
questionable
actsoractualcrimes.Hecanthencountonthe
fidelity
ofthe
cliquethatcomesintofrequent
contactwiththerulerand
sedulouslykeephimawayfromanybodywhodoesnot
belong
tothe
clique.
Theformationofa
clique,perhaps
oftwoorthreedozensof
persons,
orevenasmany
asahundred,according
tothecase,who
monopolizethemanagement
ofthestateandoccupythemore
importantoffices,sometimesinrotation,isa
thingthatoccursin
allautocraciesand,infact,inallformsofgovernment.What
variesisthecriterionby
whichthisgroup,whichmakesupthe
higheststratumoftherulingclass,isselected;forthecriteria
willbedifferent
according
asthesystem
isautocraticorliberal,
orasthedemocraticoraristocratictendencyprevails.Butin
allcasesandinallsystems,thereisonecriterionthatnever

446. e] RULINGCLASSANDAUTOCRACY 403
varies,anditisalways
of
greatimportance:Thosewhoalready
belong
tothe
cliquehavetobesatisfied.Innormaltimes,when
itisaquestion
ofsecuringoneofthepositions
thatinvolve
actualcontroloverpart
oftheforcesofastate,andsooverthe
fatesofmanyindividuals,theconsent,oratleastthetacit
approvalandacquiescence
ofthosewhoarealready
insimilar
posts,
isalmostalwaysnecessary. Rightlyenoughtheproverb
saysthatonecannotenterparadiseoverthevetoofthesaints.
Incountrieswheretheautocratic
principleandthearistocratic
tendencyjointlyprevail,the
group
mentioned is
usuallymade
up
ofmembersofthe
highestnobility,whoare
appointedby
birthtooccupy
themoreimportant
officesandexercisethemore
importantfunctionsofstate.Insuchcasesthecourtisusually
thearenainwhichrivalriesbetweenthegreat
familiesforpre-
eminenceintherealmunfold.SoitwasinFranceinthedays
oftheconflictbetweenthecountsofArmagnacandthedukes
ofBurgundy,
in
Sicilyduringthelatterhalfofthefourteenth
century,andinSpainundertheweaklingCharlesII.Butwhen
thetitularsovereignhastalentandstrength
ofwill,hesometimes
succeedsin
breaking
thering
ofaristocratic
cliques
thatserve
him or,moreoften,rulehimandhesnaps
itbyelevating
tothe
highestpositionspersonswhoareof
ordinarybirth,who
owehim
everythingandwhothereforeare
loyalandeffective
instruments ofhis
policies.Thetwo
outstandingministersof
LouisXIVwereColbertandLouvois.Theydidnot
belong
to
the
highFrench
nobility. PetertheGreatofRussiaoften
appointedadventurersof
foreignorigin
toimportant offices,or
evenRussiansofhumbleextraction. IntheNearEastern
autocracies, caseswherepersons
ofveryhumble
origin
first
attained
high
officeandthensupremepowerwerenotunheard-of.
Onemight
mentionBasiltheMacedonian,whobecameemperor
atByzantium
intheninthcentury,andacertainNadirwho
becameshahofPersiainthe
eighteenthcentury.
BasiltheMacedoniandiedin886.Hewasthesonofa
peasant.
He
got
hisstartthrough
hisskillatmanaging
horses.Becoming
squire
tooneofthecourtnobles,hesucceeded,by
hiswitsand
tireless
energy,
inmakinghimselffirstthefavoriteandthenthe
colleague
oftheemperorMichaelIII.WhenMichaelwas
thinkingof
getting
ridofhim,hegot
ridofMichaelbymurdering
him,andsucceededin
taking
his
placeonthethrone.Apart

447. 404 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
fromthecraftandcrimebywhichhemadehisway
intheworld,
hemaybeconsideredoneofthebestemperorsByzantiumever
had.NadirwasthesonofaTurkomantribalchief.Hebegan
lifeasleaderofabandofbrigands. Aftermanyadventureshe
enteredtheserviceofTahmaspII,shahofPersiaintheSafawid
dynasty. Finally
hedeposedTahmaspandhadaninfantson
ofthelatterproclaimedshah,becoming
his
guardian. Soon
afterthathehadboththefatherandthesonkilledandhehimself
wasproclaimed
shah.Thatwasin1736.Energetic,exceed^
inglycruel,heenhancedthe
prestige
ofPersiaabroadandsuc-
ceededin
takingDelhi,capital
oftheGrandMogul'sempire.
Heissaidtohavewonbooty
atDelhitothevalueofhalfa
billiondollars.Hewasassassinatedinhisturnin1747. Basil
andtheshahNadirwouldbothhavebeen
magnificent
materials
forMachiavelli's Prince.AgathoclesandCesareBorgiaseem
tamein
comparison.
Needlessto
say,insuch
exceptional
careersextraordinary
goodfortuneplaysa
largepart,alongwithunusualmental
giftsand,especially,a
faculty
for
takingadvantage
ofevery
propitious
circumstancethatwillliftoneabithigher.This
facultycomesdown,morethananythingelse,toknowinghow
tomakeoneselfuseful,orshallwesaynecessary,
tothosewho
alreadyarewhereonewantstobe,andtheninplaying
toall
their
qualities,goodandbad.
3.
|Belowthe
higheststratuminthe
ruling
classthereis
always,
eveninautocraticsystems,anotherthatismuchmore
numerousandcomprises
allthe
capacities
for
leadership
inthe
country.Withoutsuchaclassany
sortofsocialorganization
wouldbeimpossible.Thehigherstratumwouldnotinitself
besufficientforleadingand
directingtheactivitiesofthemasses.
Inthelast
analysis,therefore,the
stability
ofanypolitical
organismdependsonthelevelof
morality,intelligenceand
activitythatthis
secon^jtratum
hasattained;andthissoundness
iscommonlythe
greater
in
proportionasasenseofthecollective
interestsofnationorclasssucceedsin
exertingpressureonthe
individualambitionsor
greeds
ofthemembersofthisclass.
Anyintellectualormoraldeficienciesinthissecondstratum,
accordingly,representa
graverdangertothe
politicalstructure,
andonethatisharderto
repair,thanthe
presence
ofsimilar

448. 3] MIDDLECLASSANDAUTOCRACY 405
deficienciesinthefewdozen
personswhocontroltheworkings
of
thestatemachine.]Tousea
comparison:The
strength
ofan
armydependsprimarilyontheintellectualandmoralvalueof
theofficerswhocomeintodirectcontactwiththesoldiers,
beginningwiththecolonelandending
withthesecondlieutenant.
If,bysomeimprobable accident, allthegeneralsandstaff
officersofanarmyweretodisappear
atonestroke,thearmy
wouldsustainavery
seriousshock,butitwouldstillbeonits
feetandthelostleaderscouldbe
replaced
inafewmonths'time
bypromoting
thebetterregimentalcommandersand
raising
otherofficers,fromamong
themore
competent,
tothestaff.
Butifalltheofficerswho
actuallyleadthesoldiersweretodis-
appearthearmywoulddissolvebeforetheycould
possibly
be
replaced.Thehigher
stratuminthe
ruling
classcorresponds
tothe
generalsandstaff,the
second^stratumtotheofficerswho
personally
leadthesoldiersunderfire.
(
In
primitive
autocraticsystems,andinthemoreancientones
ingeneral,
thissecondstratuminthe
ruling
classwasalmost
alwaysmadeup
of
priestsandwarriors,thetwogroups
ofpersons
whohadthematerialforcesofthesocietyattheir
disposal,
exercisedintellectualandmoral
leadershipand,as
consequence
ratherthanascauseofthat
leadership,were
economicallypre-
eminent.Undersocialconditionsofthatsort,itwasnatural
thatautocracy
ingovernment
shouldbecombinedwithaprev-
alenceofthearistocratictendency.Butastimegoeson,in
countrieswhereclassdifferentiation rests
originallyoninvasions
byforeignpeoples,theconqueringandconqueredracesfuse
completely.Thelevelofcivilizationrises.Wealthandculture
thereforeincrease,andtechnicalpreparationbecomesnecessary
forthesatisfactoryperformance
of
publicduties. Aristocratic
autocraciesthereforealmostalwaysdevelopintomoreorless
bureaucraticautocracies. ThatwasthecasewiththeRoman
Empire,especially
afterDiocletian,withtheByzantineEmpire,
withtheChineseEmpire,
atleastduringthelastcenturiesofits
existence,withRussiaafterPetertheGreat,withthe
principal
European
statesintheeighteenthcenturyand,withcertain
reservations,withJapan
afterthecreationoftheTokugawa
shogunate. Asiswellknown,after
lyeyasu,who
reigned
in
Japanfrom1598to1616,hadfoundedtheshogunate
ofthe
Tokugawas,
thepower
ofthedaimios,or
greatbarons,was

449. 406 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
greatly
curtailed.
1
Alltheregimesmentionedmaybeconsidered
bureaucraticautocracies.
Beforeanautocracycanbegintobureaucratizea
greatstate,
the
politicalorganizationmustbeso
strongthatitcan
regularly
levyontheincomeof
private
individualsaportionthatis
large
enough
topay
thesalariesof
public
officialsand
defray
the
expenses
ofapermanentarmedforce.Butthen,asisoftenthe
casewithsocialphenomena,
aseriesofactionandreactions
follow.Oncebureaucratization iswelladvanced, itinturn
enhancesthecoercive
efficiency
ofthestatemachineandso
enablesthe
rulingclass,and
especiallytheleadinggroup
init,to
exercise
greaterand
greater
influenceoverthegovernedmasses
andtodirecttheeffortsofthegovernedmoreandmore
efficiently
towardthe
purposes
thattheirgovernorswishtoachieve. In
otherwords,abureaucratizedautocracy
isa
perfectedautocracy
andithasallthe
advantagesanddisadvantages
ofthatperfection/
Amongtheadvantages,onemaymentionthe
possibility
of
assigning
thevariousfunctionsof
leadershipto
specialistsand
the
possibility
ofopening
alldoorstotalentsthatare
forging
upwardfromthelowerstratain
society,andthereforeofmaking
roomforpersonal
merit.Sohomage
ispaidtoa
principle
of
distributive
justice
thathas
alwayshada
gripontheheartsof
menandis
especiallycogent
inourtime,a
feelingthatthere
shouldbeanexactandalmostmathematicalcorrespondence
betweentheserviceanindividualrendersto
societyandthe
position
whichhecomestoholdinthesocial
ranking.
But,asFerrerowellnotes,
2
personal
meritisoneofthe
things
thatthe
passionsandinterestsofmenbestmanage
tocounterfeit.
Inautocraticsystems,wheresuccessdependsuponthejudgment
ofone
person,
orofafew
persons,intriguemaybeenoughto
produce
thecounterfeitsemblanceofpersonalmerit.Inliberal
systems,especiallywhenthedemocratictendency
isalso
preva-
lentandtheregardandactivesympathy
ofmanypeople
are
necessary
ifoneisto
getonintheworld,intriguehastobe
coupledwithagood
doseofcharlatanry. Atanyrate,quite
asidefromsucha
prejudicialand,ifonewill,suchanover-
pessimisticobjection,
itiscertainthatthejudgment
ofa
person's
meritsandaptitudes
willalwaysbemoreorless
subjective,and
*Laliazeltere,LeJapon,
vol.Ill,bookVI.
s
Memoriee
confessioni
diunsovrano
deposto,p.
29.

450. 3] MERITANDAUTOCRACY 407
that,therefore,eachjudge
willinallgood
faith
giveacandidate
a
higherrating
forintellectualandmoral
qualitieswhichhe
likesorhappens
topossess
himself.Thatisoneofthechief
reasonsfortheblindconservatism,theutter
incapacity
tocorrect
one'sfaultsandweaknesses,thatissofrequent
in
exclusively
bureaucratic
regimes.
Theexample
ofChinaisapt
tothis
point*
InChinathe
highermandarinatewasmadeup
ofeducatedpersons,but
they
wereeducatedintheoldtraditionalcultureofthe
country*
Inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturythemandarinate
strenuouslyopposedanewmethodof
recruitingpublicemployees
basedonknowledge
ofEuropeanlanguagesandEuropean
sciences. InJapan,ontheotherhand,themenwholedthe
greatreformof1868graspedthenecessityofacquiringEuropean
cultureatonce.Thesemencamealmostallfromthesamurai
class.Theywereeducated
people,buttheywerenotscholars
andscientistsbyprofession.
Toavoiddistortionsinjudgments
onmerit,itisnotenough
thatthe
higher
officialsonwhomthechoiceandadvancement of
thelowerfunctionariesdependshouldbeindividuals ofgreat
intelligence. Theyhavetobe
generousandnobleofheart.
Sometimesthepersonwhoisendowedwiththerarestandloftiest
qualities
ofmind
preferspeople
ofmediocreorsecond-rate
talents.Theygivehimlesscausefor
jealousyandthey
better
supplement
hisown
capacities,
forthemediocremandoesthings
that,thefirst-rateonecannotdo,orscornstodo.Furthermore,
themediocremanisalmostalwaysflatteringandsmooth:heis
without,oratleastisbetterabletodissimulate,acertain
youthful
cocksurenessfrequentlyencountered inmenof
greenageand
lively
talentsasortofpresumptuousness,
realorapparent,
typical
ofthosemenwhoseemtoseeata
glancethingsthat
othermen,evenoldand
experiencedones,eitherdonotseeatall
orseeverytardily.
Suppose,then,thatinourdistrustofhuman
impartiality
we
trytoreplacechoiceandappointmentbysuperiorswith
automatic rulesofadvancement. Suchrulescanbebased
onlyuponthe
principle
of
seniority.
Inthiscase,unfailingly,
thelazyandthe
diligent,theintelligentandthe
stupid,getalong
equally
well.Thepublicemployeeknows
perfectly
wellthat
itwillnothelphimtodoanymoreoranybetterthanothers.

451. 408 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES
[CHAP.XV
Hewillthereforedotheminimumthatis
indispensable
ifheis
nottolosehispositionorhispromotion. Insuchcircumstances
thebureaucraticcareertendstobecomethe
refuge
ofthetalent-
less,orofpeoplewho
absolutelyneedtohavesalaried
positions
inordertoprovide
fortheirdailywants. Ifan
intelligent
mandoeshappen
tostrayintothebureaucracy,hedevotesonly
apart
ofhis
activityandhistalenttohisoffice,andoftenitis
notthebest
part.
Thougha
bureaucracymaybe
legallyopen
toallsocialclasses,
infactitwill
alwaysberecruitedfromthemiddleclass,in
otherwordsfromthesecondstratumoftheruling
class.For
one
thing,
thosewhoarebornintothesecondstratum
finditeasiertosecuretheeducationthatis
required
ofthem,
andintheirfamilybackgroundtheydevelopa
practical
sense
ofthebestways
of
getting
startedinthebureaucraticcareer
andofadvancing
init.Howhelpful
theguidanceandinfluence
ofafather,ofaninfluentialrelativeorof
family
friendscanbe,
onecaneasilyimagine.Forthisreasonitcanin
generalbe
saidthatina
purely
autocraticsystem,
orinsystemsthatcom-
bineautocracyandliberalism,themorallevelofthe
bureaucracy
isthemorallevelofthe
ruling
class.Thatlevelwillbe
higher
whentheruling
classhasdeep-rootedtraditionsof
probityand
honorbecauseithasbeenformedand
disciplinedover
long
periods
oftime,andhasdevoteditselfformanygenerationsto
theserviceofthestate,nowincivil,nowin
militarycapacities.
Thelevelwillbelowerwhenthe
ruling
classisofmorerecent
dateandstemseitherfrom
rustling,bustlingand
lucky
adven-
turers,orfromfamiliesof
peasantsand
shopkeeperswhohave
acquired,
atbest,thefirstrudimentsofmannersandeducation.
Evenifsuchpeoplehave
developed
acertaincompetence,they
arestilloftenwithoutaspark
ofidealismandretainaninveter-
ateandsordidgreedfor
large,andevenfor
pettygains.
Incasessuchasthesebureaucratic organization yields
itsworstresults.Onenotesbrazenfavoritismin
superiors,
baseservility
insubalternsand,in
superiorsandsubalterns
both,atendencytoexchangeforfavorsofany
sortsuchinfluence
astheir
positionsput
attheir
disposal. Inthemoreserious
cases,bargaining
turnsintooutrightsale,andthenwe
geta
system
ofpecuniarycorruptionwhich
disruptsand
paralyzes

452. 4] LIBERALSYSTEMS 400
every
stateactivity
onceithasbecomecommoninthehigher
andlower
grades
ofthebureaucratic scale.
Anotherdefectcommontobureaucracies,evenwhentheir
morallevelis
high,
isa
disposition
tobelieveintheirowninfalli-
bility.Bureaucratsarebynatureexceedingly
loathtoaccept
criticismsand
suggestions
from
personswhoarenotoftheir
caEing,andevenfromthosewhoare.
4.1Aswehaveseen
(above),theliberal
principle
hashada
morebrilliantrecordthantheautocratic principle,butitis
certainlyashorterrecordanditislesswidespread
overthe
world'ssurfaceandthroughhistory.Totheexamples
of
liberalcountries,ancientandmodern,thatwehavementioned,
onemightaddPoland,Holland,theHanseatic cities,Genoa,
Florence,Switzerlandrplaces
allwhereliberal
regimeshave
lasted,inoneeraoranother,forconsiderablelengths
oftime.
Finally
thereisVenice,whereasystemthatwasliberal,inthe
sensethatweattachtotheterm,andatthesametime
oligarchi-
cal,prevailed
foragoodthousand
years.Butalmostallthe
otherstates
justmentioned,apartfromsomefewcantonsin
Switzerland,weregovernedby
aristocracies ofmoreorless
limitedmembership. InPoland,thecountrywheretheliberal
systemwas
appliedoveraconsiderable
territory,aristocracy
degeneratedverysoonintoturbulent
anarchy.
iLooking
fortheessentialcharacteristics ofthe
systemwhich
wecall"liberal,"onemaysaythatinsuch
systems
thelawis
basedupon
theconsentofthemajority
ofcitizens,thoughonlya
smallfractionoftheinhabitantsmaybecitizens;andthenthat
theofficialswhoapply
thelawarenamed
directly
or
indirectlyby
theirsubordinates,thattheir
posts
aretemporaryandthatthey
are
personallyresponsible
forthelawfulnessoftheiracts.In
the
great
liberalstates,in
general,
citizensdonotexercise
legislativepowerpersonally.Theydelegate
ittoassemblies
whichare
directly
or
indirectlynamedbythem,andthework
oftheelectiveofficialsis
supplementedandcoordinatedbythe
workofabureaucracyproper.Furthermore, incaseswhere
theliberal
principleprevails,
thestate
customarilyrecognizes
certainlimitstoits
powers
initsrelationstoindividualcitizens
andtoassociations ofcitizens.Suchlimitswerenot
entirely

453. 410 PRINCIELESANDTENDENCIES (CHAP.XV
unknowntoclassicalGreeceandancientRome.They
are
almostalwaysrecognized
inmodernconstitutions. They
relate
tosuchthings
asfreedomof
worship,
ofthe
press,
ofeducation,
ofassemblyandofspeech.Theyguaranteepersonalliberty,
privatepropertyand
inviolability
ofdomicile. I
tinstateswheretheliberal
principleprevailswealsofindthe
twostrataofthe
ruling
classwhichwefoundinautocratic
systems,
thefirst
very
small,thesecondmuchmoreextensive
anddeeperreaching,
j
Theelectivesystem,
infact,doesnot
precludetheformationofmoreorlessclosed
cliqueswhichcom-
pete
forthe
highest
officesinthestate,eachofthem
tapering
up
tosomeaspirant
tothe
highest
office itmaybethe
presi-
dencyofarepublic
orthepresidency
ofacouncilofministers.
These
partiescorrespond
tothecourt
cliques
inautocracies,
fromamong
whichtheimmediatecoadjutors
ofthesupreme
headofthestatearechosen.Themethodsusedareofcourse
different. Inordertoreachhigh
stationinanautocracy
itis
sufficienttohavethe
support
ofoneormore
persons,andthatis
securedbyexploiting
alltheir
passions,goodandbad.In
liberalsystemsonehastosteertheinclinationsofatleastthe
wholesecondstratumofthe
rulingclass,which,
ifitdoesnot
initselfconstitutetheelectorate,atleast
suppliesthegeneral
staffsofleaderswhoformtheopinionsanddeterminetheconduct
ofthe
electingbody.Fromwithinitcomethecommittees
thatdirect
politicalgroupings,
thespeakerswhoaddressassem-
bliesandmeetings,themenwhomakeandpublishthenews-
papersand,finally,thatsmallnumberofpersonswhoare
capable
offormingopinions
oftheirownastopeopleandeventsofthe
day,andthereforeexercisegreat
influenceonthemanywhoare
notcapable
ofhavingopinions
oftheirownandare
ready,per^
hapswithoutknowingit,alwaystofollowthe
opinions
ofothers,
(Theresultswhich
applications
oftheliberal
principleyield
varyaccording
astheelectorate,withwhichreststhechoiceof
thosewhoaretooccupy
the
highestpublicoffices,variesfrom
narrowly
exclusivetobroadly
inclusive^
Intheformercase,alargepart
ofthe
rulingclass,orofthose
whohavethe
requisites
forbelonging
to
it,arekept
out.This
exclusionmakesaliberalsystem
lookverymuchlikemasked
autocraticrulebyanarrowly
limitedclassof
people
attimes
by
afewpowerful
or
virtuallyomnipotent families.That

454. 4] LIBERALSYSTEMS 411
wasthecaseinPolandinthedecadesjustpreceding
the
partition
ofthatcountry. Furthermore,whentheelectorate is
narrowly
limited,almostallthevotersareormayberegarded
as
eligible
foroffice.Infact,almostallofthemdobecomecandidates.
Inotherwords
they
areofferedforjudgmentbutwithoutthere
beingasufficientnumberof
judges.
Something
ofthesorthappens
inelectivechambersincountries
withparliamentary governments. Therethefrequency of
cabinetcrisesandthedifficultyof
formingnewministriesdepend,
toanextentatleast,onthefactthatlargenumbersofdeputies
wanttobeministersorundersecretaries ofstate.Thecandidates
beingtoomany,judgesbecometooscarce,for
judges
shouldbe
menwhosharenoneoftheintereststhatareatissue.
Asarule,therefore,innarrowly
limitedelectorates,either
a
singlecliqueforms,madeup
ofthose
already
inofficeandof
theirassociatesor
partisans,
orelsetherearetwo
cliques,one
ofwhichisinpower,whiletheotheroffersa
spitefulandsystem-
aticopposition.Thefewwhoholdalooffromboth
cliques
ordinarily
areleftisolatedandare
ignored.Theycanexert
aneffectiveinfluenceonly
atcriticalmoments,whenaseriesof
startlingscandalsorseriousfailuresmakesthefallofthe
clique
thatisinpowerprobableorinevitable.
(Inthesecondcaseinotherwords,insystemswhere
every-
body,
oralmosteverybody,canvotethechieftaskofthe
variouspartyorganizationsintowhichtherulingclassisdivided
istowinthevotesofthemorenumerousclasses,whichare
necessarily
the
poorestandmost
ignorant. Theseclasses
ordinarily
liveinsubmissiontoagovernmentwhichoftenthey
donotcarefor,andtheaimsand
workingspfwhichmoreoften
stilltheydonotunderstand/ Their
first,theirnatural,their
mostspontaneous
desireistobe
governed
aslittleas
possible,
ortomakeasfewsacrificesas
possibleforthestate.Their
seconddesire,whichdevelopsmore
especiallywiththeexercise
of
suffrage,
isto
profitbygovernment
inordertobettertheir
economicsituation,andtoventtherepressedresentmentsand
envieswhichoftennotalwaysthemanwhoisbelowfeels
forthemanwhoisabove,especially
forthemanwhoishis
immediate
superior.
Whensuccessinthe
strugglebetweenthedifferentgroups
inthe
ruling
class
dependsupon
the
supportandsympathy

455. 412 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
ofthe
masses, he group
thathasthelesseffectivemeansof
influenceatitsdisposal
will
unfailingly
availitselfofthetwo
desiresmentioned,especially
ofresentmentsandenvies,inorder
todrawthelowerstrataof
societyalongwithit.Connected
withthe
group,nowasamatterofsentiment,nowasamatter
ofinterest,areindividualswhowereborninthelessfavored
classesbuthavemanagedbyspecial
talentand
energy,
orby
exceptional cunning,
toclimboutof
them^
Michelshas
examinedwith
greatacumenthecontributiontothemanage-
mentand
organization
ofthesocialist
parties
inthevarious
countriesthathasbeenmadebyelements
derivingfromthe
middleclassesandbyelementsissuingfromtheworking
classes
themselves,andtherivalriesandcompetitions
thatoftenarise
betweenthosetwo
categories
inthesocialist
general
staffs.
1
Whatevertheir
origins,themethodsthatareusedbythe
people
whoaimtomonopolizeand
exploitthesympathy
ofthemasses
alwayshavebeenthesame.Theycomedowntopointingout,
withexaggerations
ofcourse,theselfishness,the
stupidity,
thematerialenjoyments
oftherichandthepowerful;todenounc-
ing
theirvicesand
wrongdoings,
realandimaginary;andto
promising
to
satisfyacommonandwidespreadsenseof
rough-
hewn
justicewhichwouldliketoseeabolishedeverysocial
distinctionbaseduponadvantage
ofbirthandatthesametime
wouldliketoseean
absolutelyequaldistribution of
pleasures
and
pains.
Oftenenough
the
partiesagainstwhichthisdemagogicprop-
aganda
isdirecteduseexactlythesamemeanstocombatit.
Whenevertheythinktheycan
profitbydoingso,\heytoomake
promises
whichthey
willneverbeableto
keep.Theytooflatter
themasses,play
totheircrudestinstinctsand
exploitand
foment alltheirprejudicesand
greeds.Adespicablecom-
petition,
inwhichthosewho
deliberatelydeceivelowertheir
intellectualleveltoaparwiththosetheydeceive,whilemorally
theystoopevenlower!!
Theoldestexample
ofdemagogiceloquence
isthespeech
thatHomer
puts
intothemouthofThersites,amanwhowasin
thehabitof
baiting
leadersoftheGreeks.
2
HeaccusesAgamem-
nonofwaxing
richonthelaborsand
perils
ofthecommon
1
Parteiwesen
tpartIV.
*
IliadII.

456. M RENOVATIONOFRULINGCLASSES 413
soldiersandof
passing
histimeamidtheallurementsofbeautiful
slave
girls.ThenheincitestheGreekstoasortof
military
strike,urgingthemtoleavetheirleadertohisownresources,
thathemaycometorealizehowmuchheowestothe
sufferings
ofthesoldiers. Unsurpassable
modelsofdemagogiceloquence
arethespeechesascribedtoCaiusMariusby
Sallust
1
anda
speechthatMachiavellihasanunknownworkingman deliver
ontheoccasionof
riotingbythewoolcardersinFlorence.
2
Moderndemagoguesalmostalways
fallshortoftheseclassic
models,inwhichallthearguments
thatcanbeadvancedagainst
thosewhoowewealthorhighpositiontobirtharesetforthin
suchmasterlyfashionastoarousedeepechoesinthehearts
ofallthedisinherited.
Allinall,then,theliberal
principle
findsconditionsforits
applicationmostfavorablewhentheelectorate ismadeup
in
the
majority
ofthesecondstratumofthe
rulingclass,which
formsthebackboneofallgreatpoliticalorganizations. When
itissufficiently large,noverygreatproportion
ofthevoters
canaspire
tocandidacies,andthecandidatesthereforecanfind
judges
inthemandnotrivalsor
accomplices. Atthesame
time,whentheelectorate is
fairlylimited,successdoesnot
dependonpayinghomage
tothebeliefsandsentimentsofthe
more
ignorant
classes.Onlyundersuchcircumstancescanone
ofthechiefassumptions
oftheliberalsystembemade,wedo
not
saycomplete,butnotwhollyillusorynamely,thatthose
whorepresent
shallberesponsible
tothe
represented.
Anotheradvantage,presumed
orreal,oftheliberal
principle,
isthattheactsofrulerscanbepubliclydiscussed,eitherin
political
assembliesandadministrative councilsorinthe
daily
pressandinperiodicals. Butifthislastand
very
effectivemeans
ofcontrolis
really
to
enlightenpublicopinion,thenewspapers
mustnotbeorgans
of
political
orfinancial
cliquesnorblind
instruments offaction. Iftheyare,thepublicshouldknow
aboutitandbeina
position
totakedueaccountofthefact.
r
5.\Thedemocratictendency
thetendency
to
replenishruling
classesfrombelow isconstantly
atworkwith
greater
orlesser
intensity
inallhumansocieties.Attimesthe
rejuvenation
1
BettumJugurthinumIII,76.
1
Stone
fiorentine
III.

457. 414 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
comesaboutin
rapid
orviolentways.Moreoften,infact
normally,
ittakes
placethroughaslowand
gradual
infiltration
ofelementsfromthelowerintothehigher
classes!
Inthe
past,
violentrenovationsnot
infrequentlycameabout
asaresultof
foreign
invasions,A
conqueringpeoplewould
settleonthe
territory
oftheconqueredand,withoutdestroying
theoldinhabitantsor
drivingthemout,forceitsruleuponthem.
Thathappened
inwesternEuropeafterthefalloftheRoman
Empire,
inthePersiaoftheSassanidsaftertheArabinvasion,
inEngland
afterthe
victory
ofWilliamtheConqueror,
inIndia
aftertheinvasionoftheMohammedans, inChinaafterthe
invasionofthe
Mongolsand
again,
lateron,aftertheinvasionof
theManchuTatars.Insuchcases,remnantsoftheoldnative
aristocracieshavealmostalwayscrept
intothenewaristocracies
of
foreignorigin.Intheexamplesmentioned,also,theconquest
byforeignerswas
usually
facilitatedbyan
incipientdomestic
decline.Theindigenousruling
classhadeitherweakenedor
disintegrated,
orelsehadbecomealienated
spirituallyfromthe
restofthe
population.
Intimesmorerecent,violentand
far-reachingrenovations
ofold
political
classeshavesometimescomeaboutthrough
internalupheavals. Thesewouldbe"revolutions"
proper.
They
occurwhenawidebreachopensbetweena
people's
official
politicalorganizationanditscustoms,ideasandsentiments,and
whenmanyelementswhichwouldbecompetentto
participate
ingovernment
are
artificiallyheldinasubordinate status.
Theclassicexample
ofthatsituationwouldbetheFrenchRevolu-
tion.Anotherexample
is
developing
beforeoureyesinRussia
today.
Butcaseswhereviolentcrises
radically
alterthecriteriaof
selectionfor
rulingclasses,and
change
ormodify
their
composi-
tionprofoundly
inthecourseofafew
years,mayberegarded
as
exceptional...They
arecharacteristic ofafew
particular
periods
in
history.Suchoverturnssometimes
givea
vigorous
impetustointellectual,moralandmaterial
progress.Atother
timestheyhavebeenthe
beginnings,
orelsetheresults,of
periods
of
decayand
disintegration
incivilizations. Eveninnormal
times,onecanalmostalways
observethataslowand
gradual
renewalofthe
ruling
classis
going
on
through
infiltrationsinto
thehigher
strataof
society
ofelementsemergingfromthelower.

458. 5] DEMOCRACYANDRULINGCLASS 415
Butthistendency,
whichwehavedecidedtocalldemocratic,
sometimes isoutstanding
inacivilizationandoperates
inamore
effectiveand
rapidmanner.Atothertimesitproceedscovertly
andthereforemoreblandly,becauseofthethousandobstacles
thatlaws,habitsandcustomsput
initsway.
JAs
wehaveseen
(chap.II, 8),thedemocratictendency
is
more
likely
to
prevail
inunsettledtimes,whennewmannersof
thinkingand
feeling
areunderminingtheoldconceptsonwhich
thestructureofsocialrankingshasbeenbased,whenscientific
andtechnical
progresshavecreatednewways
ofmakingmoney
orproducedchanges
in
militaryorganization, orevenwhena
shockfromoutsidehasforcedanationto
rally
allthe
energies
and
capacitieswhich,in
quiettimes,wouldhaveremainedina
potentialstate!Revolutionsandlongwars
givemanynew
menachancetoassertthemselvesandmakeuseoftheirtalents.
HadtherebeennoFrenchRevolution,NapoleonBonaparte
wouldprobablyhavelivedtobeagoodcolonelof
artillery,and
haditnotbeenforthewarsoftheRevolutionandtheEmpire,
someofhismarshalswould
certainlyhaveremainedlieutenants.
Ingeneral,changes
in
religion,newmovementsin
philosophy
and
politicalthinking,
inventionofnewweapons
ornewinstru-
mentsofwarfare,application
ofnewdiscoveriestoeconomic
productionandcorrespondingincreasesineconomicproduction,
areallelementsthatfavorrapid
translationsand
interchanges
ofthemolecules,thatmakeupthevarioussocialstrata.Such
changesandinterchangescomeaboutmore
readily
innew
countries,wherenaturalresourceshavenotbeenverymuch
exploitedandstillabound,permittingenergeticandenterprising
mentoattainwealthandreputationwithease,oratleastwith
less
difficulty.Theexamples
ofAustraliaandthedifferent
countriesintheAmericasareapt
tothis
point.
Ifitisconfinedwithinmoderatelimits,thedemocratictend-
ency
isinasenseindispensabletowhatiscalled"progress"
inhumansocieties. Ifallaristocracieshadremained
steadfastly
closedandstationary,
theworldwouldneverhave
changed,and
mankindwouldhavestoppeddeveloping
atthe
stage
thatit
hadattainedatthetimeoftheHomericmonarchies,ortheold
NearEastern
empires.Thestrugglebetweenthosewhoare
atthetopandthosewhoarebornatthebottombut
aspire
to
climbhasbeen,isandwilleverbethefermentthatforces

459. 416 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES (CHAP.XV
individualsandclassestowidentheirhorizonsandseekthenew
roadsthathavebroughttheworldtothedegree
ofcivilization
thatitattainedinthenineteenth
century.Thathigh
levelof
civilizationmadeit
possible
tocreateinthe
political
fieldthe
greatmodernrepresentative state,which,aswehaveseen
(chap.XIV, 8),
isofall
politicalorganismstheonethathas
succeededincoordinating
the
largestsumofindividualenergies
andactivitiesand
applyingthemto
purposesthatarerelatedto
thecollectiveinterest.
Whenthedemocratictendencydoesnotexerttoo
greatan
influence,totheexclusionofothertendencies, it
representsa
conservative force. Itenablesruling
classestobecontinually
replenishedthrough
theadmissionofnewelementswhohave
inborntalentsfor
leadershipandawilltolead,andsoprevents
thatexhaustion ofaristocracies ofbirthwhichusuallypaves
theway
for
great
socialcataclysms. Nevertheless, beginning
withtheendoftheeighteenthcenturyand
continuingthrough
thenineteenth,thedogma
ofhuman
equality,modernizedto
accordwithmodernways
of
thinking,hasbeen
takingonnew
vigor,andithasbeendeemed
possible
tomakeacompleteappli-
cationofitonthisearth.Manypeoplehavebelievedandstill
believe,andnotafewhave
feigned
tobelieveandstill
feign
tobelieve,thateveryadvantageduetobirthcan,intimeand
byappropriatechanges
inoursocialsystem,beeliminated,and
thatthefuturewillseehumanassociationsinwhichtherewill
beanexactcorrespondencebetweentheservicea
personrenders
tosocietyandtherung
he
occupiesonthesocialladder.
Thenotionthatinan
ideallyorganized
statetherewouldbe
absolutecorrespondence betweentheservicerenderedbyan
individualto
societyandtherankhecomestooccupy
init
was
clearlyformulatedforthefirsttimebySaint-Simon.He
pressesthedoctrineinmany
ofhisworksunderoneformor
another.Lateronthesameconceptbecameoneofthetenets
oftheSaint-Simonian school,whichinother
respectsranged
far
afieldfromthemaster'steachings,
1
Thisaspirationhasnever,
perhaps,beenso
widely
heldandso
clearlyformulatedasitis
today,butitwouldbeabsurdtoimaginethatitwasfirstcon-
ceivedinSaint-Simon's time,orevenalittlelessthantwo
centuriesago.
Ithasbeenthemoralbasisof
everyattackthat
I
0euvred,andseeBernardoMosca,"IIpensiero
diSaint-Simonconsiderate
dopounsecolo."

460. 5] HEREDITARYARISTOCRACY 417
haseveraimedatrenewing
or
rejuvenating ruling
classes.
Wheneveranefforthasbeenmadetoremovethebarriersthat
haveseparatedan
aristocracy,hereditarybylaworinfact,
fromtherestof
society,theappealhasalwaysbeentotheclaims
ofindividualmeritas
against
the
privileges
ofbirth,nowinthe
nameof
religion,nowinthenameofthenatural
equality
ofall
menoratleastofallcitizens.Inthis
respect,
thedemocracies
ofGreeceandRome,theCiompi(woolcarders)
ofFlorence,the
Anabaptists
ofMiinster without,tobesure,havingtheBill
ofRights
attheir
fingers'tipsthoughtandactedliketheFrench
reformersoftheeighteenthcenturyandlikethecommunists of
today.WatTylerwastheleaderofafamousrebellionof
the
Englishpeasantsagainst
thelordswhichbrokeoutin1381.
Someyearsbefore,whiletheinsurrectionwasbrewing,a
priest
namedJohnBallwrotetheoftenquotedcoupletthatexactly
expressesthisattitude:
WhenAdamdelvedandEvespan
Whowasthenthegentleman?
Buteverytimethedemocraticmovementhastriumphed,
in
part
orinfull,wehave
invariablyseenthearistocratictend-
encycometolife
againthrough
effortsoftheverymenwho
had
fought
itandsometimeshadproclaimed
itssuppression.
InRome,after
forcingthedoorsthatbarredtheiraccessto
highoffice,therich
plebeians
fusedwiththeoldpatriciateand
formedanewnobilitytowhichaccessby
outsiderswas
legally
permittedthough
in
practice
itwasleftvery
difficult. In
Florencean
oligarchy
of"fatproletarians"supplantedthenoble
familieswhose
politicalinfluencetheyhadseenfittodestroy
bythefamous"ordinances of
justice/*InFrancethebour-
geoisie
ofthenineteenthcentury
in
partreplacedthe
nobility
oftheoldregime.Everywhere,
themomenttheoldbarrier
hasbeencastdownanewonehasbeenraisedinitsplace,perhaps
lowerattimesandlessbristlingwithbramblesandthorns,
buthighenoughandhardenoughtocrosstooffer
fairly
serious
obstaclestoanyonedisposed
toleapoverit.Everywhere,
thosewhohavereachedthetoprungsonthesocialladderhave
setup
defensesforthemselvesandtheirchildren
againstthose
whoalsowishedtoclimb.
1
1
Mosca,"IIprinciplearistocraticoedildemocratico nelpaasato
awenire."

461. 418 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
Itwillbesaidthatallthatisa
necessaryproduct
of
private
property,
whichmakeswealth
hereditaryandsmoothstheroad
forthosewhoinheritittoattainpowerand
stay
there.In
thatobjectionthereiscertainlyalargeelementoftruthwedo
notsaythewholetruth,becausetheculturallevelandthe
family
connections ofa
parentcanbepassedonin
part
tohis
children,evenwhenthefamilyhasno
patrimonyproper.But
fewpeople
realize
todaythatinacollectiviststatethedrawback
mentioned,forwhichprivateproperty
isat
presentheld
respon-
sible,willnot
disappear.
Itwillsimplypresent
itselfina
graver
form.Aswehave
alreadydemonstrated(chap.XI,3)
(and
asisnowhappening
inRussia),thegovernors
ofastate
thatis
organizedalong
collectivist lineswillhavefar
greater
resourcesandmeansofactionthanhavetherichand
powerful
oftoday.Therulersofacollectiviststate
pileeconomicpower
on
politicalpowerandso,controllingthelotsofallindividuals
andallfamilies,haveathousandways
of
distributingrewards
andpunishments.
Itwouldbe
strangeindeediftheydidnot
takeadvantage
ofsucha
strategicposition
to
givetheirchildren
astartinlife.
Inordertoabolish
privileges
ofbirth
entirely,
itwouldbe
necessary
togoone
stepfarther,toabolishthe
family,recognize
avagrantVenusanddrophumanitytothelevelofthelowest
animalism. Itis
interesting
thatinthe
RepublicPlato
proposed
abolishingthefamily
asanalmost
necessaryconsequence of
theabolitionof
privateproperty.Heseemstohavebeen
inclined,however,toconfinethetwoabolitionstohis
ruling
classtheclassof
philosophersandwarriors.Hewasnotin
favorofwhatwouldnowbecalled"freelove."He
envisaged
temporaryunions,inwhichchoiceofthetemporarymatewas
tobemadeby
his
philosophers.Hefurther
arrangedthat
thechildrenbornofsuchunionsshouldnotknowtheir
parents,
orbeknownbythem,sincethestateshouldformone
single
family.Asimilarsystem
isexpoundedanddefendedinCamp-
anella's
Ci&yof
theSun.Campanella alsowantedtoabolish
privatepropertyandthe
family.
Butwedonotthinkthateven
provisions
asradicalasthese
wouldsufficetoestablishintheworldanabsolute
justicethat
willneverberealized,butwhichwillalwaysbe
appealed
toby
thosewhoare
trying
to
upsetthesystem
ofsocial
rankingsthat

462. 6] HEREDITARYARISTOCRACY 419
prevails
inagivencountry
atagiven
time.TheCatholic
clergyhavenotbeenallowedtohave
legalchildren.But
whenevertheyhavecometowieldgreateconomicand
political
power,nepotismhasarisenintheChurch.Andwemay
well
imagine
thatifnephews
aswellassonsweretobe
suppressejl
thehumanbeingwouldstillfindamong
hisfellowmen.some
whomhewouldloveandprotect
in
preference
toothers.
Itisnotsocertain,meantime,thatitwouldbe
altogether
beneficialtothe
collectivity
tohaveeveryadvantage
ofbirth
eliminatedinthe
struggle
for
membership
intheruling
class
andfor
highposition
inthesocialhierarchy.
Ifallindividuals
could
participate
inthescrambleonan
equalfooting,struggle
wouldbeintensifiedtothepoint
of
frenzy.Thiswouldentail
anenormousexpenditure
ofenergy
for
strictlypersonalends,
withno
corresponding
benefittothesocialorganism,
atleast
inthe
majority
ofcases.
1
Ontheotherhand,itmayvery
well
bethatcertainintellectualand,especially,moral
qualities,
whichare
necessary
toa
ruling
classifitistomaintainits
prestige
andfunction
properly,
areusefulalsoto
society,yetrequire,
ifthey
areto
developandexerttheirinfluence,thatthesame
familiesshouldhold
fairlyhigh
socialpositions
foranumberof
generations,
6.Inthistwentiethcentury
ofours,therearefewpeople
indeedwhodonotmake
publicprofession
ofanenthusiastic
support
of
democracy.
Itmightseem
superfluous, therefore,
to
lingerverylong
ontheevilsanddisadvantages
ofanexcessive
predominance
ofthearistocratictendency
orof
stabilizing
politicalpowerandsocialinfluenceincertainfamilies.Yet
just
suchstabilization isacommontraitincivilizationsthathave
disappeared,andincivilizationsthathaveremainedoutside
thesphere
of
present-dayEuropeanprogress.
Socialstabiliza-
tionhasbeenconsiderablyweakenedintheWestbutitisfar
frombeingathing
ofthe
past.Thearistocratic
spirit
isnot
entirelydeadamongus,andprobably
willneverdie.Now
thattendencyhasitsdangersanddisadvantages.
Whena
peoplehas
longbeenruledbyaclosedorsemiclosed
aristocracy,almostinevitablyagroupspirit,asenseofcaste,
arisesandassertsitself,sothatthemembersofthe
aristocracy
1
Mosca,op.
tit.

463. 420 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
cometothinkofthemselvesas
infinitelysuperiortotherestof
men.Thispride
often
goeshandinhandwithacertainfrivo-
lousnessof
spiritandanexcessiveattentiontoexternalforms.
Thosewhoareatthe
top
are
likely
tofeelthat
everything
isautomaticallyduetothem,withouttheirhavingany
definite
obligationstowardthosewhodonot
belong
totheircaste.
They
lookuponoutsidersasinaway
createdtobeblindinstru-
mentsoftheiraims,passionsand
caprices.Thatstateofmind
comes
easily
tothehuman
being.
Itis
amazing,sometimes,to
notehow
quicklypeoplewhohavemanaged
toclimbto
high
positionfromhumble
originscometoconsiderthemselves
superior
totherestofmankind.
Thismannerof
thinkingand
feelingdevelopsspontaneously
inindividualswhoaredestinedtooccupyconspicuouspositions
fromtheday
oftheirbirthandwhoenjoymanyprivilegesand
receivemuchadulationfromtheirearliestchildhood.Butit
preventsthemin
generalfromunderstanding,andtherefore
from
sympathizingwith,thesorrowsandtribulationsofthose
wholiveonthelowerrungs
ofthesocialladder;andthey
are
equally
insensitivetothetoilsandeffortsofthosewhohave
managedtoclimbarung
ortwoontheladderby
theirown
achievement.
Exaggeration
ofthearistocratic
spirit,more-
over,bringspeople
toavoidcontactswiththelowerstrataof
society.Theyareatno
pains
tomakeany
close
study
ofthem,
andareleftincompleteignorance
ofreal
psychological
conditions
inthelowerclasses.Thoseconditionsaresometimes
portrayed
totheminliterature,especially
innovels,as
somethingvery
closetothe
primitivesimplicityandgoodness
ofman,andthen
again
as
somethingthattakes
directly
afterthebrutes.What-
evertheirinner
process,both
exaggerationshavetheoneresult
of
deprivingthe
ruling
classesofany
influencewhateveron
mentalandsentimentaldevelopments
inthemasses,andsoof
unfittingthe
ruling
classesformanagingthem.
Rarely
in
historydowefindexamples
of
hereditaryupper
classesthathavebeenconscious,astheyshould
properlybe,
oftheirintellectualandmoral
superiorities,and
yethavebeen
spontaneouslyand
equally
consciousofthe
obligationstoward
thelowerclasseswhichthosesuperiorities layuponthem.
More
rarely
stillamong
individualsbelonging
to
hereditary
ruling
classeshastherebeenanywidespreaddistributionofthe

464. 86] FAILINGSOFARISTOCRACY 421
sentimentsofrealbrotherhoodandonenessofmanthathave
beenthefoundationandthe
glory
ofthe
greatworld
religions,
Buddhism,ChristianityandIslamsentiments,inotherwords,
whichenablethemanof
high
stationto
recognizeand
sincerely
feelthatthelowliesthumanbeing
isalsoan
integralpart
of
thecommonhumanitytowhichtheybothbelong.This
feeling,
,
afterall,istheonesoundelementthatliesembeddedinthat
greatconglomerate
ofdreamsandfalsehoodswhichis
going
abouttodayunderthenameof"democracy."
Themostinsidiousenemy
ofallaristocracies ofbirthis.
undoubtedly,
idleness. Idlenessgenerates softnessandsen-
suality,
stimulatesfrivolousnessofmindandcreatesan
aspiration
toalifeof
pleasuresunaccompaniedby
duties.Whenthere
isno
dailypressurefromanobligation
todoasettask,andwhen
thehabitofworkhasnotbeenformedinearlyyears,
itishard
toescapethe
traps
ofthatdeadlyenemy.Yetaristocracies
thatcannotdefendthemselves
adequatelyfromidlenessdecline
rapidly.Theymaysucceedin
retaining
theirranksandoffices
nominally
forsometime,butwhensuchfunctionsare
actually
exercisedbysubalterns,thesubalternssoonbecometheactual
masters. Itcan
only
turnoutthatthemanwhoacts,and
knowshowtoact,will
eventuallysucceedin
commanding.
Exemptionfrom
physicallabor,theassuranceof
being
able
toliveandretainone'ssocial
positionwithouta
corresponding
and
compelling
needof
attendingtoanonerous
dailyoccupation,
may
incertaincases
yield
resultsthatareexcellentfromthe
standpoint
ofthecollectiveinterest.Thefactthatacertain
numberofpeoplehavebeeninthat
positionhasbeenoneofthe
mainfactorsintheintellectualandmoral
progress
ofmankind.
TheSpanish
criticUnamunooncewrotea
wittyandverylearned
eulogyonlaziness. Inithetriedtoshowthattheworldowes
muchtotheloafer,forhadtherenotbeenamongourancestors
acertainnumberofpeoplewhodidnothavetoworkwiththeir
hands,andwhohadattheir
disposal
allthetimetherewas,
neitherscience,norart,normoralitywouldhavecomeinto
being.
1
Unamuno'sthesisisadaringone,anditcontainsaconsiderable
amountoftruth.Butthe
questionmightbestatedinabetter
form.Inthecasein
point,whattheuninitiatecallslaziness
1
"Endefensadelaharaganerfa."

465. 422 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
andtheuninitiatemaybelong
totheupper
classesaswellasto
thelower isoften
very
farfrombeinganysuch
thing. It
maybethenoblestformofhumanlabor. Itmay
beaformof
laborthatenvisagesnoimmediate
utility
totheindividualwho
devoteshimselftoit,oreventoanyother
specifiedindividuals.
Itmaysimply
seektodiscoverthelawsthat
regulatetheuniverse
ofwhichweare
part,
ortolearnwhatthedevelopment
ofhuman
thoughtandhumaninstitutionshasbeen. Itmayhaveno
othermotivethanadisinterestedpassion
forwidening
tosome
extenttheconfinesoftheknownattheexpense
oftheunknown.
Itmayhavenootherendinviewthantoclarifysomewhat,
withinthelimitsofthe
possible,
thosegraveandtormenting
problems
that
try
thesoulsandmindsofmen,andtoendow
menwiththecharacteristic truthsthatliftthemabovethe
statusoftheanimals.Nowthose
impulseshaveexpressed
themselvesmost
readily,andhavehadthebestchanceto
develop,
inpeoplewhohavebelongedtoruling
classes classes
whichhavebeenso
firmlyestablishedintheirrulethatsome
oftheirmemberscouldbeexemptedfromthematerialcares
oflifeandfromtheworriesthatgowithdefendingone'ssocial
position
fromday
to
day.Underany
otherconditionsthese
sameimpulseswouldnothaveassertedthemselvesatall.We
areobliged
toadmitthatscienceandsocialmoralityoriginated
inaristocracies,andthateventodaytheynormally
findtheir
mostconsistent
practitioners
inaristocracies.
Itwouldbeuntrueandunfairtomaintainthatadisinterested
passion
forknowledge
isnottobefoundinindividuals
belonging
tothelowerstrataof
society.Moderncivilizednationsare
products
ofa
very
ancientculture,andtheirsocialclasseshave
undergone
somanyupheavalsandsomanyamalgamations
thatitisnot
surprising
thatmostaristocraticinstinctsshould
sometimesappear
inindividualsoflowstatus,whomayhave
inheritedthemfromremoteancestors.Oneofthehappiest
applications
ofthedemocratic
tendencywouldliein
enabling
suchindividuals todevelop
their
superior qualities. That,
however, isnotaneasything
todo,andwedonotbelievethat
compulsoryelementaryeducation willalonebesufficientto
accomplish
it.
Itmightbe
objectedthatweowe
great
discoveries inthe
scientificfield,and
greatpronouncements
inmorals,tomenwho

466. 6] TALENTANDARISTOCRACY 423
havebeenendowedwithwhatiscommonly
called"genius"
men,thatis,whohavehad
exceptionalcapacities
ofmindor
heartandexceptionalstrength
ofwillandthat
genius
is
rarely
hereditary. This istrue.Butgeniusmoreoftenreveals
itselfinindividualswhobelong
topeoplesandclassesthat
haveshownhighaverage
levelsofintelligence,anditisafact
ofcommonobservationthatintellectual
qualitieswhichare
abovetheaverage,thoughnot
necessarilyextraordinary,
are
readily
transmittedfromparentstochildren* Itisnotfar-
fetchedtoimaginethatinthebeginning,theupperclasses,on
whateverbasistheymayhavebeenconstituted,attractedmany
ofthemore
intelligent
individualsintotheirmembership,and
thatwhensuchclassesarenothermetically
sealedtheyarecon-
tinuouslyreplenished
with
intelligent
elements
derivingfrom
thelowerstrataof
society.
Theselectiveprocessthatgoesoninthe
higher
socialclasses,
whereby
theiraverageintelligencebecomeshigherand
stays
higherthanthatofthelowerclasses,hasbeenthe
subject
ofcarefulinvestigationbyAmmon.
1
Thatscholarsoundly
attaches
greatimportance
tothefactthatmarriagesalmost
alwaystakeplacebetweenindividualsofthesameclass,largely
becauseoftheaversionthatwomenofthe
higher
classesmanifest
formarryingmenofaclass,andthereforeofaneducation,
inferiortotheirown.Inthismatterwemustbeonourguard
againstawrongappraisal
intowhichweoftenfallbecauseofthe
Europeancustomoftransmittingnamesfromfathertoson.
Asaresultofthatcustomthe
only
visibleancestoristheone
whosenameistransmitted.Fromthe
physiologicalstandpoint,
anynumberofotherancestorshavenoless
righttobetaken
intoaccount.Anindividualalwayshastwo
parents,onemale
andonefemale.Hehas2ancestorsinthefirst
generation,4
inthesecond,8inthethird,and1,024inthetenth.Theintel-
lectualandmoraltype
ofa
family
ofancientlineage
istobe
ascribed,therefore,rathertosustained
eugeniccrossingsthan
tosome
particular
remoteancestor,whogave
the
present
generationnotmorethan,say,athousandand
twenty-fourth
partofitsblood.
Thephenomenon
of
family
inheritance ismore
striking
still
inthe
regard
ofmoral
qualities.Home
training
hasa
great
1
Gesellschaftaardnung, cliaps.XX-XXI.

467. 424 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
influenceonthedevelopment
ofmoraltraits,and
especiallythe
indirect
trainingthatcomesfromtheenvironmentwithinwhich
oneisbornandlives.Ancientness of
lineage
hasatalltimes
andeverywherebeen
prized,andthefactthata
family
hasfor
longgenerationsbeenabletomaintainahigh
social
position.
Thereisaprofoundreasonforthat. Itiscomparativelyeasy
to
gettothe
topwhentimeandfortunefavorandanindividual
hasacertainamountof
intelligence, hustle,perseveranceand,
especially,a
greatandunwavering
desireto
get
there.Butin
humanaffairs
stability
isartificialandchange
natural.Con-
stantwatchfulnessandanalertandabidingenergy
arenecessary
to
preservethrough
thecenturiesandoveralong
seriesof
genera-
tionswhatadistantancestoracquirednowbymerits,nowby
astrokeofluck,nowindeedbyanunscrupulousperformance.
Familiesthathave
long
beenabletosurvivethattestare
usuallyfamiliesinwhichthemajority
ofindividualmembers,
atleast,havebeenabletomaintainasenseofrestraintand
proportionandtoresistthetemptation
to
yield
toimpulsive
desiresthatmight
atoncehavebeensatisfied.Theymusthave
beenpeople,
inotherwords,whoknewtheartofcommanding
themselvesandwho
practiced
it.Thatartishardertolearn
and
practicethantheartofcommanding others,whichinits
turnishardertolearnand
practicethantheartof
obeying.
TheGreekhistoriansrelatethatDionysius
theElder,tyrant
of
Syracuse,wasonceharshlyrebukingasonofhisfor
running
awaywiththewifeofacitizen.He
pointedoutthatwhenhe
wasyounghewouldneverhavedonesucha
thing."Yes,
butyouwerenotbornthesonofa
king,"theyouthreplied.
Whereuponthefather:"Andyour
sonswillnotbe
kings,
if
yolidonotchangeyourways!"
So,automatically,aselective
processgoes
on
wherebyfamilies
thatlackthevirtuesmentionedsoon
lapse
into
obscurityand
losetheranktheyonce
acquired.
Ifthatprocess
ofselection
istogoon,the
ruling
classmusthaveacertain
stabilityandnot
berenewedeverygeneration. Thatnecessity,perhaps,accounts
forthetenacious
persistence
ofthearistocratic
tendency
inthe
instincts ofmen*Atanyrate,itconstitutes itssoundest
justification.
Undoubtedly,oneofthestrongestandlongest-Evedorganisms
that
historyhasanyknowledge
ofistheCatholicChurch.The

468. 6] TEAITSOFRULINGCLASSES 485
Churchhasalwaysadmittedindividualsfromallsocialclasses
intoitsclergy,andonoccasionithasbroughtmenfromthe
loweststrataof
society
tothemosteminentpost
intheecclesiasti-
calhierarchy.OnethinksatonceofPopesGregoryVII,
SixtusV,PiusX.Nowthe
principle
of
celibacy
for
priests
haspreventedarealhereditaryaristocracyfromdeveloping
withintheChurch. Neverthelesstherehaveinthepastbeen
great
familiesthatalmostalwayshadsomememberinthe
sacred
college,andthemajorityofpopesandcardinalshave
longcome,andarestillcoming,fromtheupperandmiddle
classes.Perhapsoneofthe
greatest
difficultieswithwhich
Catholicismhashadtocontendinrecentyears
liesinthefact
thattheold
aristocracy,andthehighermiddleclassesinmany
countries,areno
longersendinga
sufficientlylargenumberof
menintotheranksofthe
clergy.
Ifarulecouldbededucedfromthis
example,andfromother
examples
thatmighteasilybementioned,onemightsay
that
penetration
intotheupper
classesby
elementscomingfromthe
lowerishelpfulwhenittakesplace
indueproportionandunder
suchconditionsthatthenewcomersatonceassimilatethebest
qualities
oftheoldmembers. Itisharmfulwhentheoldmem-
bersare,soto
say,absorbedandassimilatedbythenewcomers.
Inthateventanaristocracy
isnot
replenished. Itturns
plebs.
Oneofthemostessentialtraitsin
ruling
classes
is,orshould
be,honesty
initsrelationswithsubordinates. Thelieisa
defensethatiscommonlyusedbythelower
againstthe
higher,
bytheweak
against
the
strong.
Itbecomesdoublyrepugnant
andcowardlywhenthe
stronguseittotheharmoftheweak.
It
strips
themanincommandofalltitletorespectandrenders
him
despicable
intheeyes
ofthesubordinate. Simplybecause
mensooftenresortto
lying,
thepersonwhoabstainsfromit
acquiresgreatprestige.Nowabhorrence offalsehood isa
a
qualitywhichis
ordinarilyacquiredbya
long,carefuland,one
mightsay,
traditionalmoral
training.
Itisonlynatural,there-
fore,thatitshouldbemorecharacteristic of
rulingclasses,
inthedevelopment
ofwhichtheelementofinheritance
playsa
preponderantpart.
Anotherimportantandalmostindispensable requisite
in
rulingclasses,evenin
relativelypeacefulandcommercial
ages,
is
personalcourage.Menasaruleshundangerandfeardeath,

469. 426 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHAP.XV
andtheyadmirethosewhocanrisktheirlives
intrepidly
in
caseofneed.Whensuchrisksarenotundertaken
irresponsibly
or
frivolouslytheypresupposegreatstrength
ofwillandself-
control,whichlast,perhaps,
ofallthemoral
qualities
istheone
thatexactsthe
greatestrespectanddeference.Whenadetailed
history
ofthemanyruling
classescomestobewritten,andwe
areabletosee
justhowtheyarose,flourishedand
decayed,we
believethatitwillbeshownthat
rulingclasseswhichhavehad
militaryoriginsandtraditionshavebeenthe
strongestandthat
theyhave,in
general,
lasted
longer
thanthosewhichhavehad
only
industrialor
plutocraticbackgrounds. Eventoday,
in
westernandcentralEurope,oneofthebestdefensesofthe
ruling
classliesinthepersonalcouragethatarmy
officerscoming
fromthe
ruling
classeshavein
generaldisplayed
beforetheir
soldiers.
TheVenetianaristocracymightseem,atfirstglance,tooffer
anexample
tothecontrary.Thatgroupmanagedtostayin
power
forcenturiesandyetwasmadeup
ofmerchantsand
bankers.However,Venetiannoblemenoftencommandedthe
shipsandfleetsandsometimes,downtothesecondhalfofthe
seventeenthcentury,eventhearmiesoftheSerenissima. They
losttouchcompletelywith
military
lifeintheeighteenthcen-
tury.Then,significantly,
the
republicwasinfulldecline.
Tolookuponruling
classesaseconomicallyunproductive
is
tosuccumbtoanabsurdpreconception. In
maintainingorder
andkeeping
thesocialstructureunitedthey
createtheconditions
underwhichproductive
laborcanbestbe
prosecuted,and
ordinarilytheysupplyproductionwithitstechnicalandadmin-
istrative
personnel.
Allthesame,itisinpoint
toask,inthis
regard,
whetheraruling
classofrecent
origincontents itself,
inthedistributionofwealth,withasmallersharethansuffices
fora
ruling
classofancientdate,inwhich,therefore,thearisto-
cratictendencypredominates.
Thatisanotherway
of
asking
whetherdemocracy
ismoreeconomical fora
societythan
aristocracy.
Rulingclasses,whetherdemocratic oraristocratic,which
keep
inpowerbysystematicallyfavoring
theinterestsof
private
individualsorsmallorganized
minoritiesatthe
expense
ofthe
piiblic
arealwaysthemostcostly.Thereislittletochoose
betweenthetendencies inthatregard.Butotherwisethe

470. 7] BALANCEOFTENDENCIES 427
question
ishardtoanswer,andtheanswer,moreover,Varies
widelyaccording
tothetimesandpeoples
thathappentobe
considered. In
general,
the
great
aremoregivento
flaunting
ablatantluxury
inbarbarouscountries,orincountriesthat
have
recentlygrownrich,andsomething
ofthesorthappens
withindividualsin
ruling
classes. Itisamatterofcommon
observationthatthosewhomost
distinguish
themselvesbyan
insensate
squandering
ofthefruitsofhumantoilaretheones
whohavemostrecentlyattainedth$peaks
ofwealthandpower.
Butthatmuch
granted,
onemustnotoverlookaconsideration
thatisoftenoverlooked namely,thatinthedistributionofthe
economic
production
ofacountryamong
thevarioussocial
classes,theclassthatrules
politically
hastobeallowedasuffi-
cientsharetoenableittogive
itschildrena
long,
carefuland
therefore
expensive
educationandtomaintaina
dignified
stand-
ardof
living.
Itmusthavealargeenoughshare,inaword,to
spare
itfromshowingtoo
greatanattachmenttopettyearnings,
tosmall
savingsandin
general
tothoseeconomieswhichsome-
timesloweramanintheeyes
ofhisfellowsmorethanany
amountofbadconduct.
7.Inhis
dialogue
ontheLawsPlatosetsforththethought
of
hismaturer
years,anditis
significantthathetheremaintains
thatthebestformofgovernment
isoneinwhichautocracyand
democracyarefusedandbalanced.Aswehavealreadyseen,
aristocracyanddemocracywere,forPlato,thetwo
typicalforms
of
government. InhisPolitics,Aristotle
givesan
objective
description
ofhisthreefundamental formsof
government,
monarchy,aristocracyanddemocracy,andthen
goesonto
showhis
preference
foramodified
aristocracy or,better
still,
foramodifieddemocracy,
inwhichnoteventheworkingclasses,
letaloneslavesandmetics,wouldbeadmittedto
public
office.
1
Almosttwocenturies later,Polybiusconsideredthe
politicalorganization
ofRomethebest,becausehethoughtthat
thethreefundamentaltypes
ofAristotlefoundsimultaneous
applicationinit.
2
Aboutacentury
afterPolybius,Ciceroset
forthasomewhatsimilarviewinDe
Republica,andmorethan
twelvecenturiesafterCicero,atatimewhen
politicalscience
1
PoliticsIII,8,andVI-VII.
2
HistoriesVI.

471. 48 PRINCIPLESANDTENDENCIES [CHARXV
wasbeginning
toshow
signs
ofnew
life,St.Thomasalso
expressed
apreference
formixedgovernments.
1
Montesquieu freed
himselfofAristotle's classificationanddividedgovernments
intodespotic,monarchicalandrepublican. His
preference
lay
withamodifiedmonarchy,
inwhichthethreefundamental
powers,
the
legislative,
executiveand
judiciary,wereentrusted
toseparateorgans,
allindependent ofoneanother.Inthat,
evidently,Montesquieuwas
gropingtowardtheconcept
ofa
necessary
balancebetweenthevarious
political
forcesand
influences.OnemightaddthatCavour,too,declaredthatin
politicshewasabelieverinthejwtemilieu,whichwould
involvebalanceandmutualcontrolbetweenthemanypolitical
forcesordoctrines.
2
Allthesegreatthinkersorstatesmen,then,wouldseemtohave
hadonecommon
feeling;thatthesoundnessof
political
institu-
tionsdependsuponanappropriatefusingandbalancing
ofthe
differingbutconstant
principlesandtendencieswhichareat
workinall
politicalorganisms.
Itwouldbepremature
inthe
presentstateof
political
sciencetoattempt
toformulate
JBLlaw,
butsomesuch
hypothesis
asthe
followingmight
beventured:
thatviolent
politicalupheavals,suchasoccurredatthefallof
theRomanEmpireandaretodayoccurring
inRussia,entailing
unutterable
suffering
forlargeportions
ofhumanityandinter-
ruptingthe
progress
ofcivilizationforlongyearsandperhaps
centuries, ariseprimarilyfromthe
virtuallyabsolutepre-
dominanceofoneofthetwo
principles,
oroneofthetwotend-
encies,thatwehavebeenstudying;whereasthe
stability
of
states,theinfrequency
ofsuch
catastrophes, dependsona
properbalancing
ofthetwo
principles,
thetwotendencies.
This
hypothesis
couldbecorroboratedby
historicalexper-
iencesinconsiderablenumbers.Butitrests
primarilyupon
theassumptionthatonly
the
opposition onemightalmost
sayonly
thecompetition
ofthese
contraryprinciplesand
1
Afterdescribingthevariousformsofgovernment, St.Thomas
says,Summa
JitquaestioXCV,Art.IV:
"
Estetiam
aliquodregimen
existiscommixtum
quod
est
optimum:
etsecundumhocsumiturlexquammajores
natdsimulcum
plebe
sanxerunt,
(There
isacertainformofgovernmentthatisamixtureofthese,anditisthe
best.Inthisform,thatlawisadoptedwhichtheeldersalongwiththe
plebs
haveapproved.)"
9
Ruffini,La
giovinezzadelContediCavour.

472. 7] BALANCEOFTENDENCIES 49
tendenciescanpreventanoveraccentuation ofthevicesthat
are
congenital
toeachofthem.
Thisconclusionwouldcorrespondveryclosely
totheold
doctrineofthegoldenmean,whichjudgedmixedgovernments
best.Infact,wewouldonlybereviving
thatdoctrine,though
onthebasisofthemoreexactandprofoundknowledgethat
ourtimeshaveattainedastothenaturallawsthatinfluence
andcontrolthe
politicalorganization
ofsociety.Tobesure,
therewouldstillbethe
difficultyofdeterminingjustwherethe
goldenmeanlies,andthat
difficultywouldbeso
great
thateach
ofuscouldfeel
quite
freetolocateitasbestsuitshispassions
andinterests.
Butone
practicalmethodhasoccurredtousfor
helping
well-
meaningpersons,whoseexclusiveaimisthegeneralwelfareand
prosperity quiteapartfromanypersonal interest,orany
systematicpreconception.
Itwouldbetowatchforsoto
sayatmosphericchanges
inthetimesandinthepeopleswho
liveaboutus.
When,forinstance,a
glacialcalm
prevails,whenwecanfeel
nobreathof
political
discussionblowing,wheneverybody
is
raisinghymns
of
praisetosome
great
restorerof.orderand
peace,thenwemay
restassuredthattheautocratic
principle
is
prevailingtoostronglyovertheliberal,andviceversawhen
everybody
iscursingtyrantsandchampioning liberty.Sotoo,
whenthenovelistsandpoets
arevaunting
the
glories
of
great
familiesandutteringimprecationsuponthecommonherd,
wemaysafelyconsiderthatthearistocratictendency
isbecoming
too
strong;andwhenawildwindofsocial
equality
is
howling
andallmenarevoicing
theirtendernessfortheinterestsofthe
humble,itisevidentthatthedemocratictendency
is
strongly
ontheupgradeandapproaching
the
dangerpoint.Toputthe
matterintwowords,itis
justa
question
of
followingarule
thatistheopposite
oftheonethatclimbershave
consciously
or
unconsciously
followedatalltimesinallcountries. Ifwedo
that,thelittlenucleusofsoundmindsandchoice
spiritsthat
keepmankindfrom
going
tothedogseveryother
generationmay
onoccasionbeabletorenderaservicetoits
contemporaries,
and
especially
tothechildrenofitscontemporaries. Forin
politicallife,themistakesofonegenerationarealmostalways
paidforbythegeneration
thatfollows.

473. CHAPTERXVI
RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL
1.Thereisacloseconnectionbetweentheintellectualand
moralworthofthesecondand
largerstratumofthe
rulingclass
andtheintellectualandmoralworthofthemanwhois
actually
attheheadofthe
politicalorganizationandthesmall
group
of
personswho
directly
assisthim.Themenwhooccupyhigher
postsaremoreorlessimbuedwiththeideas,sentiments,passions
and,therefore,policies
ofthesocialstratawhichcome
justbelow
them,thestratawithwhichtheyareincontinuousandimmediate
contactandwithoutwhichtheycouldnotgovern.
Butthe
history
ofhumansocieties is
verycomplicated,
andvery
diversearethematerial,moralandintellectualfactors
thathelp
todetermine itsdevelopment. Cases,therefore,
arenotrarewhererulingclassesshowthemselvescapableof
soundorganizationandare
fairlyrichinmemberswhoare
energeticanddevotedtothe
publicwelfare,butyethaveat
theirheads,evenatcritical
junctures,mediocreandsometimes
corruptleaders,sothattheyfindthemselvesinthe
positionof
having
toputupwiththosefoolishkings
ofwhomtheBible
speaks
asscourgesthatGodsendsuponthepeoples
tochastisethem.
Therearemany
reasonsforthis,butthechiefoneisthatin
choosing
itssupremeleadersa
political
classisinasensethe
prisoner
oftheideasand
principleswhichithas
adoptedin
regard
to
leadership.
Thoseideasand
principlesresultfrom
itswholehistoryandfromthelevelofintellectual
maturity
thatithasattained. Itcannot,therefore,changethemfrom
onedaytothenext.Such,forinstance,arethe
hereditary
principleandtheelective
principle theelective
principle,
whenelectoralmedhanismshavebecome
crystallizedandare
convenienttoolsinthehandsoflittlecliquesofpoliticians,who
usethemtoget
into
power
andtoremainthereas
long
as
possible*
Whenacivilizationoranationhasavitaland
energeticruling
class,theharmthatisdonebythesillinessoreven
dishonesty
430

474. 1] INFLUENCEOF
JIULEBS
481
ofitssupreme
leadersisfarlessseriousthanmightbeexpected.
Somehistorianshavetriedtorehabilitate
Caligula,Claudius
andNero.We,forour
part,believethatthefirsttwo
probably,
andthethirdcertainly,werenot,asregards
theirpersonal
qualities,
fitmentostandattheheadofa
politicalorganism
asimportant
astheRomanEmpire.Ofcoursethe
great
Romanfamiliesthatwereindirectcontactwiththecourthad
muchtoendurefromtheeccentricitiesaidvillainiesofthose
rulersandofthemenwhoweretheifImmediatetools.Butthe
restoftheRomanworldwenton
during
tkfcirreignsenjoying
thePaxRomanaandabsorbingtheculturethata
fairlywise
andorderlyadministrationwassuccessfullyspreadingthrough
theprovinces.
ItisnotoriousthatGeorge
IIIofEnglandwas
amanoflittlebrains.Hereignedfrom1760to1820,andin
thecourseofthat
longperiod
hehadseveralattacksof
insanity,
duringwhichthePrinceofWalesassumedthe
regency.Whenhe
wasinhis
rightmindheevincedamostunfortunateobstinacy
of
disposition.Theinfluenceofhisroyalwillundoubtedlymade
itselffeltattimestotheharmofthepublicinterest. In
spite
ofthat,during
his
reignEnglandwontheNapoleonicWars,
laidthefirmfoundations ofherworldempireandbecame
absolutemistressoftheseas.Theconquest
ofCanada,and
consequently
ofallthevastterritoriestothenorthoftheUnited
States,extendingfromtheAtlantictothePacific,took
place
during
theSevenYears'War,thatis,between1756and1768.
TheEnglishconquest
ofIndiamaybesaidtohavebegun
in
earnestwiththebattleof
Plassey,whichClivewonin1757.
Itwascarriedontoasuccessfulconclusionduringthelatter
part
oftheeighteenthcenturyandthefirstdecadesofthe
nineteenth. Duringthe
reign
of
GeorgeHI,tobesure,England
lostthewarwithherAmericancoloniesandthecoloniesthem-
selves,butitisvery
doubtfulwhetherwhatisnowtheUnited
Statescouldlonghavebeenheldunder
foreignsovereignty.
Ifoneweredisposed
toprobe
thismattermoredeeply,one
couldeasilyshowthatthemost
lastingandeffectivework
ofthe
greatheadsofstatedwhosedeedshavecomedownin
historyhasbeenverylargely
theirsuccessin
transformingruling
classesbyimproving
themethodsbywhichtheywererecruited
andbyperfecting
theirorganization. Eventhenonereserva-
tion
mightperhaps
bestillinpointthatattimesthework

475. 482 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
creditedto
great
rulershadbeenlaunchedandcarriedforward
bypredecessors.
Historianshavelongdebated,andthedebate isfarfrom
ended,astowhattherealintentionsof
Augustus
were.All
agree,however,thathe
successfullytransformedtheold
republi-
cansystem
intoanotherthatbettersuitedtheneedsofthe
times,andthatherevivedtheoldRoman
rulingclass,which
hadbeendecimatedbyalmostacentury
ofcivilwarfare,by
introducingnewelementsintoit.ThisideaofAugustuswas
takenup
lateronbyVespasian,whoraised
representativesfrom
many
ofthemoreillustriousfamiliesof
Italy
tosenatorialrank.
InFrancetheorganization
oftheabsolutistbureaucratic
state
chiefly
resultedfromtheconstantandassiduousworkof
Richelieu,MazarinandLouisXIVandhisministersLouvois
andColbert. Allofthemlittleby
littlemanaged
tobuildupa
soundandefficientadministration,afinancialsystemconsistent
withtherequirements
ofthetimesandastrongstandingarmy.
IneasternEurope,
thedevelopment
ofanoldandfeebleMuscovy
intotheempire
oftheczarsthathasweighed
so
heavily
inthe
destiniesofEuropeandAsiacameaboutthroughthesuccessive
reorganizations
ofthe
ruling
classthatwereeffectedbyIvan
theTerrible,PetertheGreatandCatherine II.
1
Alexander
theGreatcouldnothaveconquered
PersiaandspreadHellenic
cultureoverso
great
a
portion
oftheAsiaticworldhad
Philip
ofMacfedon,hisfather,notreorganizedMacedonia
completely
andsucceededinbuildinguptheMacedonianarmy.Much
thesamemight
besaidofFredericktheGreatandhisimmediate
predecessor
inPrussia.
Tocap
theproofwiththe
counterproof,onecouldshow,
conversely,
thatwhenchanceordespairhas
brought
a
superior
mantotheheadofan
actuallycollapsingpoliticalorganization,
hiseffortshave
rarelyavailedtosavethestateortoretard
itsfallveryappreciably.TheunhappyemperorMajorian,
whoruledthedecliningRomanEmpire
oftheWestfrom457to
461,wasan
energeticmananda
lofty
soul.Tohisgood
inten-
tionshistoriansunanimouslypay
tribute.Hedidnotsucceed
indelaying
thefalloftheRomanEmpire
inthewestevenfora
*
Forthereform*}ofIvanIV,seeWaliszewski,IvantheTerrible,partIII,
chap.
II.PetertheGreatandCatheriaeIIarealsothe
subjects
ofbooksbythe
samewriter.

476. 2] CLASSRENOVATION 48$
year.TheByzantineEmpirewasinapositiontoberein-
vigoratedby
theIsauriandynasty
intheeighthcentury,andto
acquirenew
vitality
intheninthandtenthundertheMacedonian
dynasty,
becauseits
ruling
classesstillretained,duringthose
periods,veryconsiderableresourcesinintellectualpowerand
patriotism,andthesubjectpeopleswerestillabletosupply
largerevenuestothepublictreasuryandnumeroussoldiers
tothearmy.AttheendofthefourteenthcenturyByzantine
civilizationwassorundownthatcontemporary
chroniclers
couldsay
thatManuelIVwouldhavesavedtheempirehadit
stillbeen
possible
foranyone
tosaveit.Somegenerations
later
the
gallantleadershipandheroicdeathofthelastemperor,
ConstantineDragases,
retardedthefallofthe
capitalandthe
demiseofthestateonly
forafewweeks.
1
2.Peoplemightadmitthatthereisa
fairly
closeconnection
betweenthemoralandintellectual
qualities
oftherulingclique
inastatethesupremeheadandhisimmediateassociates
andthemoralandintellectualqualities
oftheruling
classasa
whole;buttheywouldbeloathtogrant
thatconnectionsare
equally
closebetweentheruling
classasawholeandthe
great
massesofthegoverned.
Inouropinion
thissecondrelation-
ship
ismorecertainandlessvarying
thantheother.Many
contingent
factorsshowtheirinfluenceinthechoiceofa
particu-
larindividualfora
highposition,andtheyoperateat
given
momentsonly.Suchwouldbetheprevalence
ofthisorthat
politicaldoctrine,orthewaythefewmenwho
alreadyoccupy
highpositionshappen
tofeelaboutthisorthat
person.Always
inthe
offing
istheelementthatmaybecalled
"
chance,
"
which
ismerely
anothernamefortheunforeseeable.Amongsuch
factorsonemight
also
place
birth.Nowthosefactors
operate
muchmore
effectively
indeterminingwhoshallattainthefore-
mostposition
inastatethanindetermining
thecriteriathatare
toserveasthebasisforthegreatandcontinuous selective
processfromwhichtheruling
classasawholeresults.
Inourdayoneoftenhearsitsaidthat"the
people"
are
naturallygoodandvirtuousandthatthe
ruling
classisvicious
1
Thetendencynowadays
istospeak
betteroftheByzantineEmpirethan
wasoncethecase:seeDiehl,EiMoiredeI*empirebymntin,and
Byzance:grandeur
etdecadence;
alsoSchlumberger,L'tpopfobyzantine&la
findudixi&mesidcle.

477. 434 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
and
corrupt.Onecouldnotdenythatsuchassertionssome-
timeswearanappearance
oftruth.Butthosewhomakethem
almostnevertakeaccountofthefactthatitis
easy
foraman
topreservecertainvirtueswhenitis
materiallyimpossiblefor
himto
acquire
certainvices.Tyrannycannotbe
practicedby
theweak.Luxury,madextravaganceandexcessive
indulgence
inpleasuresarebeyondthereachofthe
poor. If,therefore,
anexactcomparison
istobedrawnbetweenthemorallevels
oftwodifferentsocialclasses,onehastoobservethemorals
andmoraltendenciesofthosewhosucceedin
risingfromthe
lowerclassandenteringthe
higher.Only
iftheyandtheir
childrenare
reallybetterthantheirnewclassassociatescould
one,withanyassurance,claimmoral
superiority
fortheclass
thatisruledovertheclassthatrules.An
investigation
ofthis
characterdoesnotseem,onthewhole,to
yield
resultsthat
areatallfavorabletothenewarrivals.
Itmaybeobjected
thatonlytheworsttypes
inthelower
classessucceedin
gettingaheadand
climbing
intotheruling
classes.Butthatview
representsan
incomplete,confusedand
thereforeinaccurateconception ofthecriteriathat
regulate
thestruggle
forsocialpreeminence.Tothosecriteriaonemust
lookforthechiefreasonwhy"onetriberulethandanother
languisheth." Undoubtedlythereare
qualitieswhichthosewho
succeedinclimbingfromthebottomtothetop
areatalltimes
andinallplacesobligedto
possess,andwhichtheirdescendants
alsomustretaintoacertaindegree,
iftheydonotwishtofall
backtothestatusoftheirgrandfathers
orforefathers.Among
suchqualities
arethecapacity
forhardworkandaconstant
determination toriseintheworldandto
cling
toone's
place
atthetopwhenonegetsthere.Butthereareother
qualities,
whichvarygreatlyaccordingtotimesandplaces,sincethey
correspond
totheneedsandnaturesof
tl^e
variousepochsand
tothetendenciesofthevarious
peoples.
''
In
general,
in
every
society,
circumstancesbeingequal,
successisreservedforindi-
vidualswho
possess
ineminentdegree
theendowmentswhich,
inthatsociety
atthat
particulartime,aremost
widely
diffused
andmosthighlyesteemed.
Ifoneisto
recognizeand
appreciate
thevalueofanintel-
lectualormoral
quality
inone'sfellows,onemusttosomeextent
possess
itone'sself.Thatrulewethinkwecaninferfrom

478. 2] SUCCESSINLIFE 435
ourown
experience
inlife,andanyonecanestablishthetruth
ofitforhimself,ifhewillsimply
lookabouthim.Inorderto
feelthecharmofa
great
artistwemustpossessacertainamount
ofartisticsenseourselves,andsoifwearesincerely
toadmire
greatcourage,
or
greatuprightness,wemustourselvesbeina
measurecourageousand
upright.
Itisnot
possible
tograsp
thenoblest
qualities
ofhuman
intelligenceandcharacterifthey
are
totallyforeigntoournatures.
Conversely,where
slyness,
intrigueandcharlatanry
arethecommonruleandhighlyprized,
the
slyestman,thebest
intriguer,themostperfectcharlatan,
will,otherthingsbeingequal,makea
great
success. Ifthe
majoritybelievethatdeceitistheroyalroadtofortune,those
whoexcelinthe
a,rt
of
deception
willmostoftenbetheonesto
maketheirmark.
Inallcountries,atalltimes,themanwhowould
getahead
musthaveacertainamountof
abilityhemustpossessan
aptitude
formakinguseofhistalents.Hemusthavethe
knackof
claiming
theattention,andsometimestheadmiration,
ofhisfellowshemustbeabletoconvincethemofhissupe-
riority.
Possessionofthis
particularaptitude
for
advertising
oneselfhasbecomemuchmore
important,asameanstosuccess,
thanitwasdowntoafewcenturies
ago.Theimportantthing
nowadays
istohavethegood
willandthe
protection
ofthedaily
newspapers
thathavethe
largest
circulations. Morethanfour
centurieshavepassed
sinceMachiavelliwroteinthePrince:
"Everyone
seeswhatyouseemtobefewknowwhatyouare."
Today
ithasbecome
infinitely
easierto"seem,"sincethe
great
majority
ofpeopleformtheiropinionsabout
politicians,scholars
andscientistsfromwhatthenewspaperssay
ofthem.
Butthekindof
ability
thatis
required
forsuccessvaries
considerably accordingtotimesand
places.Weknowthat
thereisawhitemagicandablack,awhitemagic
thatisbased
onthe
higherqualities
ofmindandcharacter,andablackthat
isbaseduponthelower.Probablywhitemagichasnever
really
beenvery
effectiveinanycountry,
orinanyposition,unless
ithasbeenmixedwithalittleoftheblack,oratthe
veryleast,
withtheartof
displaying
thebestsidesofone'scharacterand
intelligence,andkeepingtheworsesidesinthedark.Butthe
respectivedosages
inthemixturemayvarywidelyfromone
nationtoanother,andwithinthesamenationfromage
to
age*

479. 436 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL (CHAP.XVI
Theyvarybecausewhenblackmagiccomestobetoomuchused
inagiven
socialenvironment,public
tasterebelsandtheindivid-
ualwhoreliesonthemixtureisthen
disqualified,muchasa
gambler
is
disqualifiedwhenhecheatsatcards.
Evidently,
inanenvironmentthatishighly
refinedinitstastes,thosewho
bestknowtheartsofwhitemagic
willbemore
likely
to
gettothe
front.Thecontrary
willbetheruleinenvironmentswherethe
artsofblackmagic
aremorecommonandsomoretolerated.
Aswestudy
the
history
ofthe
peoples,weseethatmany
of
themhavelongundergoneandarestillundergoingforeign
dominations, orhavebeengovernedby
aristocracies of
foreign
origin
forlongperiods.ThatwasthecasewithRussia,where
thefirstempirewasfoundedbya
group
ofScandinavianadven-
turers. AfterIvanIV,and
especiallyunderPetertheGreat,
foreign
elementsingoodlynumbersenteredthe
rulingclassof
thecountry. AfterAlexandertheGreathaddestroyedPersian
dominionin
Egypt,Egyptformedan
independentkingdom
underthePtolemies,whointroducedHellenicculture.During
thatperiodtheEgyptianruling
classwasofHellenicorHel-
lenized
origin.Conquered
laterbytheRomansandgoverned
bytheByzantines
afterthefallofthewestern
empire,Egypt
wasoneofthemostturbulentcountriesintheworld
during
thefifthandsixthcenturies.Thenintheseventh
centurythe
countrywasconqueredbytheArabs,anddeferredfirsttothe
Ommiadcaliphs
ofDamascus,andthentotheAbbassidesof
Bagdad.TowardthemiddleofthetenthcenturyEgypt
regained
itsautonomy,becauseitwasconqueredbyaBerber
army
whichcamefromTunisiaandsetup
theFatimid
caliphate
underaBerber
dynasty,
withitsseatatCairo.TheBerber
dynastyweakening
littlebylittle,andthepopulationofBerber
originmixing
withthenatives,Egyptwasannexed,towardthe
endofthetwelfthcentury,by
Saladin's
empire. Afterthe
deathofthatsultan,Egyptwasalmost
continuallygoverned
by
the
generals
ofmercenaryarmiesof
foreignorigin,mainly
Circassian,untilinthesixteenthcentury
itwas
conqueredby
theTurks.TheTurks,however,promptlyhandedthe
govern-
mentofEgyptbacktotheBeys
oftheMamelukes,amilitia
alsoofCircassian
origin.TheMamelukeswerefirstdefeated
byBonaparteandthenexterminatedbyMehemet Ali,the
firstkhedive,amanofAlbanian
origin.Today
inEgypt,

480. 2] FOREIGNDOMINATION 437
upper-class
familiesareinthemainofTurkish,Circassianand
Albaniandescent.
AsforIndia,itseemscertainthatlong
beforethefirstMoham-
medanconquest(A.D.1000),thecountryhadsufferedinvasions
frombarbarianstothenorth.Thesearesupposed
tohavebeen
ancestors ofsomeofthemorewarlikepopulations. They
assiduouslyavoidedanyintermixturewithnatives.Thatwas
thecasewiththeRajputs,whoneverthelessembracedthe
Brahman
religionandculture.Ontheotherhand,themore
recentconquerors
ofTurkishorAfghanorigin
didnot
adoptany
native
religion.TheyhadalreadybecomeconvertstoIslamism
beforethey
enteredthecountry.ThelastTurkishconquest
wasledbyBaber,wholaidthefoundationsoftheempire
ofthe
GrandMogul
atthebeginning
ofthesixteenth
century.
Since
the
territory
issovastandconditionsvary
so
widelyfromone
sectiontoanother,populations
ofancientHindu
originandof
Brahmanculturehavealsofounded
large
statesin
relatively
recenttimes,as,forexample,the
greatfederationoftheMahrat-
tas.Thisstatewaswell
organizedfroma
militarypoint
ofview.
Butalmostthewholeofthe
greatvalley
oftheGanges,anda
largepart
ofcentralandsouthernIndia,weregovernedby
Mohammedan sovereigns
atthetimeoftheEnglishconquest,
andthedominantclasswasMohammedanandinthemainof
foreignancestry.
Notafewexamplesservetoshowthatas
long
asadominant
classof
foreignoriginkeepsfairlypure
inblood,thestateretains
itsstrengthandthecountry
its
prosperity,butthat,astheclass
begins
tofuseandconfusewith
indigenouselements,the
political
structureweakensandthenationfallsintoanarchyorcomes
underanewforeigndominion/
Nowwhensuchfactsarecon-
tinuallyrepeatedandendurethroughlongrevolvingcenturies,
theyseemtoshowthattheindigenouselementsinthenations
in
question
didnotpossess
theaptitudesandvirtues
required
for
developinganativeruling
classworthy
torule,andthatifthey
didatonetime
possess
suchvirtues,as
EgyptandIndiaatone
time
certainlydid,theysubsequently
lostthem.Wehave
alreadyremarkedthatitishardertocommandthanitisto
obey.Whenanationoraracedoesnot
possesselementsthat
arefittedforcommand,orwhenthoseelementswitheraway
orfailto
developbecausetheyarestifledbythe
general
Intel-

481. 488 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
lectualandmoralmediocrityaboutthem,thenthat
people
orthatraceisdestinedtofallunder
foreignrule,orunder
ruling
elementsof
foreignorigini
Allthisemphasizes
tlie
greatpracticalimportance
ofthe
doctrinewhichwehavebeen
setting
forthinthiswork. It
shouldservetocallattentiontothefundamentalimportance
oftheproblems
thatrelatetothegrowth,compositionand
organization
of
ruling
classes.Theoldandobsoleteclassifica-
tionsofAristotleandMontesquieuput
acommonlabelonbottles
thatheldmost
widelydiffering
contents.ForexampleAthens,
present-daySwitzerlandandtheUnitedStatescouldbeclassified
simply
asdemocracies. AncientRomeandVenice,or
Argentina
andBrazil,couldbeplacedamongrepublics.Ournewdoctrine
of
ruling
classesisnot
yet
abletodeviselabelsforthevarious
types
of
ruling
class. Itsimply
bidsusexaminethecontentsof
ourbottlesand
investigateandanalyze
thecriteriathat
prevail
intheconstitutionoftheruling
classesonwhichthe
strength
or
weaknessofourstatesdepend,andinwhichthefaithful
image
ofthe
political
virtuesanddefectsofeverynationandevery
racecanbedetected.
Themethodiscertainlyhardtouse.Itdemandsanearnest-
nessandobjectivity
ofobservation,an
experiencewith
political
lifeandaknowledge
ofhistorythatare
infinitelygreaterthan
anythingdemandedby
theoldmethods.But
unquestionably
itkeepsonecloserto
positivefacts,andifitisusedwithdis-
cretionandwithadequatepreparation
itis
capable
of
leading
to
sounderresults. Itis,finally,moreconsistentthantheold
methodwiththelevelofintellectual
ripeness
thatthebetter-
educatedelementsinour
risinggenerationshavenowattained.
8.Butevenournewmethodwillnotbeabletodoallthat
itiscapable
ofdoinguntilcertainresiduaof
eighteenthand
nineteenthcenturymannersof
thinking,
certainpreconceptions
thatbalk,oratleasthamperanddisturb,itseffective
application
tothestudy
of
politicalproblems,
areabandoned.The
greatest
obstacletotheacceptance
ofanideaormethodthatcomesa
step
closertothetruthliesinthepresence
inthehumanmind
ofanotherless
perfect
ideaormethodtowhichithas
grown
accustomed.

482. 3] ECONOMICINTERPRETATIONOFHISTORY 439
Nowoneofthedoctrinesthatarewidelypopulartoday,
andaremakingacorrectviewofthe
politicalworlddifficult,
isthedoctrinecommonly
called"historical materialism."
Thatdoctrineisnotonlyanarticleoffaithfortheexceedingly
numerousfollowersofMarx. Ithasalsoinfluencedtoa
greater
orlesserextentmanywhoarenot
altogetheradherents of
Marxianideas.The
greatestdangerthatliesinthewide
acceptance
ofthetheory,andinthe
great
intellectualandmoral
influencewhichitexerts,liesinthemodicumoftruththatit
contains. Inscience,asinlifein
general,
themostdangerous
falsehoodsarethefalsehoodsthataremixedwithacertain
amountoftruth.Thetruthhelpstomaskandcolorthemin
suchaway
astomakethemplausible.
Historicalmaterialismmaybesummedup
intwo
propositions,
whichconstitute itsfundamental axioms, or
assumptions.
Ontheserestthe
proofs
ofallthetheorems
derivingfromit.
Thefirstassumption
isthatthewhole
political,juridical
and
religiousorganization
ofa
society
is
uniformlysubordinated
tothe
prevailingtype
ofeconomicproduction,andtothechar-
acteroftherelationsthatthat
type
createsbetweenlaborand
theownersoftheinstrumentsof
production.Fromthisitwould
followthatanychange
inthesystem
ofeconomicproduction
shouldnecessarilybringonachange
intheformofgovernment,
inthe
legislation regulating
relationsbetween individuals
andbetweenindividualsandthestate,andeveninthose
religious
and
politicalconceptswhichconstitutethemoralfoundationsof
thestate
organization,suchasthe
concept
ofthedivine
right
ofkingsandtheconcept
ofpopularsovereignty. Theeconomic
factorwould,inotherwords,bethesoleandexclusivecauseof
allthematerial,intellectualandmoral
changesthatoccurin
humansocieties,andallotherfactorsshouldbe
regardednotas
factorsbutasmereeffectsand
consequences
oftheeconomic
factor.
Thesecondassumption
isinasensea
postulateofthefirst.
Itmaintainsthateveryeconomicperiodcontainsseedswhich,
slowlymaturing,maketheadventofthesuccessive
periods
necessary,withaconsequenttransformation ofthewholesocial
structure, political, religiousand
legislative.Promthisit
wouldfollowthatduring
thepresentbourgeoisperiod,inview

483. 440 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
ofaprogressiveconcentration ofwealthina
very
fewhands
thatis
takingplace,economicandsocialconditionsare
being
prepared
whichmakecollectivismunavoidableand
predestined.
Whenthislastphase
ofhistoricalevolutionhasbeenreached,
everyinequalitythatisbasedupon
socialinstitutionswillvanish
forever,any
controland
exploitation
visitedbyoneclassupon
otherclasseswillberenderedimpossible,andanewsystem
will
be
inaugurated,
whichwillbebasednotonindividualselfishness
butonuniversalbrotherhood,
f
ThesedoctrineswerealreadyhintedatintheCommunist
Manifesto
whichwaspublishedbyMarxandEngels
in1848.
Theywerefurtherelaboratedinthe
prefacetotheKritikder
pqlitischenfikonomie,whichMarxissuedin1859.Theyform
theskeleton,soto
speak,
ofthefirstvolumeofDas
Kapital,
published
in1867,sincethey
areeither
intermittentlyenunciated,
orelsetakenfor
granted,throughoutthecourseofthatwork.
SomeofMarx'sfundamentalideasarenot
altogetheroriginal.
Theymay
befoundsetforth,withlessorderlinessanddefinite-
nesstobesure,inthe
publications
ofanumberofearlierwriters
ofmoreorlesssocialistictendencies,and
especially,
inmixture
withmanymystico-transcendental notions,intheworksofPierre
Leroux.Lerouxwrotehis
Egalitt
in1838,andhisHumanitS
in1840.Hetoolookeduponcommunismandabsolute
equality
astheinevitableconclusionofthewholehistoricalevolutionof
mankind.Hethought
ofthenineteenthcenturyas
representinga
transitionalperiod
betweenaworldof
inequality,whichwascom-
ing
toanend,andaworldof
equality,whichwasabouttodawn.
fAsregards
theformerofthetwoassumptions,
itistobe
observed firstofallthatmanyhistoricalexamplesmightbe
adducedtoshowthatveryimportantchangeshaveoccurred
inhumansocieties changesthathave
radicallyaltered
political
constitutionsandsometimesthe
politicalformulasonwhich
thoseconstitutionswerebasedwithoutanysimultaneous or
approximately
simultaneousmodificationsinsystems
ofeconomic
production,andintherelationsbetweenlaborandtheownersof
theinstruments of
production.TheRoman
Republicwas
transformedintotheempire
ofAugustusandhissuccessors
inourterms,theclassicalcity-statebecamea
politicalorganism
ofthebureaucratictypewithoutthe
slightestchange
in
systems
ofproductionandwithoutanyalterationinthelaws
regulating

484. 3] ECONOMICINTERPRETATIONOPHISTORY 441
theownershipanddistribution ofwealth.Theonlychange
thatdidtake
place,anditwascertainlynota
generalone,was
achange
inthepersonswhoownedthe
property.
Afterthe
secondcivilwar
especially,agreat
dealof
privatepropertywas
confiscatedanddistributedamongthesoldiersofthetriumvirs.
1
Thetriumph
of
Christianitywrought
a
great
intellectualand
moralrevolution intheancientworld.Manyfundamental
ideas,manysentimentsand,in
consequence,many
institutions
werechangedbythenew
religiononehasonlytothinkof
matrimonyandotherfamilyrelationships. Butitdoesnot
appear,indeeditmaypositivelybedenied,thatanyparticular
changesoccurredinthefourthandfifthcenturiesA.D.inthe
relationsbetweenmanuallaborandthosewho
possessed
the
toolsofeconomic
production
chiefamongthematthattime
wasland.
Itishardtothinkofanupheaval
ofawhole
society
thatis
comparable
inextentand
significance
tothefalloftheRoman
Empire
intheWest,tothecollapse
ofthesplendidcivilization
of
antiquity
overso
largeapart
ofEurope.Onemightpossibly
likentoitthecatastrophethathasfallenuponRussiainour
day.TheRussiandisasterwillalmost
certainlyhaveless
abidingandless
far-reaching effects,buttheimmediateeffects
havebeenmoreintense,sincetheydeveloped
inaveryfewyears.
Onemayregard
as
roughly
accuratean
epigrammaticstatement
madebyGuglielmoFerrero,thatRussiacompleted
infour
yearsataskofsocial
disintegration
forwhichtheancientciviliza-
tionofEuroperequiredfourcenturies. Yet,as
regardsRome,
itisclearenough
thatthesystem
ofeconomicproduction
remainedidenticalbeforeandafterthebarbarianinvasions.
Ruralserfdomwasnotbroughtaboutby
thebarbarianinvasions.
Itwasalready
a
generalized
institutionundertheLowEmpire.
We
might,indeed,mentiontheeconomicexhaustionofRoman
society
inthat
period
asoneofthefactorsinthefallofthewestern
empire.Thatpovertywasduetoa
falling
offinproduction
and,accordingly,
innationalwealth.Butanattentiveexamina-
tionofthephenomenonshowsthatthe
generalimpoverishment
wasa
consequence,ratherthanacause,ofthe
politicaldecline,
sinceabadfinancialadministrationwas
largelyresponsible
for
it.
During
thisperiod
theRomanmiddleclassessufferedvirtual
1
Ferrero,OrandezzaedecadenzadiRoma,vol.Ill("DaCesareadAugusto").

485. 442 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL {CHAP.XVI
ruin.Thatwasduenot
only
toincreasedtaxationbutalso
tothefactthatthedecurions,whomadeupthewell-to-do
bourgeoisie
inthetownsintheprovinces,were
responsible
in
theirownproperty
forpayment
infullofthetaxesleviedupon
thetownasawhole!
Turningfrom
antiquity
totimeslessremote,oneseesthatin
Italytowardtheendofthe.thirteenthand
during
thefourteenth
century,thecommunes
quitegenerallydeveloped
into
tyrannies
withoutanyappreciablemodificationsinsystems
of
production,
andconsequently
intherelationsbetweentheworking
classes
andtheownersoflandand
capital.Inthesameway,during
theseventeenthcentury,themodernabsolutestatewasestab-
lishedinFranceandamiddleclassbegantoform,withoutany
importantchangetakingplacesimultaneously
insystems
of
productionandintheeconomicrelations
derivingfromthem!
Serfdomhaddisappearedalmosteverywherebythattime.
Onlyafewtracesofitremained,andtheyhungontillthe
FrenchRevolution.
Norcanwebelievethattherehasbeenanyperfectsynchronism
betweentheriseofmodern
large-scaleindustryandtheadoption
ofsystems
of
representative government,withaconsequent
spread
ofliberal,democraticandsocialisticideas.
Beginnings
of
large-scaleindustryappear
inEnglandduring
thesecondhalf
oftheeighteenthcentury,when
parliamentary government
hadbeenfunctioning
forabouthalfa
century;butthe
ruling
classstillstoodonitsoldaristocraticfoundations. InFrance,
GermanyandtheUnitedStates,andinallwestern
Europe,
large-scaleindustry,andthe
greatconcentrations of
capital
andworkingpopulations
thatresultedfromit,camein
general
after1830.The
application
ofsteamtolandandseatrans-
portation
didnotbegin
to
spread,andcoaldidnot
acquire
its
primeimportance
asamaterialfactorin
production,
tillthat
time.Allthatcanbe
granted
inthisregard
isthatthe
large
factory,
withthegreatagglomerations
ofmanualworkersthat
ithasnecessitated,hascontributedconsiderably
tothe
develop-
mentand
popularization
ofcommunistic ideas,whichhad
long
sincebeenenunciatedandwhichwere,afterall,onlynatural
corollariestothedemocraticideasthathad
alreadybeenformu-
latedby
Rousseau.
1
*
Chap.XI, 1,above.

486. 3] AEMAMENTSANDHISTORY 443
IThisisnottodenythata
prevailingsystem
ofeconomic
production,
withthe
special
relationsthatitsetsupbetween
laborandthosewhodirectproductionandownitsinstruments,
isone
of
the
factorsthatmost
largely
influencechanges
inthe
politicalorganization
ofa
society,andthatthatfactorhasits
necessaryrepercussionsupontheideasthatserveasmoral
foundations for
politicalsystems*Theerrorofhistorical
materialism liesinholdingthattheeconomicfactoristhe
only
factorworthy
ofconsiderationascause,andthatallotherfactors
havetoberegarded
aseffects.Everygreatmanifestation of
human
activity
inthesocialfieldisatthesametimebothcause
andeffectofthechangesthatoccurinmanifestations ofthe
same
activity cause,becauseevery
modificationinitinfluences
othermanifestations,andeffect,becauseitfeelstheinfluenceof
modifications inthem.Arathercrudecomparisonmay
serve
tomakethepoint
clearer.Noonewoulddenythat,ifthe
brainisdiseased,theentirehumanorganism
ceasestobeinits
normalstate.Butthesamethingmightbesaidofthe
digestive
system,
ofthe
respiratorysystemandofany
essentialorgan
in
thebody.
Itwouldthereforebea
fallacy
toconcludethat
alldiseaseswerebraindiseases,ordiseasesofany
other
particular
organ.
Itisevidentthattheindividual'shealthdependson
theproperfunctioning
ofallhis
organs.
Noonehaseverclaimedthatchanges
in
politicalsystems
havebeen
solelyduetothechangesthatchanges
inarmaments,
tacticsand
recruitingsystemshaveinthepastoccasionedin
militarysystems. Nevertheless,wehave
already
seen
(chaps.
XIII,3;XIV,5)the
political
effectsthatresultedintheGreek
cityfromthesubstitutionof
hoplites
fortheoldwarchariotsand
cavalry
asthedecisivearminthe
militaryestablishment;and
wehaveobservedthatthefinalvictory
ofroyaltyoverfeudalism,
whichwaswonintheperiodbetweenthemiddleofthefifteenth
andthemiddleoftheseventeenthcentury,was
largelyduetoan
increasinguseoffirearmsandtocontinuousimprovements
in
them.Carefulexamination ofthe
history
ofthelast
century
oftheRomanRepublicwouldbringout
politicalconsequences
thatfollowed
changes
intherecruitingsystem
forthe
legions.
ThereformbyMariuswascarriedoutin107B.C.Marius
enlistedmenwithoutpropertyandsonsoffreedmeninthearmy.
Exceptundermostunusualcircumstances, forinstancetoward

487. 444 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
theendofthesecondPunicWar,suchpeoplehadbeenbarred
frommilitary
service.Afew
yearsearlier,in123B.C.,alex
militaris,movedbyCaiusGracchus,putthecostsofthesoldier's
equipmentandarmamentupon
thestate.Beforethat,eachman
hadhadtoprovide
hisownequipmentoutofhisown
purse.
Thisreformmadeit
possible
foreventhepoorestmantoserve
inthearmy.Thetworeformstaken
togetherhelpvery
con-
siderablytoexplainwhy,during
thelast
sixtyyears
ofthe
republic,thesoldiersbecameblindinstrumentsinthehandsof
theirleaders,onthe
strength
ofpromisesthatweremadeand
keptofbonusesandofdistributions ofthelandswhichwere
oftenconfiscatedfrom
political
adversaries. Freedmenand
slaveswerealsoenrolledinthearmyduring
thesecondtrium-
virate.Nowtheoldrepublican
statecouldnothavesurvived
ifarmshadeverbeen
granted
tothelowerstrataofthe
popula-
tion.
1
Whenitbecomes
possible
towritethe
history
ofthe
nineteenthandtwentiethcenturiesinsomeserenenessofmind,
itwillbeeasytoseethe
political
effectsthatresultedfromthe
extensionofcompulsorymilitary
servicetoallcitizens. First
introducedby
theFrenchRevolution,thatmeasurewaslater
adoptedandimprovedupon,
firstbyPrussiaandthenbythe
otherContinentalcountries.
Itseems
altogetherabsurdtoregard
asmereeffects,andnever
as
dignified,respectable causes,the
political
doctrinesand
religious
beliefswhichconstitutethemoralfoundationsofstate
organisms. Penetrating deepdownintotheconsciousness
of
ruling
classesandmassesalike,theylegitimizeand
discipline
commandand
justifyobedience,and
theycreatethose
special
intellectualandmoralatmosphereswhichcontributeso
greatly
towarddetermining
historicalcircumstances andsotoward
directing
thecourseofhumanevents.Apartfrom
Christianity
andthepower
itacquiredoverthemindsofbothmassesand
rulingclasses,andapartfromatenaciousremembrance ofthe
unitythatthecivilizedworldhadachievedunderRome,there
couldbeno
explaining
theage-longstrugglebetween
papacyand
empirewhichwasoneoftheoutstandingeventsinmedieval
history.HaditnotbeenforMohammedandthe*Koran,the
greatMussulman statewouldneverhavecomeintobeing;
yet
thatstatehas
played,andstill
plays,an
importantpart
1
FerreroandBarbagallo,Romaantica,vol.I,pp.251,272.

488. 3]
, MORALFORCESINHISTORY 445
inthehistory
oftheTYorld,andithasintroduceda
specialtype
ofcivilizationwhereverithasbeenableto
getafootholdand
survive.Hadwenotinheritedfromourdistantforebears,
GreekandLatin,the
concept
of
politicallibertyandthedoctrine
ofpopularsovereignty,whichwaslatermodifiedandadaptedto
anew
agebyRousseauandother
political
writersofthe
eight-
eenth
century,
themodern
representative
statewouldnothave
beenheardof,and
politicalorganization
inEurope
inthe
nineteenthcenturywouldnothavebeenso
profoundly
differ-
entiatedfrom
organization
inthe
eighteenth.
Ifthe
develop-
mentof
politicalthought
isfollowedthrough
thevarious
periods
of
history,one
easily
seesthatthe
political
circumstances ofa
writer'sdaydo
greatly
influencehismannerof
feelingandthink-
ingandthereforehistheories,butthathistheoriesintheirturn
helpveryconsiderablytoinfluencethe
politicalviewsofsuc-
cessive
generationsandsotodeterminenewcircumstances.
Manyexamplescouldbeadducedtothis
point,and,this,after
all,is
justonemoreofthemanycasesthatonemeetsinthesocial
scienceswherewhatisaneffectatonemomentbecomesa
determiningcauseatanothermoment.
1
Itisuselessto
argue
whethermoralforceshaveoutweighed
materialforcestoa
greater
extentthanmaterialforceshave
usedthemoralintheirownservice.Aswehave
alreadyshown
(chap.VII, 9),everymoralforcetries,assoonasitcan,to
acquirecohesionbycreating
an
underpinning
ofinterestsvested
initsfavor,andeverymaterialforcetriesto
justify
itselfby
leaninguponsomeconcept
ofanintellectualandmoralorder.
InIndiathepopulations
ofAryanracesubduedtheaborigines
ofDravidianraceandpushedthemdownintothelowerstrata
of
society.Theymusthavehadthemthereforsomecenturies
beforethewritersoftheVedasbegantoteachthattheBrahmans
hadissuedfromtheheadofBrahma,the
Kshatriyasfromthe
armsofBrahma,andthelowestcastes,theVaisyasandSudras,
fromthe
legsandfeetofthegod,Christianitybegan
asa
purely
moralandintellectualforce,yetscarcelyhadit
gainedan
importantfollowingwhenitbecameamaterialforceaswell:It
acquiredwealth,itfoundways
toexertpressureupon
the
public
powersand,finally,
itsbishopsandabbotsbecameactual
sovereigns.
InMohammedanism the
religiousconceptiontook
1
Mosca,"Principle
aristocratico . . .,"p.
4.

489. 446 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [HAP.XVI
onbody
atonce,withtheexerciseof
sovereignpower,buthad
itnotbeenforthedisinterestedandsincereconversion ofits
earlyfollowers,thatwouldnothavebeen
possible.Modern
collectivism itselfwasalsobornasa
purely
intellectualand
moralforce.Today
itis
trying,
whereveritcan,andasfaras
itcan,tocreateawholenetworkofmaterialinterestswhich
servemarvelously
tokeeptherankandfilefaithfulandto
remuneratethe
ruling
classthathasgrownup
withinit.Even
thepurelymaterialinfluencesof
plutocracytrytoputon
sheep's
clothingtoday.They
subsidizenewspapers
ofaconspicuously
democratic
tinge
toRightandLeft.They
exert
pressureupon
electioneering committees. Theybowtheirheadstothe
baptism
of
popularsovereignty,
andthey
oftensendtheir
repre-
sentativestoparliaments
tositonthebenchesofthemost
advanced
parties.
Thetruthisthatthe
great
factorsinhuman
history
areso
complexandsointertwined thatanysingle-track doctrine
whichtriestosetuponeamongthemasthe
principalone,"ever
movingandnevermoved,"necessarily
leadstoerroneouscon-
clusionsandfalse
applications,especiallywhenitundertakesto
explainthewhole
pastand
present
ofhumanitybyfollowingone
methodandlooking
atthemfroma
singlepoint
ofview.Worse
stillbefallswhenonesetsoutto
predict
thefutureinthesameway.
Aswehavealreadysuggested,
thesecondoftheassumptions
onwhichhistoricalmaterialism restsmayberegarded
asan
implication
ofthefirst,anditthereforelosesits
significance
whenthefirsthasbeendisposed
of.Nevertheless,one
might
pointoutthattoassert
genericallythatevery
historical
period
containsthe
germswhichwilleventuallyflowerandtransform
itintotheepochimmediatelyfollowing
istostateatruthso
obviousthatitmaybe
regarded
asa
platitude.
Itis,atany
rate,oneofthecommonplaceassumptions
ofmodernhistorical
science.Butthefadtis,Marxinsiststhatthe
onlyseedsthat
flowerandproduce
areseedsofaneconomicnature.We
believe,instead,thatthey
aremuchmorenumerousandmuch
morediversified. Marx'svie%ofthehistoricalphenomenon
issolimitedthatitwouldinitselfbesufficienttomakeone
rejectthethesis,whichisoneofthefundamentals inMarxist
doctrine,thatourpresentbourgeoisperiod
is
ripening
theseeds
thatwillmaketheadventofcollectivisminevitable or,accord-

490. 3] MARXISM 447
ing
tosome,has
alreadyripened
them.Butquiteapartfrom
thatconsideration, itisnowcertainthattheconcentration of
wealthandoftheinstrumentsofproduction
inaveryfewhands,
whichshouldhavepreceded
theircollectivizationandmadeit
easy
forthecountlesshordesintheproletarianphalanxto
expropriatethehandfulof
proprietors,hadnottaken
place
beforetheWorldWarandhadnotevenmovedinthedirection
ofdoing
so. Ifthewarhas
recentlyimpairedthesituationof
themiddleclasseseverywheretoa
greater
orlesserextent,that
hasbeenduetoothercauses,whichwereinnosenseforeseen
byhistoricalmaterialism.And
again,
ifthe
organization
of
the
bourgeois
statehastodaybeendestroyed
inanumberof
countries,andinothersishanging
on
onlybyathread,that
is
happening
notbecauseoftheconcentration ofwealthina
fewhands,butfor
quite
differentreasons.Tothemwehave
already
referredinthecourseofthisbook,andtothemweshall
againturn
shortly.
Theconclusionofthesecondassumption
ofhistoricalmaterial-
ism,andindeedofthedoctrineasawhole,seemstousutterly
fantastic namely,thatoncecollectivism isestablished, it
willbethe
beginning
ofaneraofuniversal
equalityand
justice,
duringwhichthestatewillno
longerbethe
organ
ofaclassand
the
exploiterandtheexploited
willbenomore.Weshallnot
stoptorefutethatUtopiaonceagain.Thiswholeworkisa
refutationofit.Oneshouldnote,however,thatthatviewisa
naturaland
necessaryconsequence
ofthe
optimisticconception
ofhumannaturewhichoriginated
intheeighteenthcenturyand
whichhasnotyetcompleted,though
itiscomingpretty
close
to
completing,
itshistoricalcycle.Accordingtothatidea,
manisborn
good,andsociety,or,better,socialinstitutions,
makehimbad. If,therefore,wechangeinstitutions,theseed
ofAdamwillbe,asitwere,freedofachokingring
ofiron,and
beabletoexpress
alltheirnaturalgoodness. Evidently,
ifoneis
goingtoreasoninthatfashiononewillgoonandreason
thatprivateproperty
istheprimeandsolecauseofhuman
selfishness. Aristotlearguedmuchmoresoundly,
inhisday,
thatselfishness isthecausethatmakes
privateproperty
inevi-
table.Combatting
thecommunistic theoriesofPlato,the
Stagiritedeclaresthatprivateproperty
isindispensable
ifthe
individual is
expected
toproduce
andthereforeprovide
forhis

491. 448 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
ownneedsandtheneedsofhisfamilyand
city.
1
The
justifica-
tionthatSt.Thomasoffersfor
privateproperty
intheSumma
isalmostidentical.Wedonotbelievetherecouldbeabetter
one,aslong
asthehumanbeing
loveshimselfandhisown
familymorethanheloves
strangers.
Beginning
withMorelly,MablyandBabeuf,andcoming
downtoLouisBlanc,ProudhonandLassalle,mostwriters
whohavetriedtosketchacompleteplan
forhumanregeneration
haveincludedintheir
programs,nowa
partial
and
gradual,
nowa
completeandimmediate,inauguration
ofcommunism
andabolitionof
privateproperty.
Theseresultswereregarded,
ofcourse,asdesirableresults,whichweretobeachievedby
the
majority
willbecausetheyweredesirable. Following,
roughly,somehintsofPierreLeroux,Marx
simplifies
allthat.
He
dispenseswiththeindividualwillandhasthedesiredresults
achievedbythefatalcourseofhistory.Withoutanydoubt
atallhismethodhasitsadvantages.
Ifareformisinevitable,
thereisnotmuchthatonecandoaboutit.Itcannotbecriti-
cizedanddemolished,thewayonecancriticizeanddemolish
afundamentalreformthatrestsupontheauthority,
orthe
desire,ofamereindividual.Notonly
that.Among
allthe
arguments
infavorofadoctrine,themostconvincing
will
alwaysbetheonethatrepresents
itstriumph
asinevitablein
amoreOFlessimmediatefuture.;
4.Anothernotionthathastroubledthemindsof
people
whohaveponderedpoliticalproblems
sincethedaywhenPlato
wrotehis
dialogues
isthat"thebest
people"ought
tobethe
onestogoverna
country.Theconsequence
ofthataspiration
hasbeen,andperhaps
stillis,thatgood
soulsgolooking
fora
politicalsystemthatwillmakethe
concepta
reality,oratleast
pointthewayto
doing
so.Duringthelastdecadesofthe
eighteenthcenturyandthefirsthalfofthenineteenthand,
indeed,foradecadeortwo
longer,
thatyearning
hasbeenintensi-
fiedbecausekhasfoundnourishmentinthe
optimisticconcep-
tionofhumannaturetowhichwehavesooftenalluded.That
opinionmadeiteasy
toimaginethatifonecouldchange
institu-
tionsallthele&snobleinstinctsthatravageourpoorhumanity
would
automaticallybesuppressed
orbecome
atrophied*
1-2.

492. 4] "RULEOFTHEBEST" 449
Inordertodetermine
justhowmuchtruthanderrorthere
maybeinthatoutlook,weought
firsttodecide
justwhatsort
of
people
deservetobecalled"thebest."
Evidently,
in
ordinarylanguage,theword"best,"asthe
superlative
ofthe
adjective"good,"
shouldservetodesignate
personswhoare
distinguishedfromtheaverage
ofmenby
exceptional"goodness."The"best"onthatbasiswouldbethe
mostaltruistic
people,
thosewhoaremostinclinedtosacrifice
themselvesforothersratherthantosacrificeotherstothem-
selves,thosewhoinlifegivemuchandreceivelittle,thosewho
aretouseaphrase
ofDoraMelegari -faiseurs
de
joierather
than
faiseurs
de
peines.Theywouldbepeople
inwhomthe
instincttosurmountorremoveany
obstacletothesatisfaction
oftheir
passions
orinterestsisbetterrestrainedandcontrolled
thanitisinthe
averagerunofmen.
Butsurely
itmusthavebecomeapparentbythisdayandage
that"goodness,"takeninsuchaliteralsense,isa
quality
thatisof
great
servicetoothersbutof
very
littleservice,asa
rule,tothosewho
possess
it.Atbest,itdoes
fairly
littleharm
topeoplewhoareborntoasocial
position,
orwhobychance
achieveasocial
position,thatisso
high
astocureall
temptation
inanyonewhomightbeinclinedtotakeadvantage
ofthem.
Buteveninsuchacase,theindividualtowhomthe
adjective
"good"mightlegitimately
be
applied
must*beabletorenounce
theprospect
of
rising
as
high
inthesocialscaleashe
mightbe
entitledtoriseinviewofhisother
qualities. Fortoriseinthe
socialscale,evenincalmandnormaltimes,theprimerequisite,
beyondanyquestion,
isa
capacity
forhardwork;butthe
requisite
nextinimportance
isambition,afirmresolveto
get
onintheworld,to
outstrip
one'sfellows.Nowthosetraits
hardlygo
withextremesensitiveness or,tobe
quitefrank,with
"goodness"
either.For"goodness"
cannotremainindifferent
tothehurtsofthosewhomustbethrustbehindifoneistostep
aheadofthem;andwhengoodness
isdeepandsincere,oneis
loathto
appraise
themerits,rights,and
feelings
ofothersatan
infinitely
lessvaluethanone'sown.
Itmayseemstrange
atfirstglancethat,in
general,people
shouldinsistthattheirrulershavetheloftiestandmostdelicate
moral
qualitiesandthinkmuchofthe
public
interestandlittle
oftheirown,butthatwhentheythemselvesarein
question.

493. 450 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
and
especiallywhentheyare
trying
to
getaheadandreachthe
highestpositions,they
areatno
painswhatevertoobservethe
precepts
whichthey
insistshouldbethe
unfailingguides
of
their
superiors.A$amatteroffact,allthatwecan
justly
askofoursuperiors
isthattheyshouldnotfallbelowtheaverage
morallevelofthe
societytheygovern,thattheyshouldhar-
monizetheirintereststoacertainextentwiththe
public
interest
andthattheyshouldnotdoanythingthatistoo
fyase,
toocheap,
toorepulsive anything,
inshort,thatwould
disqualifythe
manwhodoesitintheenvironmentinwhichhelives.
Buttheexpression"best,"when
appliedto
political life,
may
alsomean,andindeedordinarilydoesmean,thatthe
"best"manisthemanwho
possessesthe
requisitesthatmake
himbestfittedtogovern
hisfellowmen.Understoodinthat
sense,theadjectivemayalwaysbe
appliedto
ruling
classes
innarmaltimes,becausethefactthattheyareruling
classes
showsthat,atthegiventime,inthegivencountry,theycontain
theindividualswhoarebestfittedtogovernandsuchfitness
bynomeansimplies
thattheyarethe"best"individualsintel-
lectually,muchlessthe"best"individuals
morally.For
ifoneistogovernmen,moreusefulthanasenseof
justice
andmuchmoreusefulthanaltruism,oreventhanextentof
knowledge
orbroadness ofvieware
perspicacity,
aready
intuitionofindividualandmass
psychology,strength
ofwill
and,especially,
confidenceinoneself.Withgood
reasondid
MachiavelliputintothemouthofCosimodeiMedicithemuch
quotedremark,thatstatesarenotruledwith
prayer-books
(chap.VII, 11,above).
Inourdaythedistinctionbetweenthestatesmanandthe
politician
is
beginning
tomakeitsway
intothe
plainman's
thinking.Thestatesman isamanwho,by
thebreadthofhis
knowledgeandthedepth
ofhis
insight,acquiresaclearand
accurateawarenessoftheneedsofthe
society
inwhichhelives,
andwhoknowshowtofindthebestmeansfor
leadingthat
societywiththeleast
possible
shockand
suffering
tothe
goal
whichitshould,oratleastcan,attain.Statesmeninthat
sensewereCavourandBismarck.Astatesmanwas
Stolypin,
theRussianministerof1906,whosawthatinRussia,whatwith
agrowth
inpopulationandanecessaryintensification of
agricul-
ture,asystem
ofcollectivepropertywithoutdivisionamongthe

494. 4] "RULEOFTHEBEST" 451
peasants
couldnotlast,andwhothereforeput
forwardmeasures
whichwouldhavecreatedaclassof
privatepeasant
landowners
andatruerural
bourgeoisie
inRussiainabouthalfa
century.
ItwasnotStolypin'sfaultifthemeasuresthathepromoted
didnothavetimetoshowtheirfulleffects.Hediedapre-
maturedeathin1911,murderedby
fanaticalidiots.
The
politician,ontheotherhand,isamanwhohasthe
qualifications
thatarerequiredforreaching
the
highestposts
inthegovernmentalsystemandknowshowtostay
there.
Itisa
greatgoodfortuneforapeoplewhenitcanfindleaders
whocombinetheeminentandrare
qualities
ofthestatesman
withthesecondaryqualities
ofthe
politician;anditisnomean
strokeofluckforanationwhenits
politicianshaveattheir
elbowsstatesmenbywhoseviewstheycan
profit.
1
Intheconclusionofhis
dialogueontheLaws,reinforcinga
contentionthatmaybe
regarded
asfundamentalinhis
political
system,Platosaysthata
citycannotbe
governed
wellaslong
asits
kings,
or
governors,
arenotphilosophers,
oraslong
asits
philosophersarenot
kings.Byphilosophersheseemstohave
meantwisemen,menwho
possesstheknowledgethatis
necessary
forthestatesmanandwhoareatthesametimeabovealllow
andvulgarpassions.
Now,onafewoccasions,heredity
orchancehasbroughta
philosopher,
inPlato'ssenseoftheterm,toheadship
inastate;
andnotalwayshasthephilosophercomedownin
history
asa
modelofthegood
ruler.MarcusAureliuswastherealtype
of
theemperor-philosopher. Hewasborn,tobeginwith,onthe
steps
toathrone.Hewasagoodman,butnotafool,andso,
ashisMeditationsreveal,theexerciseofpowergavehimonthe
wholean
unflattering
ideaofhumannature.Hewasalsoa
manofactiontoanextent.Heledhisarmiesin
person
ina
numberofwars,andinfactdiedwhileconductingacampaign
ontheDanube. In
spite
ofallthat,itisdoubtfulwhetherhis
virtues
always
stoodthepublic
interestingood
stead.The
veryhistorianswhofavorhimaccusehimof
maintaining
unfit
persons
inthegovernments
ofthe
provinces. Discipline
inthe
armyhadbeenconsiderablyimprovedbyTrajan.
Itbegan
againtoslackenundertheruleofMarcusAurelius. During
his
reign,also,aseriousmutiny
occurredinthe
legions
inAsia,
whichproclaimedoneAvidiusCassiusemperor. Cassiuswould

495. 452 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
havebecomeaverydangerouscompetitorhadnotoneofhis
centurionsmurderedhim.
Thereislittlelikelihood,moreover,thatinnormaltimesthe
philosopher,
asPlatoconceivedofhim,wouldwinoutinthe
struggle
forpreeminenceamongthemanywhoarescrambling
for
high
station.Inmany
casesrealwisdomdoesnotexcite
ambition,butsmothers
it,Thenagainloftyqualities
ofcharac-
terandminddonotdraw
philosopherstowardhighoffice,but
turnthemaway,especiallywhenthe
qualities
ofthephilosopher
arenotblendedwiththe
qualities
ofthe
politician,andthe
individualhasnotenoughpracticalsensetotempertheformer,
atleastmomentarily,andbring
theothersintoaction.Man-
zoni'sDonFerrantewasascholarwho"likedneithertocom-
mandnortoobey."Hewasnota
philosopherexactly
notthe
"wiseman,"according
toPlato'sdefinition.He
belonged
to
something
ofthesamefamily,however,because"hepassed
longhoursinhisstudy,"hada
library
fullofbooksandspent
histimereadingthem.Hewas,perhaps,whatwewouldnow
callan"intellectual." Personswhoare
reallygiven
tomedita-
tion,andenjoyit,sometimesadaptthemselves
fairly
wellto
commanding,andthey
willobeywhenitis
absolutely
neces-
sary.Asaruletheydonotcaremucheitherforcommanding
or
obeying.
Aswehavealreadysuggested,therefore,wecanaffordtobe
satisfiedifthe
politicianswhoareinpowerdonotfallbelowthe
average
fortheruling
classintheirbrainsandintheirmorals.
Whentheintellectualandmorallevelofthe
ruling
classis
high
enough
foritsmemberstounderstandand
appreciate
the
ideasofthinkerswho
studypoliticalproblemsintensively,
it
isnotnecessary
forthelattertoattainpower
inordertohave
theirprograms
carriedout.Theintellectualpressure
thatthe
ruling
classasawholeexertswhatiscommonly
called
"public
opinion"
willforcethe
politicians
tosuittheir
policiesmoreor
lesstotheviewsofthosewho
representthebestthatthe
political
intelligence
ofapeople
canproduced
WhatwehavetakenawayfromPlato's
coupling
ofthe
highest
qualities
ofmindandcharacter,asregardsthe
politicalfield,
wemusthastentorestoreasregardsmanydepartments
oflife
thatareextraneousto
politics.The
physicistGalileoFerraris
thought
thatno
great
scientificdiscoverywas
possible
as
long

496. 5] MERITANDSUCCESS 453
astheexperimenterwas
trying
toobtain
practicalresults
when,thatis,insteadofbeing
interestedinmereknowledge,
hewas
trying
towrestfromnaturesomesecretthatwould
enablea
greatindustrytoturnoutaproduct
atlesscost.The
maximwhichGalileoFerraristhoughtwas
applicable
tothe
naturalsciences,applies,webelieve,especially
tothesocial
sciences. Inthesocialsciences itis
impossible
tofitidthe
truthunlessgoodqualities
of
intelligence
are.cementedand
unifiedbygoodqualities
ofcharacter,unlessthethinker is
abletostrip
himselfofeverypartisanpassion,everyinterest,
every
fear.
I
$.Thefactthat,asarule,thosewhooccupyhigh
officeare
almostneverthe"best"inanabsolutesense,butratherindivid-
ualswho
possessthe
qualitiesthatarebestsuitedto
directing
anddominatingmen,showshowhard,andindeedhow
impossible,
itisunderordinarycircumstances toapplyabsolute
justice,
asmanisabletoconceiveofthatideal,toa
politicalsystem.
Buttoachieveabsolutejusticehasbeenthedreamofnoble
spiritsand
loftymindsfromPlatoon.Wemightevensaythat
ithasbeenaconvenientpretext
formanyambitiousandmore
orless
vulgarmentouseintrying
to
replace
thosewhoareat
the
top.
Absolute
justice
ina
politicalsystemcanonlymeanthatthe
successofeveryindividual,therankhe
occupies
inthe
political
scale,shouldcorrespondexactlywiththeactual
utility
ofthe
servicewhichhehasrendered,oris
rendering,to
society.At
bottom,itisa
question
of
applyingaconceptwhichwas
definitely
formulated forthefirsttimebySaint-Simon (chap.XII, 1,
above)andwhichfurnishedthefamousformulainwhichthe
Saint-Simonianssummedup
theirprogram:"Toeach
according
tohis
ability,
toeach
abilityaccording
toitsresults."
Nowanumberofobjectionstothisdoctrineoccurtoone.
Inthefirst
place,howarewetoevaluate
accurately,andwith
acertainpromptness,theexactworthoftheservicewhichan
individualhasrendered,oris
rendering,
tothe
society
ofwhich
heisapart?Wesay"promptness"
becauseiftheevaluation is
tocomea
centurylater,orevenadecadeortwolater,whether
itisto
bringrewardorpunishment
doesnotmattermuch.
Themantowhomitwillbeowing
will
alreadybeinhis
grave,or

497. 454 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
atleastinanadvancedold
age.Notonly
that.However
greatourgoodwill,meritsormistakesofa
politicalnatureare,
fromthe
largest
tothesmallest,themistakesthatbring
their
consequences
afterthelongestlapses
oftime.Only
in
fairly
distant
perspective,
asarule,canwejudgecalmlyandwith
relativesurenessastowhetherthe
policy
ofanofficial,thevote
ofachamber,thedecisionmadebyacabinetatsome
grave
moment,hasbeen,orhasnotbeen,tothebestinterestsofa
country.Asamatteroffact,menalmostneverwaitas
long
asthattojudgesuchacts,butforthatvery
reasontheir
judg-
mentisofteninfluencedbypassions
orinterests,or
artfully
divertedbythewilesof
intrigueandcharlatanry.
Butsupposetimeandthepassing
of
generationshavesnuffed
outinterestsandstifledpassions. Supposethewilesof
intriguers
andcharlatanshavegone
theway
oftheinterestsand
passions.
Suppose
therearenomorecrowdstoapplaudbecausethey
are
trainedto
applaud,andnomorewritersornewspapers
toextol
or
disparage
inbadfaith.Eventhen,menaresoconstituted
forthemost
partthattheydonotsucceedin
beingobjectiveand
impartial,eveninthesolitudeoftheirstudies.Aswehave
seen
(chaps. I,18;XII, 3),
historicalresearchalwaysyields
moreorlessuncertainresultswhenweare
trying
tojudge
of
greatpersonalities
inthe
past,whereasitsinferencesandcon-
clusionsaremuchlessuncertainwhenweare
reconstructing
and
interpreting
theinstitutions,theideas,theachievements of
great
civilizations.Nowthatuncertainty
is
largelydueto
theemotionalhabitsofwriters.Manyascholarcannot
express
hisadmiration foronegreatpersonalitywholivedtwenty
Centuries beforeourtimewithout
disparagingsomeother
personality
ofthesame
ripeness
of
age.Manyahistorian,
writing
inthetwentiethcentury,cannotmanage
toexaltCaesar
withouttakinga
fling
atpoor
Cicero. Allofwhichwouldgo
to
showthat-evenwhen
personal
inte^stsand
greedshavefallen
silent,antipathiesandsympathies,
intheclassicalsenseofthose
terms
(inotherwordsaffinitiesordisaffinities ofmindorof
temperament)
areenough
tomakemen
unjust
towardother
menwhovanishedfromtheearthcenturiesandcenturiesbefore
theirtime.
Evidently, therefore, toestablishanexactand
unerring
relationshipbetweenmeritandsuccess,bejtweentheworksof

498. 5] MERITANDSUCCESS 455
eachindividualandtherewardorpunishment
thatisduehim,
wouldbeasuperhumantaskwithinthecompetenceonly
ofan
omniscientandomnipotentbeing,whocouldlookbehindthe
veilsthathideallconsciences,whohadnoneofour
ignorance,
noneofourweaknesses,noneofour
passions. Forthatreason,
perhaps,almostallthegreatreligions,beginningwiththe
religion
oftheancientEgyptians,havedeferredfinal
judgmentona
man'sworktotheendofhis
earthlylife,andhavethenhanded
thejudgingalong
tothegods,ortoGod.
Acertainequivalencebetweenservicerenderedandrecom-
pense
receivedmight
befoundinthefreecontractsthatare
madein
private
life.Butthatequivalence
isnotfoundedupon
amoral
principlesuchasisdesiredfor
political
life. Itis
simplyaquestion
ofdemandand
supply,
oroftherelativeneeds
ofthetwo
contracting parties,whereby
theserviceisrated
higherwhenitismuchindemand,andtherecompense
islower
whenthe
supply
ofworktobedoneisscantandthe
supply
of
service isoverabundant. Thispurelyeconomicequivalence
doesnot,asthemoralequivalencewould
require,takeaccount
ofthesacrificethattheservicehascost,anditceasesfunctioning
altogetherwhentheservicesarerenderednottodefiniteindividu-
alsor
groups
ofindividualsbuttocollectivitiesaswholes. Itisa
commonimpressionthatgreat
scientificdiscoveries,whether
inthefieldofthenaturalsciencesorofthesocial,havenot
investedtheirdiscovererswith
high
officeinthestate,orlifted
themtothesummitsofwealth,or
suppliedthemwiththe
"gilded
parasolsandtheelephantsmadwithpride"which,according
totheancientauthors ofIndia,awaitedthe
powerful
on
earth(above,chap,XI, 3).Ontheotherhand,practical
applications
ofdiscoverieshavealmostalwaysenrichedinven-
torsand
giventheminfluenceandpower. Truly,
itshouldbe
oneofthedutiesofthosewho
govern,
atleastincountriesof
ancientandsoundculturaltraditions,to
givemoralandmaterial
recompense toscientists likeCopernicus, Galileo,Volta,or
Champollion,whohavemadediscoveriesthatareusefultoall
mankindbutcannotbe
directlyexploitedbyprivateindustry.
Sometimes,infact,rulershaveperformedthatdutymoreorless
satisfactorily,thoughusuallywhenperformance
ofitcould
be
profitabletothemascorresponding
tothewishesofan
enlightenedpublicopinion.

499. 456 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
Butevenifthereisnevertobeanabsolute
justice
inthis
worlduntilhumanitycomesreallytobemoldedtotheimage
andlikenessofGod,therehasbeen,thereisandtherewillalways
bearelative
justice
insocietiesthatare
fairly
well
organized.
Therewillalwaysbe,inotherwords,asumoflaws,habits,
norms,all
varyingaccording
totimesand
peoples,whichare
laiddownandenforcedbypublicopinion,andinaccordance
withwhichwhatwehavecalledthe
struggle
f6rpreeminence
theeffortof
every
individualtobetterandtoconservehisown
social
position
willbe
regulated.
Thecoexistence ofanabsolute
justiceandarelativejustice
hasbeen
recognized
sinceclassicalantiquity,whichhadlearned
to
distinguish
"civil
right(juscivile)
99
foundedonlaw,from
"natural
right(jusnaturale)"basedonreasonandthehuman
being's
naturalsenseof
equity.Senecaanalyzedslavery
asan
institutionthatwasconsistentwithcivilrightbutcontraryto
natural
right.Thatrelative
justice
variesfromplacetoplace
andtimetotimehasalsobeenpointed
out
repeatedly.One
thinksatonceofthePensSesofPascal.
According
torelative
justice,acertainamountofworkis
almostalwaysnecessarytoachievesuccessworkthatcor-
responds
toarealandactualservicerenderedto
society.But
workalways
hastobereinforcedtoacertainextentby"ability,"
thatistosay,bytheartofwinningrecognition.Andofcourse
alittleofwhatiscommonly
called"luck"willnotcomeamiss
thoseunforeseeablecircumstanceswhich
helpor
seriouslyharm
aman,especially
atcertainmoments.Onemightaddthatin
all
places
atalltimesthebestluck,ortheworst,
isoftentobe
bornthechildofone'sfatherandone'smother.
Therearemanywho
deny,ortry
toreducetoverylowterms,
thepartthatluckplays
inthesuccessofindividualsandof
groups.Theyshouldread,orreread,theThoughts
ofGuic-
ciardini,whoverysoundlyremarks:"Thosewhoattributeevery-
thing
towisdomandvirtue,andruleoutthepower
offortune
asfaras
theycan,atleasthavetoconfessthatitisveryimportant
foramantostumbleuponan
age,
ortobeborninan
age,when
thevirtuesor
qualitiesonwhichhe
prideshimselfareheldin
highesteem."
1
Thetruthisthatmenwhohavenothadall
thesuccesstheyhopedforinlifeare
willingenough
tolaythe
*
Pmrieri,nos.30-31.

500. 6] SOCIALCATACLYSMS 457
blameonluck,whilethosewhohavesucceededbeyond
their
expectations
areprone
to
give
allthecredittothemselves.
Butthegame
oflife,afterall,
isnotsodifferentfroman
ordinarygame
ofcards,wherewinningdependsnowonblind
chance,nowontheskillofthe
player,nowonthemistakesof
the
adversary.Thegame
ofcardswouldbecomeplainfraud
ifthecardscouldbechanged
ormanipulated. Sointhe
great
gamethateveryman
plays
inlife,violatingtheestablished
rules,or
cheating,
shouldneverbepermitted. Thatsociety
willalwaysbeawretchedanddisorderly
affairinwhichitis
tacitlyconcededthattheplayerwhois
slyenoughcan
givean
occasionalnudge
tofortune.Withregard
tothe
impossibility
of
realizing
absolute
justice
inthisworldandthe
necessity
for
observingthenormsofarelativejustice,GinaLombroso-Ferrero
haswrittenanumberof
pages
thatarefullofacutereflections.
1
She
argues,amongother
things,thatahighgrade
ofsocial
perfectioncouldbereachedinoursocieties ifthe
struggle
to
achievehighpositionwerecarriedoninfrankconformity
with
whatshecallsacceptedstandards, instead ofunavowable
standards.
Often,andveryofteninourday,thosewhoknowbesthowto
emphasize,anddoloudestemphasize,thesometimesblatant
contradictions thatappearbetweenabsolutejusticeandthe
relativejusticesanctionedbylawandcustom,arepeoplewho
holdbadcardsandwouldliketohavebetteronesandtherefore
proposestopping
thegame
and
havinganewshuffleandanew
deal.Ordinarilytheyarenotdispleased
ifthenewshuffle
andthenewdealareentrustedtothem.Truly
altruistic
individuals,who
sincerelyabhor
lyingand
cheating,endby
becomingpersuadedfromtheir
experiencewithlifethatabsolute
justice
is
impossible
ofattainmentandthatthereforetrueand
conscioussincerityandgoodnessnecessarilyhavetobecoupled
withgenerosity,whichknowshowto
givewithouthope
ofany
return.
6.Will
progress
in
political
sciencesomedayenablemankind
toeliminate,oreventoattenuateormakerarer,those
great
catastropheswhich,fromtimetotime,interruptthecourseof
civilizationandthrust
peoples
thath$vewon
gloriousplaces
1
TheSotd
ofWoman,p.
$45.

501. 458 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
inhistorybackintobarbarism,beitarelativeandtemporary
barbarism? Thatisamostseriousquestion.Fromthe
practi-
calstandpoint
itmaybethemostimportant
ofallthequestions
withwhich
political
scienceiscalledupon
todeal.
Beforeonecanhope
tomakeany
usefulcontributiontoward
thesolutionof
it,theproblem
itselfhastobestatedinitsexact
terms.Thecatastrophesmentioned arecommonly
saidto
occurwhenanationhas
"aged."Deathcomes,therefore,
asanaturalconsequence
ofthat"age."Now,aswehavebeen
atsome
painstoshow
(chap.I,14),tospeak
ofthe"old
age,"
orofthe"death,"ofapeople
oracivilization istouse
ametaphorthatfailsto
giveanexact
picture
ofwhat
actually
takes
place.Anindividualgrows
old
inevitably,
alas!An
individualdieswhenhisvitalresourcesareexhausted,orwhen
someinfecton,oraviolentcause,haltsorimpedesthefunction-
ing
ofsomeorganthatisessentialtothecontinuance oflife.
Butphysicalaging
isnotconceivableina
society.Eachnew
generation
isborn
young.Noristhe
physicaldeathofa
society
possible.Forasociety
todie,onewholegeneration
atleast
wouldhavetoabstainfrom
procreation. ReneWormshas
dealtin
masterly
fashionwiththe
question
ofold
ageanddeath
in
peoples:
Tobesuretherearethinkerswhodeclarethatstates,likeindividuals,
arefatedlycondemnedtodisappearsomedayorother.Sofar,no
soundproofhaseverbeengiven
ofanysuch
necessity,and,forourpart,
wedonotbelieveinit.Quitetothecontrary,wejudgethatpeoples
areabletorenewtheircompositionbyprocreation,a
thingthatindi-
vidualscannotdo,andthatthereforetheymay
lookforwardtoa
literalimmortality.
1
Itwouldnotbedifficulttomentioncasesof
peoplesthathave
disappearedwithout
leavingany
descent.The
aborigines
of
Tasmaniavanishedinthatway.Theaborigines
ofAustralia
arefast
disappearing. FewdescendantsoftheGuanchesofthe
Canary
Islands stillsurvive.Manynativetribesinthe
Americasareextinctandothersare
dwindling
in
population.
Butthosepeopleswere,orare,small
groups,livingbyhunting
and
fishing.
Colonizationbythewhitesdeprivesthemoftheir
meansofsustenance,andoncomingintocontactwiththewhites
1
Philosophic
dessciencessociales,vol.Ill,p.
305.

502. 6] SOCIALCATACLYSMS 459
they
aretoobackwardincivilizationtoadaptthemselvesat
onceto
agriculturallivelihoods,oradoptthewhiteman'smethods
of
production.
InMexicoandPeruthenative
populationswere
practicingagricultureatthetimetheEuropeans
arrived.They
weremuchmorenumerous,therefore,andtheywerenotexter-
minated. IntheUnitedStates,too,itseems,Indiantribes
thathavebeenabletoturnto
agricultureshownotendencies
toward
dying
out.
Very
different isthesituationWith
peoples
thathavelong
sincereachedthe
agriculturalstage,have
organized
into
orderly,
powerfuland
thicklypopulated
nationsandcreatedor
developed
civilizations. Insuchcases,anythingthatcouldbecalled
physicaldeaththeeliminationofaracethroughlackofdescent
has
perhaps
neveroccurred.Oncea
people
hasreachedthat
stage
ofculture,itmay
loseits
originalphysiognomy,
itmaybe
absorbedby
other
peoples,by
othercivilizations, itmaychange
its
religion
andsometimes its
language
itmay,
inaword,
undergo
acomprehensive intellectualandmoralmetamorphosis;
yet
itcontinuestosurvive
physically. Against
thisthesis
onemighturge
theexample
oftheBritons,whohad
longbeen
practicing agriculture
atthetimewhentheircountrywas
invadedandoccupied
in
largepartbytheAnglesandSaxons.
Butinthefirst
place,aprimitiveCelticlineage
stillsurvives
inthenorthofScotland,inWalesandalsoinFrench
Brittany,
whithersomeoftheBritonsemigratedunderSaxon
pressure.
Inthesecond
place,
iftheCeltslosttheir
language
overthe
majorpart
ofGreatBritain,theywerebynomeansexter-
minated.Theyweresimplyabsorbedbytheinvaders of
Germanic race.Studiesofsuchproblemsoften
yieldvague
oruncertainresults,butit
reallyseemsasthoughthe
population
inthewesterncountiesofEngland,andina
largepart
ofScot-
land,hadremainedbasically
Celtic.
History
isfullofsuchtransformationsandsurvivals.The
descendantsoftheancientGaulsandtheancientIberianssur-
vivedunderneaththecrustofLatincivilizationthatcameto
givethemanewoutwardshape.Thedescendantsoftheancient
peoples
ofMesopotamiaandSyriasurvived,eventhoughthey
adopted
thelanguageand
religion
oftheArabs,whoconquered
themintheseventhcentury.ThatwasthecasetooinEgypt,
wherethemodernandso-calledArab
population
stillretains,

503. 460 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
inthemass,the
physical
traitsofitsrealancestors,whocreated
thecivilizationofthePharaohsandpreserved
itforforty-odd
centuries.ModernItaliansarestill,inthemain,descendants
oftheancientItalic
peoples,andintheveinsofthemodern
Greeks,howevermuchtheirbloodmaybemixedwithother
bloods,thebloodoftheHelleneswhoknewPericlesandAristotle
stillflows,andsodoesthebloodoftheByzantines
oftheninth
andtenthcenturies.
But
supposewe
ignorethattype
ofsurvival,andalsothe
casewhereapeople
isassimilatedbyadomination offoreign
originthatbrings
inahigherculturethecaseoftheGauls,
theIberians,andthemanyothermoreorlessbarbarouspeoples
whomthe
genius
ofancientRome
successfullyweldedintoa
single
state.Then,evidently,thereisstillasenseinwhicha
peoplethathasbeenabletocreateacivilizationofitsownand
maintain itthroughlong
centuriescanbesaidtohavedied.
Andthedeathmaybeattributedmore
especially
totwocauses,
whichundermineandcorrodetheinnermechanism ofthe
nationand
bring
ittosucha
pass
thattheleastshockfromout-
sideisenough
tokillit.
Thesetwocausesseemalmost
inevitablytogotogether.
Nationsdiewhentheir
ruling
classesare
incapable
of
reorganizing
insuchaway
astomeettheneedsofchangingtimesbydrawing
fromthelowerand
deeper
strataof
societynewelementsthat
serveto
givethemnewbloodandnewlife.Then
again,
aswehave
alreadyseen
(chap.XIV, 3),nationsarealsomarkedfordeath
whenthey
suffera
dwindling
ofthosemoralforceswhichholdthem
togetherandmakeit
possible
foraconsiderablemassofindividual
effortstobeconcentrated, disciplinedanddirectedtowardpur-
posesrelatedtothecollectiveinterest. Inaword,old
age,
the
forerunnerofdeath,comesuponpoliticalorganismswhenthe
ideasandsentimentswhichmakethemcapableofthecollective
effortthatis
required,
iftheyaretomaintaintheir
groupperson-
ality,
loseinfluenceandprestigewithout
beingreplacedby
others.
Aninstinctivefearofthat
eventuality explainstheblind
attachmenttotradition,toancestralcustomsand
examples,
that
lay
atthebottomofthe
religionsandthe
politicalpsychologies
of
allthe
greatnationsof
antiquity,beginningwiththeoldciviliza-
tionsofMesopotamiaandEgypt
andcomingdowntoRome.
Thesameattachmentwasverystrong,downtoafew
generations

504. 6] CONSERVATISMANDPROGRESS 461
ago,
inJapanandChina;andin
spite
ofappearancestothe
contrary,
itisfarfrom
beingunknowntomodernnationsof
Europeancivilization,especially
tothepeoples
of
Anglo-Saxon
stock.Thenationalsoulseemsinstinctively
tofeelthatifitis
nottodieitmustholdfaithfultocertainprinciples,certainfunda-
mentalandcharacteristic ideas,whichimpregnate
alltheatoms
thatunitetoformits
organicbeing.
Itseemstofeelthatonly
onthatconditioncanitconserveits
personality,maintain its
socialstructureintactandkeepouchstoneinits
composition
from
losing
thecementthatbindsittotheothers.Thatinstinct
underliestheancientChristianpersecutions,andtheold
religious
wars.Forthehistoricaleventsthathavehelpedmosttomodify
thecomplexes
ofsentimentsandbeliefsthatwere
peculiartothe
oldnationsweretheriseandspread
ofthe
greatworld
religions,
whichseektoembraceallhumanityandblenditinauniversal
brotherhood,yetimpressupon
theirbelieversa
specialintellectual
andmoralstamp.Infact,therearethree
specialtypes
ofcivi-
lizationthatcorrespond
tothethree
greatworld
religions,Bud-
dhism,ChristianityandIslam.
1
Unfortunately,
orperhapsfortunately,anexcessiveandexclu-
sivecultofthepast
is
likely
toresultinfossilization,andfora
nationtobeallowedtoremainstationarywith
impunity,
all
othernationshavetobe
equally
fossilized. ChinaandJapan
triedtorelaxintoimmobilityduringtheseventeenthand
eighteenth
centuriesandpart
ofthenineteenth. Inorderto
keep
influencesfromEuropeoutofChinatheemperorYung
Cheng,whoreignedbetween172$and1735,droveoutthe
missionaries. Japanhadprecededhimonthatroad.As
early
as1639anedictoftheshogunYemitsuprohibitedcommerce
with
foreigners
withveryfew
exceptionsandmadeit
subjectto
verysevere
penalties.
Neithernationsucceeded
entirelyevenat
home,butinanyeventtheybothunderwentbrusqueawakenings
fromoutside.Chinahadtobeginopening
herdoorsafterthe
so-calledOpiumWarwithEngland,whichbrokeoutin1839.
JapandidthesamewhenCommodore
Perry,withhisAmerican
squadron,appeared
offhershoresin1853.
Completeimmobility
inahuman
society
isanartificial
thing,
whereascontinuouschange
inideas,sentimentsandcustoms,
1
Thatfact,wemaynoteinpassing,
isanotherargumentagainst
historical
materialism .

505. 468 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
whichcannothelphaving
its
repercussionsuponpoliticalorgan-
ization,isnatural.To
preventchange,
itwouldbenecessaryto
destroy
allinfluencesfromthe
spirit
ofobservationand
inquiry,
fromthegrowthandspread
of
knowledge,from
accumulating
experience; forsuchinfluencesmakeitinevitablethatnew
mannersofthinking
shouldmature,andnewmannersof
feeling,
andthesenecessarilycorrodefaithinancestral
teachingsand
weakenthetraditionalconceptsthatformthefoundationsofthe
political
structureoftheforefathers.
Itwasnotatall
likelythataGreek
living
inthedays
ofPlato
andAristotlecouldstillbelieveinthegods
asthechildishanthro-
pomorphism
ofHojnerconceivedthem.Muchlesscouldhe
admitthatthe
gods
wereaccustomedto
lending
theircounseland
theiraidtothosehereditary
chiefsofthecitieswhomthe
greatest
poet
inGreecehadbeenwonttocall"shepherds
of
peoples." It
wouldhavebeenhardtoconvinceaFrench
contemporary
of
VoltairethatLouisXVhadreceivedhismandatetogovern
FrancefromGod.AndonemaydoubtwhetheraChinese,ora
Japanese,whoattendsaEuropean
oranAmerican
university
todaygoeshomewithavery
firmconvictionthatthebooksof
Confuciuscontaina
perfectandcompleteexpression
ofhuman
wisdom.
Thingsbeing
astheyare,thereisonlyoneway
toavoidwhatis
calledthedeathofastateoranation,oneofthose
periods
of
acutecrisis,thatis,whichsometimescauseorenablea
type
of
civilizationtodisappear,totheunutterablewoeofthe
genera-
tionsthatwitnessthem.Thatway
istoprovide
foraslowbut
continuousmodificationofrulingclasses,foraslowbutcontinu-
ousassimilationbythemofnewelementsofmoralcohesionthat
will
graduallysupplanttheold.Inthiscase,probably,asin
others,thebestresultsin
practice
areobtainedbyasoundbalance
betweentwodifferentandoppositenaturaltendencies,between
thedrifttowardconservatismandtheurge
forinnovation. In
otherwords,a
politicalorganism
anation,acivilization,can,
literallyspeaking,
beimmortal,provided
itlearnshowtotrans-
formitselfcontinually
without
fallingapart.
A
trulyremarkableexample
of
adaptation
to
necessarycontacts
with
foreignpeoples,withoutanyabandonment ofthe
special
traditionsandsentimentswhichformthecoreofthenational
soul,hasbeen
suppliedduringthelast
fifty
or
sixtyyearsby

506. 7 SCIENCEANDSOCIALCATACLYSMS 463
Japan.Thatcountryhasfoundaway
totransform itself
radicallywithout
fallingapart.
Itis
interesting
that
during
the
period
inquestionJapan
hasbeengoverned
in
practiceby
a
limitedaristocracy,madeup
ofthemost
intelligentmeninthe
country.Ofcoursethereisstillthechancethat,gradually,
as
otherEuropeanconceptspercolate
intothelowerstrataofthe
Japanesepopulation,
thecountry
willhavetofaceoneofthose
unavoidableconflictsbetweenoldandnewways
ofthinkingand
feeling
thatpavetheway
forcrisesofthesortwehavebeen
considering.
7.Ifthedeathof
peoples,
thecomplete
ruinof
political
organisms,those
lastingandviolentsocialcrisesthat
interrupt
the
courseofcivilizationandthrowmenbacktowardthebrutes,
wereinanyrealsenseavoidable,thedevelopmentandrecognition
ofareal
politicalsciencemightcertainlycontributeconsiderably
towardavoidingthem.
Inthe
pastmorethanoneofthecrisesmentionedhavebeen
retardedforveryconsiderableperiodsbymere
politicalempiri-
cism,whenthelatterwasnotledastrayby
falsedoctrinesand
whenitwasilluminedby
flashesof
genius.Augustus,Trajan,
andperhapsDiocletiantoo,retardedthebreakup
oftheRoman
Empire
intheWest.Francewouldnothavebeen
reorganized
aswelloraspromptly
aftertheRevolutionhadshenothada
NapoleonBonaparte
totakethelead.Onemustalsobearin
mindthatsometimestoretarda
great
crisismayamountto
avoiding
itfora
long
time.Byzantine
civilizationmanagedto
survivethe
catastrophe
thatovertookthewesternRoman
Empire
inthefifth
century,andwasabletoliveonfor
nearlya
thousand
yearslonger.
Butbetterthanempiricism,
betterthanthesaving
intuitionof
genius,
willbeanexactknowledge
ofthelawsthat
regulatethe
socialnatureofman.Suchknowledge,
ifitdoes
nothingelse,
willatleasthelppeople
todistinguishbetween
thingsthatmay
happenand
things
thatcannotandneverwillhappen,andsoit
mayhelptokeepmanygenerous
intentionsandmuchgood*
will
from
beingunprofitablyandeven
perniciouslywasted,inefforts
toattainlevelsofsocialperfection
thatarenowandwillbeforever
unattainable. Suchknowledge
alsowillenableusto
apply
to
political
lifethesamemethodthatthehumanmindhaslearnedto

507. 464 RULINGCLASSANDINDIVIDUAL [CHAP.XVI
use
practically
in
tryingtomastertheotherforcesof.nature.
Thatmethodcomesdowntoanattentiveobservationandunder-
standing
oftheirmannerofworking,andthentolearninghowto
controlandutilizethemwithoutdoing
brutalviolencetothem.
Itwouldbedoing
brutishviolencetoanaturallawtosow
grain
inthenorthernhemisphere
in
Julyandexpectaharvestin
January. Inallthebranchesofhis
activity,manhasbeenable
tomastermaterialnatureonlybyobservingherand
adapting
himselftoherways.Hemustfollowthesamemethod ifhe
wishestocorrecttohis
advantagetheconsequencesthatfollow
fromhisown
politicalnature.
Aswehaveseen
(chap.I, 16-19),thenineteenthcentury,
andthe
early
decadesofthetwentieth,havealreadydeveloped,
thanksto
progress
inhistoricalresearchandinthedescriptive
socialsciences,suchamassofverifieddata,suchawealthof
scientificmaterials,thatthe
generations
thatarenow
livingmay
beabletodoathingthatwas
impossible
forearlier
generations
theymay,thatis,beabletocreatea
truly
scientific
politics.
Evenif
they
shouldsucceed,itwouldstillbeveryhardtoimagine
justwhensuchasciencewouldbeabletobecomeanactivefactor
insocial
life,andservetocoordinateandmodifytheotherfactors
thathave
figured
so
largely
indeterminingthecourseofhuman
events.
1
Beforeameresystem
ofideascanbecomeanactive
forcein
politicallife,it-mustfirsthaveobtaineda
strong
holdon
themindsofatleasta
majority
inthe
rulingclass,andthoroughly
remodeledthem. Itmust,thatis,havecometocontroland
determinethemannerof
thinking,andthereforeof
feeling,
of
thosewhose
opinion
,countsas
publicopinion.Now
truly
scientificideasaretheleastadapted
ofallideasto
doingthings
likethat.Theyarenotatall
adaptable.Theylendthemselves
little,ifatall,toanystirring
ofthe
passions
oftheday,ortoany
direct
satisfying
oftheinterestsofthemoment.
1
Astotheotherfactorsreferredto,seeabove,chap.XI, (pp.305-306).

508. CHAPTERXVII
FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVE
GOVERNMENT
1.Ahundredyearsgenerally
offerasufficientlength
oftime
forthepsychology,customsandinstitutionsofanationora
civilizationtochangeappreciably.An
age,therefore, isoften
namedafterthecentury
towhichitcorresponds.And
yet,
if
wesetoutto
specify
theyear
inwhichthosechangesbecome
clearlyperceptible,
inwhichweareabletosaythatoneage
has
endedandanotherbegun,the
ageandthecenturyrarely
corre-
spondexactly.Betweentheendofonehistorical
periodandthe
beginning
ofanotherthereare
periods
ofcompromise,ofso-called
transition,thataremoreorlessarduousandaresometimes
accompaniedby
violentcrises.
Ifwechoosetofixonadefinitemomentwhentheagecorre-
sponding
totheeighteenthcenturyends,the
yearmost
plausibly
indicatedwouldbethecelebratedyear
of1789,andnottheyear
1800. Ifweweretodothesameforthenextperiod,onemight
saythataneweraopened
intheyear1815andendedabouta
hundredyearslater,in1914.The
period
of
twenty-sixyears
thatelapsedbetween1789and1815wouldbeoneofthoseparen-
theses,markedby
violentcrises,thatoften,thoughnotalways,
accompany greattransformations inhuman societies.The
characterofthatperiodwasapparent
totheItalian
poetManzoni
as
early
as1821.InhisfamousodeonthedeathofNapoleon,
"TheFifthofMay,"hewrites,speaking
ofNapoleon'scareer:
"Hepronounced
hisname.Two
agesfacingeachotherinarms
turnedtowardhim,hushed,asthoughwaitingontheapproach
of
Destiny.Hecalledforsilenceandtookathroneintheir
midstasarbiter."
1
Eisinomo:duesecoli
L'uncontro1'altroarmato
Sommessialuisivolsero
Comeaspettando
ilFato.
Eife'silenzio,edarbitro
S'assiseinmezzoalor.
465

509. 466FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
Ifweweretoexaminethe
political
characterofthenineteenth
century
inEurope,weshouldhavetoconsidereventsbetween
1815and1914,thislast
yearagaincorresponding
totheopening
ofanew
parenthesisthatwillcloseatsomelatermomentwiththe
beginning
ofanewagewhichwilltakethenameofourtwentieth
century.
Todaywefindourselvesatahistoricalmomentthatmaybe
decisiveforthefutureofourcivilization. Itwouldperhapsbe
wise,therefore,forthepresentgeneration,especially
theyounger
membersof
it,towithdrawwithinthemselvesforamomentor
twobeforetheygo
intoactionandmakewhattheChurchcalls
an"examination ofconscience/' Itis
quitepossible
thatthe
peoplewhoare
livingtoday,especiallytheyoungeramongus,
mightrefusetosubmittosuchanexamination,ontheground
thatanythingwrongthatistobefoundwiththeirconsciences
wouldbethefaultofthethreegenerationsthathavepreceded
us.
Inthiscase,wecouldonlyreplythat,forbetterorforworse,we
havereceivedaninheritancefromourfatherswhichweshallnot
beallowedtorenounce.Attheveryleast,therefore,wemight
aswellhaveaninventoryofit.
2.DuringthenineteenthcenturythenationsofEuropean
civilizationmadeaneffortto
carryoutinthe
political
fieldthe
programthathadbeensketchedasanidealbythepreceding
century.Thatprogrammaybesummedup
inthreefunda-
mentalconcepts,expressed
inthreemagicwords:
liberty,
equality,fraternity.
Wehavealready
seenthattheconcept
of
liberty,
inthesense
inwhichthewordisusedinthe
politicalfield,wasinheritedby
modernEuropeansfromtheancientGreeksandRomans. Con-
fusedlyandimperfectlygrasped
intheMiddle
Ages,andmuch
more
clearlyandaccurately
intheRenaissanceandafter,this
conceptwas
popularizedbyRousseauandotherwritersofhisday
and
interpretedtoconformwithconditionsin
eighteenthcentury
society.
1
Buttherecouldbenodevelopment
oftheabsolute
bureaucratic stateoftheeighteenthcentury
intoa
city-state,
*Onthedifferenthistoricalphases
oftheconceptofpopularsovereignty,
which,duringtheMiddleAgesandinmoderntimesdowntotheFrenchRevolu-
tion,wasoftenidentifiedwiththeconcept
of
politicalliberty,seeCrosa,Sulla
sovrantid,popolare.

510. ] LIBERTY 467
suchasAthensandSpartahadbeen,andRometoointheage
of
FabriciusandAtilius
Regulus,Theconcept
thathadbeen
inheritedfromtheancients,therefore,hadtoundergosome
furtheradaptation,andan
attemptwasmadetodothatbyborrow-
ing
asamodelthetype
ofconstitutionthatwasalreadyfunction-
ing
in
England
intheeighteenthcentury.Theadvantages
of
thatconstitutionhadbeen
brilliantly
setforthbyanother
celebratedwriter,Montesquieu.
SoinsteadoftheassembliesofclassicalGreeceandthecoinitia
ofRome,inwhichallcitizenscouldtake
part,andinwhichlaws
wereapprovedandappointments
toall
public
officesmade,there
cametobe
parliaments,
almostalwaysconsisting
oftwohouses,
moralratherthan
legalascendancybeinggiven
tothehousethat
originatedmore
directly
in
popularsuffrage.These
parliaments
wereentrustedwithlawmaking,withthe
voting
oftaxesand
budgetsandwith
general
controloverthewholeadministration
ofthestate.Departing
inanother
respectfromtheexamples
of
classical
antiquity,
theelectivesystemwasnotextendedtothe
administrative
organization
ofthestateor,in
general,tothe
judiciary.ThefunctionswhichtheEuropean
statewasexercis-
ing
attheendoftheeighteenthcenturywereveryimportant,and
highly
technicalknowledgewasalmost
alwaysindispensable
for
themenwho
directly
exercisedthem.Thatmadeitnecessary
thattheyshouldbeentrusted,nottoelectiveandtemporary
officials,aswasthe
practice
intheancient
city-state,butto
permanentprofessionalemployees,whowere
generallychosenby
competitiveexamination,orappointed
atwillbythemenwho
occupiedthehigherposts
ineachdepartment
ofthe
public
service.Theappointivesystemprevailsverywidely
inthe
UnitedStates,wherethebureaucracydoesnotenjoy
the
guar-
anteesofpermanent
tenurewhichithaswoninalmostallthe
countriesofEurope.Americanofficialsare
generallydismissed
and
replacedbynewappointeeswhentheparty
inpowerchanges.
EvenintheNewWorldtheAmericansystempresentsmany
drawbacks,alongwithmanyadvantages.
Itwouldnotworkin
Europe
fortworeasons.A
highergrade
of
preparation
is
required
ofa
publicemployee
inEurope.Morethanthat,once
amanhaslosta
position,
itisnotaseasy
forhimto
get
anewone
asitisinAmerica*

511. 408FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
Thebureaucratic structurethathadbeenbuiltupbythe
absolutistgovernments,
farfrom
beingdemolished,was
gradually
expandedandstrengthenedbythenewfunctionswhichthestate
kepttakingon
during
thenineteenthcentury. Infact,twoof
thefundamentalpowers
ofmoderngovernments,
theexecutive
powerandthejudiciarypower,came
ultimately
tobevestedin
bureaucracy. Asfor
safeguardingagainstany
excessesonthe
part
of
bureaucracy,
itseemedsufficienttoentrusttoparliaments
controloverincomeandexpenditureandthe
right
toauditand
criticizethestateadministration asawhole;and,incountries
governedbyparliamentarysystems,
toput
thevariousbranches
ofthebureaucraticmachineincharge
ofmenwhocame
largely
fromthemembership
oftheelectivechamber itself,andwho
thereforeissued
indirectlyfrompopularsuffrage.
InalmostallcountriesofEuropeancivilization,militarysys-
temsunderwentenormousdevelopmentsandvery
considerable
modifications. Butofallthedepartments
ofstatethey
retained
mostcompletely,throughoutthewhole
history
ofthemodern
representativesystem,andquitegenerally,
thefeatureswhichthe
oldabsolutistsystemshadstampeduponthem.Compulsory
military
servicehasbeenadopted
almosteverywhere,andithas
beenextendedtoallclassesofcitizens. Itisnow
possible,
in
caseofwar,foracountry
tomobilize itswholeable-bodied
population.The
privilegeswhichamonopoly
ofthe
higher
militaryrankings
conferredupon
theold
nobilityhavebeen
abolished,though
tracesofthemhavehung
oninanumberof
European
armiesdowntoveryrecentdates.Purchaseofofficers'
commissions,whichtendedtoconfinethesupply
ofofficerstothe
richerclasses,wasnotabolishedinEngland
till1871,inGermany
nottill1914.InGermanycertainregimentswouldnot
accept
officerswhowerenotofnoblebirth,anddowntotheoutbreakof
theWorldWarinfact,whateverthelawJewscouldnot
becomearmy
officers.
Butthemodernarmedforcehasretainedits
strictlyautocratic
organization. Militaryadvancementhasremaineddependent
onthejudgment
ofthosewhoholdthe
higherranks,andtheold
distinctionsbetween officersand
privateshas
persisted,with
varyingvigorbutalways
toavery
considerable
degree.
Officers
areasarule
militarymenbyprofession.Theycomefromthe
upper
andmiddleclasses,towhich
they
areboundby
tiesof

512. J] ARMIESANDLIBERTY 469
origin*
educationand
upbringing.
Privategarealmost
always
recruitedbycompulsoryconscriptionand,therefore,the
great
majorityhavetheways
of
thinkingand
feeling
oftheworkingand
peasant
classes.
Thisdistinctionformsthebasisofmilitarydisciplineand
organ-
ization.Combinedwiththebetter
general
andmilitaryeduca-
tionofthe
officers,itmakesthe
privates,ordinarily,dependable
instrumentsintheirhands.Tothisfact,morethantoanything
else,isduetheremarkablesuccessthatmodemEuropeansociety
hashadin
trusting
itsproletarianswitharmswithouthavinghad
tofacethedangerthatthe
proletarians
wottldusethemtoseize
power.Tothesamedistinction is
againduethefactthatthe
armyhasalmosteverywherebeenaconservativeforce,anelement
ofsocialorderand
stability.
Public
opiniontoday
isin
generalnotfullyawaketothe
politicalimportance
ofthismodern
militarysystem.There
wouldbenoverygeneralalarminanumberofdemocraticcoun-
tries,ifitweretobe
radicallyaltered,forinstance,byshortening
termsof
militaryserviceandreplacingthemwithso-called
premilitarytraining.During
thelast
greatwar,thephysical
andmoral
strength
ofthehumanbeingwasattimessoovertaxed
thatinalmostalltheEuropeanarmiesthereweremomentswhen
disciplinegrew
laxandmilitaryorganizationshowedgrave
symptoms
of
breakingdown.InRussia,themomentthefirst
revolutionbrokeout,thesupremely
idioticRussian
bourgeoisie
hastenedto
destroy
itsownarmywiththefamous"Prikaz
NumberOne/'wherebyofficerswerestrippedofauthorityover
theirsoldiers.Verywisely,instead,theBolshevistgovernment
setouttocreateitsownarmy,organizing
itunderaniron
discipline.
Itisnow
tryingbyeverypossiblemeanstobuildup
a
corps
ofofficers,whowillbeboundtothepresentrulersof
Russiaby
tiesof
trainingandinterest.
ButinmodernEurope,andinallcountriesofEuropean
civil-
izationin
general,theconception
of
politicallibertyhasnotbeen
appliedsolelybyinstitutingrepresentativegovernment. Almost
everywherethelatterhasbeensupplemented
toa
greaterorlesser
extentbyaseriesofinstitutionsthatassureindividualsand
groups
ofindividualsnotafeweffective
guarantees
as
against
holdersof
publicpower.Incountriesthathavesofar
rightly
beenreputedfree,privatepropertycannotbeviolatedarbitrarily.

513. 470FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
Acitizencannotbearrestedandcondemnedunless
specifiedrules
areobserved.Eachpersoncanfollowthe
religion
ofhischoice
withoutforfeitureofhiscivilandpoliticalrights.Thepress
cannotbesubjectedtocensorshipandisfreetodiscussand
criticizeactsof
government. Finally,
iftheyconformwith
certainrules,citizenscanmeettoengage
indiscussions ofa
politicalcharacter,andtheycanformassociationsfortheattain-
mentofmoral,political
or
professional
ends.
Theseliberties,andotherslikethem,maybelookedupon
as
reallimitationswhichthestatehasimposedupon
itsown
sovereignpowers
initsrelationstoindividualcitizens.They
are
largelyimitationsoflawsthatEngland
hadadopted
attheendof
theseventeenthcentury,
afterthe"GloriousRevolution," or
evenatlaterdates.Theyarenecessarycomplements
to
repre-
sentativesystems,whichwouldfunctionverybadly
ifallfree
politicalactivityonthepart
ofindividualswere
suppressed,and
ifindividualswerenot
fairly
wellprotectedagainstarbitrary
acts
onthepart
oftheexecutiveand
judiciarypowers.Atthesame
time,thoselibertiesfindtheirmaximum
guarantee
intheexist-
enceoftherepresentativesystem,whichprovides
that
legislative
power,whichalonehasthe
right
toremoveorrestrictthem,
shouldemanatefromthesame
political
forcesthatareinterested
in
conservingthem.
1
Farhardertoput
into
practice
hasbeentheconcept
of
equality,
for
equality
iscontrarytothenatureof
things,andisalsoless
real,lessconcrete,thanliberty
inthesense
just
mentioned.
Naturally,theclass
privileges
thatstillremainedattheendof
theeighteenthcenturywereabolishedasamatteroflawatthat
time,sinceitwastotheinterestofthebourgeoisie
toabolish
them. Allcitizensweresolemnlyproclaimedequalbeforethe
law.Butlittlecouldbedonewithnatural
inequalities,
orwith
thoseartificial
inequalities,
sotospeak,whichresultfromfamily
inheritance
disparities
inwealth,upbringingandeducation,for
instance.
Now
equalityought
toimplythedisappearance
ofsocialclasses
asoneofitsnecessaryimplications,and
equalityhasinfactbeen
officiallyproclaimed. Butthegap
betweenthevarioussocial
classesinways
of
thinking,
inmannersoffeelingandintastesand
inclinationshas
perhapsneverbeenmoremarkedthanitisin
1
Mosca,Appunti
didirittocostituzionale, 17,pp.
152f.

514. *] EQUALITY 471
twentiethcenturyEuropeansociety;andnever,perhaps,have
classesbeenless
comprehensible
toeachother.Thatisnotdue
altogether
to
inequalities
inwealth.The
intelligenceandthe
psychology
ofamanofthelowermiddleclass,whohasmanaged
towina
universitydegree
orevenasecondary
schooldiploma,
arealmostalways
closertothoseofamillionairethantothoseof
aworkingman,thoughfromaneconomicstandpointamanofthe
lowermiddleclassstandsclosertotheworkingmanthanhedoes
tothemillionaire. Allthatisaresultof
progress
inculture,in
whatItalianscall"civility,"whereby
thosewhodevotethem-
selvestointellectual
pursuits,andsometimestotherefinements
ofleisure,necessarilybecomemoreandmoredifferentiatedfrom
thesocialstratathataredevotedexclusively
tomanualpursuits
andarefittedfornoother.
Inthecourseofthenineteenthcenturyandtheearlydecadesof
thetwentieth,asguaranteeand
tangibleproof
of
equality,the
EuropeanandAmericanmiddleclassesgrantedthevotetoall
citizens,including
theilliterate,whoinsomecountriesstillforma
considerable
percentage
ofthe
population. Universal
suffrage
confersthe
right
to
participate
in
equalmeasureinthechoiceof
membersofelectivechambers.Aswehavealready
indicated
(chap.XII, ),
thisconcessionwasprimarilyaconsequence
of
thedoctrinesthat
prevailed
inthe
ruling
classesaspart
ofthe
intellectual
legacy
oftheeighteenthcenturytothenineteenth.
Inviewofthese,theonlygovernment
thatcouldbelookedupon
as
legitimatewasa
government
basedon
popularsovereignty,
whichinturnwas
interpretedasthe
sovereignty
ofthenumerical
majority
ofthemembersofthesocialunit.The
gift
ofthevote
toalladultcitizensthereforebecame
indipensable,
iftheminority
that
reallyheld
political
controlwastoavoid
charges
ofincon-
sistencyandtocontinuetogovernwithaclearconscience.
But,as
early
astheday
ofAristotle,whenthe
majority
of
manuallaborerswerestillexcludedfrom
citizenshipandtherefore
from
suffrage,people
wereawareofthe
difficulty
of
reconciling
politicalequality,
whichgave
thepoorpredominanceoverthe
rich,witheconomicinequality.
Itisnot
surprising,then,that
theEuropeanandAmericanruling
classesshouldhavefound
themselves
facing
thesame
difficulty
after
granting
universal
suffrage.Theywereabletomeetthat
difficultywithrelative
easebeforetheWorldWar,andtoovercome ituptoacertain

515. 472FUTUREOFREPEESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
point.Thatwasdue
partly
tothe
politicalunpreparedness
of
themasses,which,inmanycountries,readilyallowedthemselves
tobe
regimented
withintheframework of
bourgeoisparties.
Butitwasalsoduein
part
tothe
greatpowers
ofresistancethat
themodernstatehas;andin
largerpart
stilltothe
greateconomic
prosperity
that
prevailed
inthesecondhalfofthenineteenth
centuryandwhichevenincreasedduringthetwenty
or
thirty
yearsprior
to1914.
Prosperitymadeit
possible
inmany
countriesto
grantvery
considerableconcessionsofaneconomic
naturetothemorepopulousclasses,withoutpreventing
increases
in
privatesavings,withoutimpairingtheinviolability
ofprivate
propertytooseriouslyandwithoutlaying
unbearableburdens
uponlarge
andmoderatefortunes.Among
theseconcessions
one
mightmentionshorterworkinghours,insurance
against
old
age,illness,unemploymentandaccidents,andrestrictionson
laborbywomenandchildren.Suchprovisions
areallacceptable
when
they
arenotcarriedtoofar,andwhen
industry,agriculture
and
public
financeareabletocarrythem.Unfortunatelythey
almostalways
serveto
justifycreatinglargebureaucracies,which
regularlybecome
dragsandnuisances.Thebestandthemost
welcomeofalltheseconcessionswasa
rapidraising
ofwages,
whichwasmade
possibleby
increasedproduction
inindustryand
agriculture,especially
inthelastdecadesbefore1914.
Asmattersturnedout,theseimprovements
inthestatusofthe
lowerclasseswereofnolittleserviceto
agitatorstoo,for
they
couldboastofwrestingthemfromthe
bourgeoisiethrough
their
organization
oflaborandthrough
the
activity
oftheir
representa-
tivesin
parliament. Insuchclaims,asalleconomistsknow,
thereisasmallamountoftruthanda
largeamountoffalsehood.
Certainlyimprovedeconomicconditionshaveonthewholemade
the
laboring
classeslessprone
toresorttodesperateandviolent
acts.
Hollowerthantherealizationof
equality,
ifnot
altogether
devoidofcontent,hasbeentherealizationof
fraternity.
Long
beforethephilosophers
oftheeighteenthandnineteenth
centuriesthought
of
advocatingfraternity,
or
brotherlylove,
betweenallhuman
beings,
the
principlehadbeenproclaimedand
preachedbyanumberofthinkersof
antiquity.Theancients
onthewholethought
ofbrotherlinessasavirtuetobe
practiced
amongmembersofonenation,orone
city.Onlyafewwriters,

516. 8] SUPEBIOBITYOFREPRESENTATIVESYSTEMS 473
suchasSeneca,wholivedinoneofthemostcultured
periodsthat
classicalantiquityknew,believedthatbrotherhoodshouldbe
extendedtoallhumanity.Thedoctrinewonno
greatfollowing,
in
general,amongtheGreeksandRomans. Universalbrotherly
lovealso
figured
intheprograms
ofthethree
great
world
religions,
Buddhism,ChristianityandMohammedanism. Inthosereli-
gions,again,onlymembersofthefaithwerecommonlyregarded
asbrothers,andevenamongcomradesinthefaiththepractice
of
fraternitywasfarfrom
perfect.
Nowrivalriesandconflictsofinterestareunavoidableinthe
struggle
forsocialpreeminence. But
apartfromthat,forthe
principle
ofbrotherhoodtobecomeafact,thehumanbeing
shouldneedonlytolovehisfellowman,whetherthelatterwere
closeorremote,andwhetherornothespokethesamelanguage,
followedthesame
religion
oracceptedthesame
politicaldoctrine.
Heshouldneverneedtohatehim.Unhappily,thehuman
being'sneedfor
hating
hasatnotimeseemedvery
closetodis-
appearingfromhisnature
(chap.VII, 1-6).
Thisbeing
thebasicstateofthehumanpsyche,
itisnotatall
strange
thatthesenseofuniversalbrotherhoodshouldhavebeen
very
feeble
during
thenineteenthcenturyandatthe
beginning
ofthetwentieth,andshouldbefeeblestill.Thefailuretomake
equality
afactmusthave
helped
toimpedeanystrengthening
of
it,forthatdisappointment
hasintensifiedrivalriesbetweenthe
richandthe
poor,
the
powerfulandthe
helpless,thehappyand
theunhappy,Acertain
gross
materialism
prevailedverywidely
downtoafewyearsago,andareaction
against
ithassetin
only
veryrecently,andthat,too,onlyamongthemorecultivated
classes. Allsuchcircumstancescouldnotfailtostimulate,not
love,buthatredbetweennations,betweenclasses,andbetween
individuals,byinflamingthelustfor
worldlygoodsandwithhold-
ing
allconsolationfromthosewhoaredefeatedinthebattleoflife.
3.In
spite
ofallthat,whenourremote
posteritycometolook
backupontheworkofourtimesdispassionately,webelievethat
they
willadmitthatthehistoricalperiodwhichtakesitsname
fromthenineteenthcenturywasoneofthe
greatestandmost
magnificent
ofalltheerasthathumanityhastraversed. During
that
period,no
longerpenned
inwithinboundaries itcouldnot
cross,humanthought
obtainedresultsthatfar
surpassedthe

517. 474FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
intellectuallegacy
thathadbeentransmittedtothenineteenth
centurybythecivilizationofearlier
ages,whetherinthefieldof
thenaturalsciencesorinthefieldsof
historyandthesocial
sciences.Duringthelast
centuryandahalfthehuman
being
hashadmanymoreinstrumentsofobservationathis
disposal,
andnewerandmoreefficientones,thaneverbefore.Never
beforehashehadsuchawealthofaccurateinformationon
naturalandsocialphenomena. Neverbeforehashebeenina
position
tohavesuchanaccurateanddetailed
knowledge
ofthe
lawsthatgoverntheworldhelivesin,orofthelawsthat
regulate
hisowninstinctsandconduct.Neverhashebetterknown,or
beenablebettertoknow,himselfandtheuniverseofwhichhe
is
part.
Theconsequencesthathavefollowedthe
application
ofthis
knowledge
to
progress
inall
departments
ofmaterial
living
are
evidenttothe
eye.Todayhumanlaborcan
accomplishten
timesmore,withthesameeffort,thanitcouldahundredyears
ago.Progress
infacilitiesofcommunication, in
agriculture,
in
industrial
procedures,
hasmadeit
possible
to
exchangeproducts,
servicesandinformationbetweenremotelyseparatedcountries,
andthishasproduced,anddistributed
proportionatelythrough
allsocialclasses,a
well-beingthatiswithoutprecedent
inthe
history
ofmankind.
Our
politicalsystemmustnecessarilyhavemadeitscontribu-
tiontoallthesescientificandeconomicachievements.
Confining
oneselftothe
politicalfield,onehastoadmitthe
great
benefits
whichconstitutetheundyingglory
ofthenineteenthcentury
asa
resultofthevery
illusionsthat
guided
it.Tobesure,majority
governmentandabsolute
politicalequality,twoofthemottos
thatthecentury
inscribedonitsbanners,werenotachieved,
becausetheycouldnotbeachieved,andthesamemaybesaid
of
fraternity.Buttheranksofthe
ruling
classeshavebeenheld
open.Thebarriersthatkeptindividualsofthelowerclasses
from
enteringthehigherhavebeeneitherremovedorlowered,
andthedevelopment
oftheoldabsolutiststateintothemodern
representative
statehasmadeit
possible
foralmostall
political
forces,almostallsocialvalues!,to
participate
inthe
political
management
of
society.
Thisdevelopment,
itshouldbenoted,hasdividedthe
political
classintotwodistinctbranches,one
issuingfrom
popularsuffrage,

518. 3] SUPERIORITYOFREPRESENTATIVESYSTEMS 475
andtheotherfrombureaucraticappointment.
Thishasnotonly
permitted
abetterutilizationofindividual
capacities;
ithasalso
madeit
possibletodistributethesovereignfunctions,or
powers,
ofthestate,andthatdistribution,wheneversocialconditionsare
suchastomakeiteffective,constitutesthechiefvirtueof
repre-
sentativesystems.
Itisthechiefreasonwhytheyhave
given
betterresultsthanany
ofthemany
othersthathavesofatbeen
appliedtogreatpoliticalorganizations.
1
Rousseausethimself
anunattainablegoalwhenhetriedtoshowthattheonlyformof
legitimategovernmentwasonethatwasfoundedupontheexpress
consentofthemajority
ofcitizens,Montesquieustatedamuch
more
practicalandprofound
ideawhenhemaintainedthatifa
nationistobefree,inotherwordsgovernedaccordingtolawand
not
according
tothe
arbitrary
willofitsrulers,itmusthavea
politicalorganization
inwhichauthority
arrestsandlimits
authority,andinwhich,therefore,noindividualandnoassembly
hasthepower
tomakelawsandatthesametimethepowerto
applythem.Tomakethatdoctrinecomplete,oneneedaddthat
a
controllingand
limitingpolitical
institutioncanbeeffective
onlywhenit
representsasectionofthe
political
classthatis
differentfromthesectionrepresentedby
theinstitutiontobe
limitedandcontrolled.
If,again,wetakedueaccountoftheindividuallibertiesthat
protectthecitizenfrom
possiblearbitrary
actsonthepart
of
any
orallofthepowers
ofthestate,especially
of
liberty
ofthe
press,which,alongwith
liberty
of
parliamentarydebate,serves
tocallpublicattentiontoallpossibleabusesonthepart
ofthose
who
govern,onereadily
seesthegreatsuperiority
ofthe
repre-
sentativesystem.Thatsystemhaspermittedtheestablishment
ofastrongstate,whichhasbeenabletocanalizeimmensesumsof
individualenergiestowardpurposesrelatedtothecollective
interest.Atthesametimeithasnot
trampledonthose
energies
or
suppressedthem. Ithasleftthemwithsufficient
vitality
to
achieveremarkableresultsinotherfields,notably
inthescientific,
literaryandeconomicfields. If,therefore,thenationsofEuro-
peancivilizationhavesucceededin
maintaining
theirprimacy
in
theworld
during
theage
thatisnow
closing,thefacthasbeen
duein
largepart
tothebeneficenteffectsoftheir
politicalsystem.
1
Asregardsthesocialconditionsthatarerequired
fortheproperfunctioning
of
therepresentativesystem,
seeabove,chaps.V,0;X,8.

519. 476FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
Inordernottocarry
thiscausalrelationtoofar,itmightbemore
accuratetothinkofanumberofdifferentcausesfunctioning
simultaneously,theactionoftheonebeingsupplementedbythe
actionoftheothers.Thenwewouldsaythatrepresentative
systemswereabletofunctionregularlyduringthenineteenth
centuryinthemajority
ofcountriesofEuropean
civilization
becauseculturalandeconomicconditionsinthosecountrieswere
suchastoenablethemtofunctioninthatmanner.Thatwould
beanotherofthemanycaseswheretheeffectbecomescauseand
thecauseeffect.
Aswehaveseen,the
militaryandadministrativesuperiority
of
theEuropeancountriesovercountriesofAsiaticcivilizationhad
becomeapparent
asearly
astheeighteenthcentury,whenthe
absolutist bureaucratic system
still
prevailed.Thepeace
treatiesofCarlowitzandPassarowitzwereconcludedin1699and
1718
respectively,andafterthemTurkeyceasedtoconstitutea
seriousmenacetoEurope. Inthesecondhalfofthe
eighteenth
century,theEnglishconquest
ofIndiawasalready
faradvanced,
anditmaynothavebeenbymerechancethatitwaseffectedby
theEuropeancountrythathadbeenthefirsttoadoptthe
representative system.The
predominance
ofEuropeanover
Asiaticcountriesbecamemoreandmoremarkedandremained
unshakenthroughoutthenineteenth
century. In1904Japan
succeededin
defeating
Russia. Itis
significantthatbythattime
JapantoohadadoptedtheEuropeanmilitaryandadministrative
systems.That
victorygavetheAsiaticsgrounds
forhopingthat
theircivilizationwasontheroadtoan
earlyrecovery,andthe
hopehasgrownveryconsiderably
sincetheWorldWar,which
leftlargeportions
ofEuropeexhaustedandrevealedmanyweak
spots
inits
organization.
Evenbefore1914ashrewdobservercouldhaveseenthatthe
centerofgravityinEuropeancivilizationwastendingtoshift
towardstheAmericas.TheUnitedStates,Canada,Braziland
Argentina,nottomentionotherAmericancountries,havevast
territoriesattheir
disposaland
greatnaturalresourcesthatare
onlypartiallyexploited. Inthefuturetheycansupportpopula-
tionsatleastfourtimesas
largetothosetheyhavetoday.But
downtotheeveoftheWorldWar,thosecountries stillneeded
capitalandmanpowerinordertodeveloptheirresources. If
Europemighthave
suppliedthe
capital,China*Japanand&

520. 4] DANGERSTOREPRESENTATIVESYSTEM 477
numberofotherAsiaticcountrieswouldhavebeenable,and
perhapswilling,tosupplythemanpower.Butimmigrants
of
yellowracedonotfusewiththeAmericanpopulationswithina
visibleperiod
oftime,asEuropeansdo.Thatfactseemedto
implya
danger
atwhichtheAmericancountrieswere,asthey
stillare,veryproperlyalarmed.Atanyrate,anydanger
ofan
ascendancyoftheNewWorldovertheOldcanstillhardlybe
regardedas
pressing.Forone
thing,theartisticandscientific
cultureofanumberofEuropeancountries isstillconsiderably
superior
tothe
general
levelofcultureintheAmericas,Butthen
again,anumberofEuropeancountrieshavebegun
toreclaim
equatorialandsouthernAfricatotheirown
advantage. There
tootherearevastterritoriesofrichpotentialitieswhichare
inhabitedbyprimitivepeoples,whocanbeeasilygovernedfor
sometimetocome.They
willtherefore, inalllikelihood,
eventuallybeabletofurnishtherawmaterialsofwhichanover-
populatedEurope
issorelyinneed.
4.Likeall
politicalsystems,the
representativesystem
also
developed,duringthehistoricalperiodthat
corresponds
tothe
nineteenthcentury,theseedswhichwere,asthey
stillare,prepar-
ingeitheritsgradual
transformationoritsswiftdissolution.We
havealreadyseen(chap.XVI, 6)thatonlybyslowandcon-
tinuoustransformations oftheir
politicalsystemscanpeoples
avoid
periods
ofrapiddisintegrationaccompaniedby
violent
crisesthatbringuntold
suffering
tothe
generationsthathaveto
undergothemandalmostalways
setthembackontheroadof
civilization.
Undoubtedlythemostimportant
ofthoseseedshasbeen,and
still
is,thepatent
contradictionbetweenoneofthechiefobjec-
tiveswhichthecentury
setforitselfandtheresultsthathave
beenachieved. WesternandcentralEuropehavesofarhad
formsofgovernmentwhichhaveguaranteedafairamountof
individual
liberty,providedafairamountofrestrainton
arbitrary
actionby
rulersandproducedaveryhighgrade
ofmaterial
prosperity.Butthe
principle
of
equalityhasnotbeenrealized,
norhave
majoritiesbeengiven
actualcontrolinthevarious
countries.Attheverymost,themasseshavebeenwheedled
atelectiontimeswithpromises
ofthisorthatmaterialadvantage,
whichhasoftenbeenmoreapparentthanreal.Whensuch

521. 478FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
promiseshaveactuallybeen
kept,theyhavenotseldomresulted
inharmtonationaleconomiesand,therefore,totheinterestsof
thelowerclassesthemselves.A
typicalexample
ofthissortof
concessionhasbeenthe
eight-hourday.Suchalimiton
working
hoursmaybeendurableinavery
rich
country.
Itcanonlybe
fataltoapoorcountry.The
ruling
classesinanumberof
Europeancountrieswerestupidenoughandcowardlyenough
to
accepttheeight-hourday
aftertheWorldWar,whenthenations
hadbeen
terriblyimpoverishedanditwasurgentto
intensify
laborandproduction.
Itis
readilyunderstandable thatinEuropeansociety,under
such
psychologicalandmaterialcircumstances,a
strongpolitical
movementshouldhavegrownupwithinthe
bourgeoisie itself,
composedpartly
ofidealistsand
partly
ofambitious
politicians,
whohaveaspired,
asthey
still
aspire,torealize
equalityand
bringthemassesintoactualparticipation
inthemanagement
of
thestate. Itisalsounderstandablethatthatmovementshould
havewonadherentsamongelementsintheworking
classesthat
havesucceededin
acquiringenougheducationtoliftthemabove
theleveloftheir
^irth.
Itisunderstandable, finally,
thatthe
thinkersinthemovementshouldatoncehaveleapedtothe
conclusionthatneitherabsolute
justicenorreal
equalitycanbe
establishedinthisworldunless
privateproperty
isabolished.
Butwhatatfirst
sight
isnotso
easy
tounderstand isthat
during
thenineteenthcentury,andintothetwentieth,the
European bourgeoisie
shouldhaveofferedsuchfeebleand
spasmodic
resistancetothespread
ofsocialistdoctrines,andto
theorganization
ofthe
political
forcesthathaveembracedthose
doctrines.Thathascomeaboutforanumberofreasons. In
thefirst
place,
therehasbeena
widespread
deferencetotheliberal
principlethatthegood
senseofthe
publiccanbedependedupon
to
distinguishbetweentruthanderrorandtodiscoverwhatis
realizableandwhatisnotrealizableintherealworld.Then
againavague
senseofoptimismprevailed,
withfew
interruptions,
all
throughthewesternworlddowntotheveryendofthenine-
teenth
century. Confidenceinthereasonablenessand
goodness
ofthehuman
being,andintheability
oftheschoolmastereventu-
allytoeducatethemasses,remainedunshaken. Itwasthe
commonbeliefthattheworldwasmovingtowardaneraof
universalconcordand
happiness.Thebourgeoisminditselfwas

522. 4] THESYNDICALISTPEEIL 479
untilveryrecentlyimbuedwithmany
ofthe
principles
that
formtheintellectualsubstructureofsocialism. Slavetoitsown
preconceptions, therefore,theEuropeanbourgeoisie
hasfought
socialismall
alongwithits
righthandtiedanditslefthandfar
fromfree.Insteadof
fighting
socialism
openly,manycountries
inEuropecametotermswiththemovement,acceptingcom-
promisesthatweresometimes,nayalmost
always,undignified
andharmful.
Theconsequences
ofthatweaknesshavebeen
aggravatedbya
numberofothercircumstances. Ofallthevariousversionsof
thesocialist
gospel,
theversionthathasbeencanonizedand
universallyadopted
hasbeentheonethatpromisesthecertain
triumph
ofthedoctrineandmeantime
deliberately
fans
feelings
ofclasshatred.Thosearethe
feelingsthatarebestcalculatedto
underminethestructureofanationorcivilizationand
destroy
it.
Aswehaveseen(chap.XI, 7),aperniciousandeffective
propaganda
ofdestructivehatebetweenthesocialclasses is
developed
inthe
pages
ofMarx'sKapital.
Itisalsocertainthat
topromotethathatredwasoneofthe
purposesthatMarxset
himselfinhis
writings.ThecorrespondencebetweenMarxand
Lassalle is
repletewithsentences ofwhichthefollowing
is
typical:"The
thing
todonowisinstillpoisonwherever
possible
(Giftinfiltrierenwoimmeristnun
ratsam)."
1
Ifitbearguedthat
perhapsoneinathousandofallthemany
socialistshavereadand
comprehendedMarx'sworks,onecananswerthatfromMarx's
new
gospelabriefcatechismhasbeen
carefullyextractedwhich
anyonecan
easilycommittomemory.Todaythereis
hardlya
factoryworkerwhodoesnotbelieve,oratleasthasnotbeentold
overandover
again,
thatthewealthofhis
employer,orofthe
shareholderswhohave
suppliedcapital
forhis
factory,hasbeen
amassedbydeprivingworkingmen
ofsomeofthewagesthatwere
duethem,andinnotafewcountriesthereis
hardly
afarmhand
towhomthesamegoodtidingshavenotbeen
brought.
Oneofthecommonestsophisms
ofsocialistpropaganda
isthat
classhatredisnotproducedby
socialistdoctrines,butisanatural
consequence
oftheinequalitiesand
injusticesthat
prevailin
society.Theansweristhatsocial
inequalitiesand
injustices
havealwaysexisted,whereasclasshatredshavebeenintermittent
1
BriefwechselzwschenLassalleundMarx,p.170.Forfurther
interesting
detailsseeLuzioCarloAlbertoeMazzini.

523. 480FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
inthepast,
oratleasthaveneverbeenasstrong
astheyaretoday
asaresultofsocialistpropaganda.
Socialismandthemoreextremewings
ofsocialismaredanger-
ous
largelybecauseofthestateofmindthattheycreateand
maintaininthemasses,andbecauseoftheiractualorganiza-
tions,whicharemoreorless
strongaccordingtothecountry.
Butanotherandperhapsagraverdangerconfrontsourmodern
society.
Itliesnotinamentalstatethatcanbemodifiedbutin
theverynatureoftheeconomicorganizationwhichmodern
society
hasadopted.Not
only
that.Modern
societycannot
abandonthat
organizationwithoutabandoningthe
larger
share
ofits
prosperity,andwithout
ceasing
to
satisfymanyneedsthat
haveonlyrecentlycometobefeltasneedsbutwhicharealready
tobeclassedamongtheindispensables.
Divisionoflaborandspecialization inproductionhavebeen
carriedtoextreme
lengths
inwesternsocieties.Withoutrail-
roads,steamships,postalsystems,telephonesand
telegraphs,
supplies
offuelandotherrawmaterials,notoneofour
great
cities
couldliveformorethanamonth;andwithinafewmonthsthe
greatest
ofournationswouldfinditselfunabletofeedmorethan
asmall
percentage
ofits
population. Neverbeforehasthe
materiallifeofeach
single
individualbeenso
directlydependent
uponthe
perfectfunctioning
ofthewholesocialmechanismasitis
today.Nowthefunctioning
ofeach
part
inthemechanism is
entrustedtoaparticulargroup
ofpersonsandthenormallifeof
society
asawholecomes,therefore,to
dependuponthegood
will
ofeachofitsgroups.
Thisstateofaffairsisbecomingveryhardto
change,andofit
hascomethe
syndicalistperilthe
danger,
that
is,thatasmall
groupmayimpose
itswillupontherestof
society.Today
it
wouldnotbe
strictlynecessarytoconformtotheletterofthe
apologue
ofMeneniusAgrippa
itwouldnotbe
necessary
forall
thememberstocombineagainstthestomachor,better,against
the
directing
brain. Ifanysinglemember,anysingle
essential
organ,shouldstopdoing
its
duty,
thebrainandallthenervous
centersthatdependonitwouldbe
paralyzed.
Everygroup
of
persons
thatisengaged
ina
specialfunctionhas
acertainhomogeneousness
of
spirit,educationand,especially,
interests. Itisonlynatural,therefore,thatitshouldtryto
organize
inatradeorprofessionalunion,orsyndicate,under

524. 4] RELIGIONANDNATIONALISM 481
leadersofitsown,andthatoncetheunionsare
organizedthey
shouldimmediatelyperceive
theirpowerandthe
profittheycan
derivefrom
exercising
it.Whatiscommonly
called"syn-
dicalism"hasbecome,therefore,a
graverdanger
forthemodern
statethanfeudalismeverwasforthemedievalstate.During
theMiddleAges,society,andthereforethesta>te,wasvery
primitively organized.Eachfractionof
societywasallbut
sufficientuntoitself. Ithadatitsdisposal
alltheorgansthatit
neededfor
subsisting.The
opposition
ofthep&rtagainstthe
wholearose
along
locallines.A
pd^erfulbaron,ora
greatcity,
ora
league
ofbaronsandcities,couldnowand
again
dictatetothe
emperor
orthe
king.Todaythe
opposition
ofthepart
tothe
wholehasafunctional basis.A
powerful
laborunionor,a
fortiori,a
league
oflaborunionscanimpose
itswillupon
thestate.
Inordertoobviatethis
danger,
itisnecessary
to
prevent,
atall
costs,theriseofnew
sovereigntiesintermediatebetweenthe
individualandthestate.Thatwaswhat
happened
intheMiddle
Ages,whenthevassalgave
hisdirectobediencetothebaronand
nottothe
king.
Inotherwords,itis
absolutelyindispensable
thattheheadsofourpresentgovernments
shouldatalltimes
receive
greaterobediencefromthemembersoftheunionsthan
theheadsoftheunionsthemselvesreceive.Devotiontothe
nationalinterestsmustalwaysbe
strongerthandevotiontoclass
interests. Unfortunately, oneofthemajorweaknesses of
present-dayEuropeansocietyanotheroftheseedsofdissolution
inthemodernrepresentativesystem
liesinarelaxationofthose
forcesofmoralcohesionwhichalonearecapable
of
uniting
ina
consensusofsentimentsandideasalltheatomsthatmakeupa
people,andwhich,therefore,constitutethecementwithout
whichanypolitical
edificetottersand
collapses.
Thefundamentaldoctrineoftheold
religionaimedat
uniting
allthecitizensofa
givennation,andallChristiannations,in
brotherhoodwitheachother.But
especiallyduringthelasttwo
centuries
religion
haslostmuchofits
prestigeand
practical
efficacy.Thereareanumberofcausesforthat.
Outstanding
amongthem,particularly
intheLatincountries,hasbeenthe
irreligion
ofthe
rulingclasses,whoarenow
perceiving,toolate,
thattheemancipation
ofthelowerclassesfromwhatweretoo
lightly
called"outmodedsuperstitions"hasthrustthemintothe
clutchesofa
grossandcrassmaterialismandopenedtheroadto

525. FUTUREOFEEPEESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
farworsesuperstitions.
1
Itwasthoughtthatoncethe
religious
bondhadbeenweakeneditcouldbe
replacedby
faithinthethree
greatprinciples
ofthecentury,liberty,equality,fraternity;and
thatthe
application
ofthose
principleswouldinaugurateanew
eraof
peaceanduniversal
justice
intheworld.Butsocialist
propagandahadno
difficulty
in
demonstrating
thatthisliberal
faithhadnofoundationinfact,thatdemocracy,however
gener-
ous,didnotpreventpowerfromremaining
inthehandsofthe
bourgeoisie,which,according
tosocialistdoctrines,willalwaysb
separatedfromthehumblerclassesinsocietybyanincurable
conflictofinterests.
Patriotism,therefore,hasbeenleftasthechieffactorofmoral
andintellectualcohesionwithinthevariouscountriesof
Europe.
Patriotism,too,has
generallybeencombatedby
socialismasan
inventionthatthe
ruling
classeshavedevisedtopreventthe
unionoftheproletarians
ofalltheworld
againstthe
bourgeoisie
ofalltheworldwhichhadbeenforetoldbyMarx.Buthaving
deeper
rootsthan
religion
inthesoulsofthemodernnations
today,patriotismhasofferedsturdierresistancetotheattacksof
itsadversaries. Patriotism isgrounded
inthesenseofcommon
intereststhatbinds
togetherpeoplewholiveinthesamecountry,
andintheonenessofsentimentsandideasthatalmost
inevitably
arisesamongpeoplewhospeakthesame
language,havethesame
background,
sharecommon
gloriesandmeetthesamefortunes
andmisfortunes. Itsatisfies,finally,a
yearning
ofthehuman
soultolovethe
group
towhichit
belongsaboveallother
groups.
Itwouldbehazardous,andperhaps
inconsistentwiththefacts,
toassertthatthemiddleclassesinEuropehavehadany
clearor
definiteawarenessofthe
great
moralobstaclethat
patriotism
offerstothe
progress
ofsocialism.Butitiscertain,neverthe-
less,that,beginningwiththeearlyyears
ofthetwentieth
century,
a
powerfulawakening
of
patrioticfeelingwasobservableinthe
educatedyouth
ofalmostalltheEuropean
countries. Unfor-
tunately,loveofcountry,andanaturaldesirethatone'scountry
shouldmakeitsinfluencemoreandmorefeltintheworld,often
goeshandinhandwithdiffidencetowardothercountriesand
sometimeswithhatredofthem.Theoverexcitation ofthese
patrioticsentimentsundoubtedlyhelped
tocreatethemoraland
intellectualatmospherethatbroughtontheWorldWar,
1
Seechap.XI,3.

526. 5] ALTERNATIVESTOREPRESENTATIVESYSTEM 483
5.Thegraveand
far-reachingconsequences
oftheWorldWar,
during
whicheachofthe
contendingnationsstrainedits
capaci-
tiestotheutmost,arenowtoofamiliartoneedminutedescrip-
tion.
1
Attheendof1918allthe
belligerent
stateswereburdened
withenormouspublicdebts.Mostofthemoneyrepresentedby
thedebtshadbeenapplied
topurposes
ofwarandweretherefore
unproductivefromaneconomic
standpoint.Muchwealthhad
goneabroadtoneutralcountries,ortonationsthathadentered
theconflictverytardily.Inthecountriesthathadbornethe
majorweight
ofthewar
privatecapitalalsohadshrunkcon-
siderably.
Itwasthereforeinevitablethattheperiod
of
pros-
peritythathadpreceded
1914shouldbesucceededbyaperiod
of
relativepoverty,whichinlesswealthycountries,and
especially
inthedefeatedandthereforeworse-treatedcountries,reachedthe
point
ofacutemisery.
Theeconomicdisasterwasreinforcedby
themoraldisaster
thatresultedfromthechangeddistributionofwhatlittlewealth
wasstillleft.Inthe
belligerentnations,andtoaconsiderable
though
lesserextentinneutralcountries,while
largeproportions
ofthe
populationweremarkedlyimpoverished,
acertainminority
found
opportunities
tomakeunexpectedandhandsome
gains
in
thewar.Nownothing
ismoredemoralizing
to
peoplethanto
seesuddenwealthacquiredthroughno
specialmerit,sideby
side
withsuddenimpoverishment
thatisnotduetoany
fault.That
spectacleoffendsthesenseof
justiceandoverstimulates senti-
mentsofenvyand
greed.Manyindividualswhohadlived
honest,respectable
livesdowntothegreatcataclysmturnedtoa
dishonestscrambling
forwealth,sincetheywereresolvedtobe
countedamong
thenewly
richatanycost,ratherthantosuffer
thehardships
ofthenewlypoor.
Butwhathelpedmostofalltoshakethe
stability
ofthe
politi-
cal
organization
ofEurope,andtodisturbthe
equilibriumbetween
socialclasses,wastheimpoverishment
ofthemiddleclass,ofthat
portion
ofthebourgeoisie
thatlivesonsmall
savings,onmoderate
holdings
ofrealestateand,especially,by
itsintellectuallabors.
Wehavealready
seen
(chap.XIV, 6)thattheriseofsucha
classwasoneofthefactorsinthecreationoftheconditionsthat
are
required
forthe
properfunctioning
ofthe
representative
1
OnestillrememberstheeffectivepicturesdrawnbyKeynesinTheEconomic
Consequencesof
thePeaceandby
NittiinL'Europa.senzapace.

527. 484FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
system.
Itis
onlynatural,therefore,thattheeconomicdecline
ofthatclassshouldmakeitdifficultfortherepresentativesystem
togoon
functioning,andifthedeclinecontinues,anintellectual
andmoraldeclinewill
necessarily
ensue.
Inallcountriesthat
played
sustainedrolesintheWorldWar,
thestatemachinewascalledupon
toundertakesuchhardwork
andsomuchofit,itwascalledupon
to
repress
ortocrushso
manyprivatepassions,sentimentsand
interest^,thatitisnotto
bewonderedatthatits
gearings
shouldatcertainmomentshave
shown
signs
of
deterioratingandof
failing
tofunction.Atthe
pointwherethestatemachinewasweakest,inRussia,thatis,
thewearandtearwasso
great
thatthemachineflewtopieces
outright;butitisevidentthatitneedsmoreorlessrestand
repairing
inallcountries.
Inalmostallcountries,thesecauses,andothersecondaryones,
havemadeitmoreorlessdifficultfortheprewarpoliticalsystem
togo
on
functioning. Especially
incountriesthatweremore
distressedthanothersby
thecommonmisfortunes,theideahas
arisenthatthe
present
crisiscanbesolved,andought
tobe
solved,bysomeprofoundandradicalchange
intheinstitutions
thathavebeeninheritedfromthelast
century,
andthatitis
andshouldbetheduty
ofthenew
generation,
oftheyoungmen
who
fought
thewar,toeffectthattransformationbydismantling
the
political
structuresrearedby
theirfathers,and
buildingthem
overaccordingtonewandbetter
patterns.
Now,ifoneexaminesthe
presenteconomic,intellectualand
moralsituationinEuropeansocietyandtakesintoaccountthe
variouscurrentsofideas,sentimentsandintereststhatare
stirring
within
it,onefindsbutthree
possible
solutionsofa
radicalnatureforthe
presentpolitical
crisis.Oneofthemhas
alreadybeenresortedtoinRussiathe
"dictatorship
ofthe
proletariat," so-called,withits
corresponding experiment
in
communism. Thesecondwouldbeareturntoold-fashioned
bureaucraticabsolutism*Thethirdwouldbe
syndicalism,
in
otherwords,areplacement
ofindividual
representationby
class
representation
in
legislative
assemblies.
InviewoftheRussianexperimenttheresultsofthedictator-
ship
ofthe
proletariatarenow
sufficientlyfamiliar,and
they
are
suchthatmany
ferventandlong-standingadmirersofMarxare

528. |5J DICTATORSHIPOFPROLETARIAT 485
todaymoreorlessopenlyopposed
toanyimmediaterealization
ofthemaster'sprogram.
Thedisagreement
betweenMarxistswhofavoranimmediate
andviolentrealizationoftheprogramcommonlyattributedto
theirmaster,andMarxistswhofavoraslowandgradualapplica-
tionofit,hasoflatebecomesharplymarked.Thosewhobelong
tothemoreviolentfactionhavetakenthenameof"cdm-
munists."Theothershave
kept
theoldname "socialists."A
morescientificcriterionfor
distinguishingtheterms"socialism"
and"communism"wouldbetocallsocialismasystemunder
whichthecommunitypays
eachworkeraccordingtothevalueor
efficiency
oftheworkhedoes.Undercommunism,eachworker
wouldreceiveanincomeaccording
tohisneeds.
1
Thiscriterion
istheonethatLeninhimselfadopted.Heassertedthatinafirst
phase
hissystemwouldbesocialistic,whereascommunismwould
beattainedinasecondphase,when
society
shouldhavebecome
completely
freeofanyremnants of
bourgeoismorality or,
rather,immorality.
2
Themenwhoare
todaygoverning
the
formerempire
oftheczarsarethemselves
trying
tomoderatethe
realizationoftheMarxianprogram.
Itisinevitablethatanew
bourgeoisie
shouldeventuallyemerge
inRussiafromtheranksoftheverymenwhocarriedtherevolu-
tion
through,andthat
privateproperty
shouldbereestablishedin
substance ifnotinform.Nevertheless itprovedimpossible,
duringthefirstperiod
oftherevolution,toavoidanattempt
to
establishpurecommunisminthatcountry.That
attempt,
asis
wellknown,brought
onarapidand
completedisorganization
of
every
sortof
production,andwantandfaminecameinitswake.
Norcanwebelievethatifcommunismweretotriumph
inother
partsofEurope
itwouldbe
possible
toavoidasimilar
experi-
ment,whichwouldinevitablyyieldthesameresults,andperhaps
worseones.LessfortunatethanRussia,western
Europe
is
overpopulatedandincontinualneed,eveninnormaltimes,of
certainrawmaterialsthatareindispensabletodailyliving,and
thesecanbe
suppliedonlybyAmericaorother
parts
oftheworld.
Theseresultsareofaneconomicnature.Asformoralresults,
the
dictatorship
ofthe
proletariat,
inwhatever
country,would
1
Seechap.XI,3
(p.282).
2
Lenin,StateandRevolution.

529. 486FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT
[CHAP.XVII
haveconsequences
farmoredisastrous.
1
InRussia,inthename
ofthat
dictatorship,theold
ruling
classhasbeenallbutexter-
minatedand
replacedby
anotherthatis
certainlyshrewderand
moreenergetic,andperhapsevenmore
intelligent. Morally,
alas,itcan
onlyberegarded
asinferior.Inordertoholditsown
inthefaceofthe
generaldiscontent,inordertodealwiththe
desperation
ofallwhoarenotmembersofit,andtomakeup
forothersofitsdeficiencies,thenewRussian
ruling
classhas
hadtogoverntyrannically, override all
scruplesandenforce
obediencebysheerterror.Onecansaymorethanthat.In
Russia,forbetterorforworse,ithas-been
possible
tofindanother
ruling
classto
supersedetheold.InwesternEuropethat
wouldbe
virtuallyimpossible.Communismwouldimmediately
resolve,or,better,dissolve,intocompleteanarchy. InRussia,
theold
bourgeoisiehasbeen
replaced
afterafashionby
the
Jewish
pettybourgeoisieandby
othermoreorless
allogeneous
elementssuchasLetts,ArmeniansandMohammedan Tatars.
Theindividualscomposingeachofthoseelementshavelongbeen
boundtoeachotherbycomradeships
ofrace,languageand
religion,
andbythepettypersecutionsanddisabilitieswhichthey
sufferedincommonunderthegovernment
oftheczars.The
present
rulersofRussiacanthereforecountontheir
loyalty.
Suchminorities,however minorities
differing
inraceand
religion
fromtherestofthepopulation hardly
existinwesternEurope,
andsuchastherearearesosituatedthattheywould
greatly
fear
theadventofcommunism. Thenew
rulingclass,therefore,
wouldhavetoberecruitedfromthemoreviolentelementsinthe
plebsandtheless
reputableportions
oftheold
bourgeoisie.
These
peoplewouldbeincompetent
ontheintellectualsideand
theywouldalmostcertainlybe
lacking
inthatminimumof
morality
thathasto
regulate
relationsbetween
peoplewhoare
committinga
greatvillainy
incommon, iftheir
villainy
isto
achieveanyabiding
success.
An
experiment
inso-called"moderatesocialism,"whichwould
allow
privateproperty
toexist
provisorilyandnominallybut
would
subject
ittosuchburdensandlimitationsasto
deprive
it
of
significance,wouldhaveevenlesschanceof
lasting
inwestern
Europethana
downrightand
thoroughgoingdictatorship
ofthe
proletariat. Sucha
systemwouldalwaysbeopentoviolent
1
Seechap.XI,

530. 5] SOCIALISMANDBUREAUCRACY 487
attackby
the
regularcommunists,withouthaving
the
prestige
and
strength
to
suppressthem,anditwouldnothaveatits
disposalthemargin
ofwealththatwouldbeindispensableto
coverthe
wastageinevitably
incidenttoanyattempttoapply
a
moderateformofsocialism. Becauseofitsfailuresandthe
disappointments
itwouldoccasion, itwouldeitherdegenerate
rapidlyintopurecommunism,ormerely
leadtoadevelopment
of
thepresentpoliticalandeconomicsystem
intoabureaucraticand
militarydictatorship.
Suchadevelopmentwould
correspond
tothesecondofthe
solutionsofthepresent
crisisinthe
representativesystemthat
wementionedabove. Itmight
forthemomenthaveitsadvan-
tages
foroneoranotheroftheEuropeancountries,though
it
woulditselfpresentveryseriousdrawbacks ifitweretobe
adoptedasapermanent
solution.Downto1914,elective
elementsplayedanimportantandeffectivepart
intheexercise
of
sovereignpower
inallcountriesthatare
governedaccordingto
oneoranotheroftherepresentativesystems.Underthesolution
in
questionsuchelementswouldvanishfrompubliclife,orbe
reducedto
fulfillingsecondaryormerelydecorativefunctions,
leaving
theciviland
militarybureaucracywithadefacto
authoritythatwouldbe
virtuallyunbalancedanduncontrolled.
Thebureaucraticsystemherein
questionwouldnotbelike
any
ofthevariousformsof
representative government.
It
wouldresembleneithertheparliamentaryform,which
prevails
in
EnglandandFrance,northe
presidentialform,whichisfunction-
ing
intheUnitedStates,northe
strictlyconstitutionalformwhich
existedinGermanyprior
to1918. Itwouldbeasortof
**
Caesar-
ism,'*suchasprevailed
inFranceduringtheFirstEmpire,and,
inmoremoderateform,during
theSecondEmpiredownto1868.
Underthoseformsofgovernmentparliamenthadpurelydecora-
tivefunctions. ThisnewCaesarism,furthermore,mighteven
try
tofinda
legal
basisforitselfinapopularreferendum,or
plebiscite,
asthetwoNapoleonicCaesarismsdid.
Aswehaveseen,the
participation
oftheelectiveelementis
veryimportant
inthemodernstate,andthe
greatsuperiorityand
themain
strength
ofmodern
politicalsystems
lieintheingenious
balancingthattheyadmitofbetweentheliberal
principle
andthe
autocraticprinciple,theformerrepresentedbyparliaments
and
localcouncils,thelatterbypermaneat
bureaucracies.Wehave

531. 488FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
alsoseenthatthis
jointparticipation
isessential ifall
political
forcesand
capacities
aretomakethemselves feltin
publiclife,
andifall
sovereignpowers
aretoexercisethe
reciprocal
control
andlimitationthatistheindispensable conditionof
political
liberty.Onany
otherbasis
libertybecomesamereworddevoid
of
anypracticalsignificance. Liberty
ofthe
pressand,in
general,
all
personal
liberties inotherwords,allthe
safeguardsthat
thecitizenhas
againstarbitraryconductonthe^
part
ofthe
public
officialwouldbeinsufficientlyguaranteedonceelective
elementscametohavelittleornoweightonthescalesof
public
power.
Insuchacasewewouldbegoingbacktotheoldabsolutist
system,disguisedperhapsunderamaskof
popularsovereignty,
whichourfathersfought
sostrenuouslyto
destroy,whichour
youngergenerations
havenotexperiencedandofthecharacterof
whichtheyhavenottheremotestidea.Nowtheeffectsofsuch
a
systemwouldbe
infinitelymoreserioustodaythantheycould
everhavebeenacenturyandahalfortwocenturies
ago,because
the
prerogatives
ofthestatehaveincreasedenormously
inthe
meantime,andwiththemtheamountofwealthwhichthestate
absorbsanddistributes. Theabsolutismofrulerswouldthere-
foreno
longerfind,asitoncefound,andindeedstillfindsincrude
and
primitivepoliticalorganizations,
anaturalcurbandlimit
inthe
scarcity
ofmeansthatareatthe
disposal
ofagovernment.
Today,
inviewofthe
greatperfectionand
comprehensive
devel-
opment
ofthestatemachine,abureaucracythat
possessesan
unlimitedanduncontrolledpower
can
easilyshatterallindividual
andcollectiveresistance,suppressevery
initiativeonthepart
of
elementsnotbelonging
toitandsoexhaustthewholesocialbody
bysucking
allvital
energiesfromit.
Weneednot
spendmanywordsin
describing
thedangers
ofthe
thirdradicalsolutionforthepresent
crisisinthe
parliamentary
systemthe
syndicalist,
orunionist, solution.Achamber
possessingsovereignpowersand
participating
inlawmaking
as
the
legalmouthpiece
ofclasssyndicateswould
supplythebest
possiblebasisforthe
organizati<m
of
sovereigntyintermediate
betweentheindividualandthestate,whichis
perhapsthemost
seriousthreattosocietythatweconfrontatthe
presentmoment
inour
political
life.Bymeansoftheir
representatives, the
unionsthemselvescan
carry
onamosteffective
activitywithin

532. 5] PARLIAMENTARYSYNDICALISM 489
thestateand
againstthestate,andparalyzeevery
effortofthe
statetofreeitselfoftheir
tutelage.
Itwouldbenaivetoimaginethatthecoexistenceofanother
chamber,orevenoftwootherchambers,formedundertheold
system
ofindividualrepresentation andfromelementsnot
belongingtotheunions,wouldbesufficienttocounterbalance
theinfluenceofthethirdchamberelectedbytheunions. It
shouldbynowbeapparent
thattheeffectiveness ofagiven
politicalorgantheimportance
itassumesintheactualmanage-
mentofthestate isnotrelated
primarily
tothe
legalpowers
whichthefundamentalconstitutionconfersuponit,butderives
fromthe
prestigewhichitenjoys
in
publicopinion,and
especially
fromthenumberand
efficacy
ofthesocialforces,interests,ideas
andsentimentswhichfindtheirexpression
init.Thatisthe
reasonwhy,
sofar,parliamentarychambersthathavedepended
directlyon
popularsuffragehaveingeneral
exerciseda
greater
influencethanhousesthathavebeenconstitutedondifferent
principles,thoughvery
oftenthelattercountedamong
their
members
largernumbersoftechnicalcapacitiesand
greater
personalvalues.Inviewoftheimportance
that
separate
classes
haveacquired
intheeconomic lifeofeverycivilizedcountry
today,
itisnotfar-fetchedtoassumethatthe
syndicalistchamber
would
easilyprevailoverothers allthemoresoifweconsider
thatthemorepopuloussyndicates could,bymarshalinga
compactand
disciplinedvote,exertgreatinfluenceupon
elec-
tionstochambersconstitutedonthe
present
basisofindividual
representation.
Wemustnot
imaginethat,inachambermadeup
of
representa-
tivesof
syndicates,
thebetter-educated elements,suchasthe
representatives
of
magistratesandscholars,orof
lawyersand
engineers,wouldbe
likely
tohavethe
controllinginfluence.The
predominant
influencefromtheoutsetwouldprobablyrestwith
the
representatives
ofrailwaymen,seamen,stevedoresand,in
EnglandandGermany,
miners.The
strength
ofaunionwould
lienotintheeducationorcultivationofitsmembersbutintheir
numbers,and
especially
inthematerial
indispensability
ofthe
functionthatthey
fulfillinthe
daily
lifeofthe
people.Inthat
regardtheworkdoneby
arailwaymanorabakeris
certainly
moreindispensablethantheworkdonebya
professororalawyer.
Onthatbasis,furthermore,
ifthemoreunletteredand
larger

533. 490FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
unions,allmoreorlessimbuedwithMarxistdoctrinesandcare-
fully
trainedtobelieveinthenecessity
oftheso-called"class
struggle,"
shouldsucceedin
workingtogether,theywouldbeable
toseizecontrolofthestate
outright.Havingdonethat,they
wouldinall
probabilityandinthe
longrun,begintoquarrelwith
eachother,andtheeconomicdisorganization
thatwouldresult
wouldendin
politicalanarchy.
1
6.Itfollows,therefore,thattheonlythreepossible
radical
solutionsofthecrisiswhichtherepresentativesystem
isnow
traversingwouldleadtheEuropean
countriestoadoptaless
perfect,and,onemightsay,
amoreprimitive,politicalsystem
thantheonetheynowhave.Theadoption
ofanyoneofthe
threewouldbesymptomatic
ofa
politicaldeclinewhich,asusual,
wouldbecomesimultaneouslycauseandeffectofa
general
decline
incivilization.
Certainlynoonewouldtry
tomaintainthatthe
representativesystemcannotbeimproveduponvery
consider-
ably,
orthatintimeitcouldnotbe
replacedwithsomething
differentandbetter.Quitetothecontrary,
ifEurope
isableto
overcomethedifficultieswithwhichsheis
struggling
at
present,
itis
altogetherprobablethatinthecourseofanother
century,
or
evenwithinhalfthattime,newideas,newsentiments,newneeds
willautomaticallyprepare
theground
forother
politicalsystems
thatmaybefar
preferable
toanynow
existing.
Unfortunately, themoralandeconomicresultsoftheWorld
Warhave,atthiscriticalmoment,madeitdifficultfortheinstitu-
tionsthatwereinforcedownto1914togoon
functioning
properly. Forthemtokeep
their
vitalityunimpaired,they
needed,as
they
stillneed,acontinuationoftheperiod
ofrelative
peaceand
generalprosperitywhichtheworldenjoyedduring
the
lastdecadesofthenineteenthcenturyandthefirst
years
ofthe
twentieth.Thewardidnotcreatethe
germs
ofdissolutionfrom
whichthe
representativesystem
isnow
suffering. Likeany
other
system
itcontainedthosegerms
withinitselfandstillcontains
them.Thewarsimplyrenderedthemmorevirulent.Today
they
are
threatening
tokillthe
representativesystembeforethe
1
SeeMosca,speechesdeliveredintheItalianChamberofDeputies,Mar.7,
1019,andintheSenate,Mar.81,1920,andNov.27,1922;also"Feudalism
funzionale,""II
pericolo
dellostatomoderno"and"Feudalismoesindicalismo;"
Seealsoabove,chap.XIV, 8.

534. 6] RESTORATIONOFREPRESENTATIVESYSTEM 491
healing
forceswhichareatworkwithineverysociety,
unlessitis
altogethereffete,havetimetodevelop
theelementsrequired
for
creatinganewtype
of
politicalorganizationthatwillbebetter
thantheonenowinforce.Inotherwords,theoldhouseis
threatening
tofallbeforethematerialsfor
building
thenewone
are
ready.
Ifthecollapseweretocome,ourpeopleswouldbe
obliged
totake
refuge
eitherintheruinsofastillolderstructure
thathasbeenunoccupied
fortwoorthree
generations,
orelseina
hurriedlyimprovised
shack.
Fiftyyearsago
theauthorofthisvolumeopened
hiscareeras
awriterwithabookwhichwasabookofhisyouthbutwhichhe
stilldoesnotdisown.
1
Inithesought
tolaybaresomeofthe
untruthsthatlieimbeddedincertainassumptions
ofthe
repre-
sentativesystem,andsomeofthedefectsofparliamentarism.
Todayadvancingyearshavemadehimmorecautiousin
judg-
mentand,hemightventureto
say,morebalanced. Hiscon-
clusionsatanyratearedeeplypondered.Ashelooks
closelyand
dispassionately
attheconditionsthat
prevail
inmanyEuropean
nationsand
especially
inhisowncountry,Italy,hefeels
impelled
tourge
the
risinggeneration
torestoreandconservethe
political
systemwhichitinheritedfromitsfathers.
Thattask,evidently,
isnotan
easy
one.Beforeitcaneven
beessayed,Europe
hastoberehabilitated
economically,andthe
conditionoftheEuropeanmiddleclasshastobeimproved.
Withoutthecooperation
ofsuchaclassnoformof
representative
government is,inthelongrun,possible.
Intheway
ofthat
rehabilitationstandthestill
living
hatredsbetweenthevarious
socialclassesin
Europe,andthestilllivelierhatredsbetweenthe
differentEuropeancountries,hatredswhichthewar
terribly
stimulatedandwhichhavenotyetdieddown.Thefirst
requisite,therefore,wouldbethatalltheEuropeanpeoples
shouldatlastworkintotheirmindsandintotheirheartsthe
firmconvictionthattheyhavemanycommonandsupreme
intereststo
safeguard,
thattheyareboundtoeachotherbya
close-knitfabricofintellectual,sentimentalandeconomicrela-
tionsandthattheyhavesomanypsychologicalandcultural
affinitiesthat
suffering,humiliationanddecayforanyoneof
themmustmean
suffering,
humiliationanddecayforthem
all.
1
Mosca,Teoricadei
governi.

535. 492FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
Torestorethe
representativesystembynomeans
impliesthat
thatsystem
shouldnotbemodifiedorchanged
inone
respect
or
another,especially
incertaincountries. Inouropinion,oneof
themostimportantchangeswouldconcern
legislationonthe
press.Wayscansurelybefoundtomaintainfreedomforscien-
tific
investigationandforhonestcriticismofactsof
government,
andatthesametimeto
place
restraintsonthecorruption
of
mindsthatare,andwillforeverremain,mindsofchildren.That
corruptionhassofarbeen
freelypracticed
inourEuropean
countries.Afirst
step
inthatdirectionwouldbetoadopt
the
principlethat
responsibility
foroffensesofthe
press,
like
responsi-
bility
foranyothercrime,shouldrestwiththosewhoactually
committhem,inotherwords,withthewriters.Anumberof
European
countrieshavea
legalmonstrositythatpermits
aman
whowritesinanewspaper
or
periodical
toevade
penalresponsi-
bility
forwhathewritesas
long
asheis
willing
toremainanony-
mousorunknown. Insuchcasesthepenaltygoes
tothe
publisher'sagent,whoisknownintechnical
language
asthe
"responsiblemanager/'
1
Inhonestcriticismofactsof
govern-
mentwemeantoincludecriticismthatisbasedonfundamental
differencesin
politicalideasand
principles,provided
itdoesnot
stoop
todefaminginsult,todeliberateandbrazenfalsehoodand
toslander.
Another
difficultywhich
requiresurgentattentioninseveral,if
notall,countriesofEurope,
arisesinconnectionwithfreedomof
assemblyandassociation. Presentlawsaresovagueand
indefinitethattheypermita
strong
authoritariangovernment
to
suppressany
sortofassociationbypolice
force.Atthesame
timetheydonotofferaweakandtimidgovernmentany
effective
legal
defense
againsttheorganization
ofelementsthatareopposed
tothe
existing
orderandaimtosuppressthestateitselfby
violent
seizureofits
organs.
Wehavenotmentionedlimitation of
suffrageamongthe
resortsthatmightbebestcalculatedtoensurethedurationofthe
representative system.Weregard
the
granting
ofuniversal
suffrage
asamistakeand
mistake^
arenotmore
frequent
inpub-
liclifethan
they
arein
private
life.Atthesametimeonecould
notgobackonitwithoutcommittingasecondmistakewhich
mighthaveunforeseeableconsequences
ofaveryseriousnature.
1
Mosca,Apyunti
didiiittocoMuzionale,pp.
107-168.

536. 6] RESTORATIONOFREPRESENTATIVESYSTEM 493
Briefperiods
ofstronggovernment,
wherethestateexercises
manypowers
and
greatauthority,mayprove
ofactualbenefitin
someEuropeancountries,ashelping
torestoreorprovide
condi-
tionsthatwillenabletherepresentative system
tofunction
normally
inanearfuture.InRome,inthebestdays
ofthe
republic,
brief
periods
ofdictatorship
werenotinfrequent.
Butifthe
present
crisisthatisthreatening
our
politicalsystems
andthesocialstructure itselfistobesurmounted,the
ruling
classmustriditselfofmany
ofitsprejudicesandchange
its
psychological
attitude. Itmustbecomeawarethatitisa
ruling
class,andso
gainaclearconception
ofits
rightsanditsduties.
Itwillneverbeabletodothatunlessitcanraisethelevelofits
politicalcompetence
andunderstanding,
whichhavesofarbeen
woefully
defectiveinthemosthighly
civilizedcountriesin
Europe,
andinsomecountriesaltogetherlacking.Thenonly
willit
learnhowto
appraise
theconductofitsleaderssoundly,andso
graduallyregain
intheeyes
ofthemassesthe
prestige
thatithas
in
largepart
lost. Itmustbeabletoseealittlebeyond
itsimme-
diateinterestsandno
longersquandermostofitsenergies
inthe
pursuit
of
objectives
thatareofadvantage
tocertainindividuals
only,
ortothelittlecliques
thataregrouped
aboutcertainindi-
viduals. Itmustbepersuaded
onceandforallthatthesituation
thatconfrontsustoday
issuchthat,inordertobeworthy
of
belonging
tothechosenminority
towhichthelotofeverycountry
isentrusted, itisnotenough
tohavewonauniversitydegree,
or
tohavemanagedacommercialorindustrial
enterprise
success-
fully,
oreventohaveriskedone'slifeinthetrenches.Long
studyand
great
devotionarealsonecessary.
Everygenerationproduces
acertainnumberof
generousspirits
whoarecapable
of
loving
allthatis,orseemstobe,nobleand
beautiful,andofdevotinglargeparts
oftheir
activity
toimprov-
ing
thesociety
inwhichtheylive,oratleasttosaving
itfrom
getting
worse.Suchindividualsmakeup
asmallmoraland
intellectual aristocracy,whichkeepshumanityfrom
rotting
in
theslough
ofselfishnessandmaterial
appetites.Tosuch
aristocraciestheworld
primarily
owesthefactthatmanynations
havebeenabletorisefrombarbarismandhaveneverrelapsed
intoit.Rarelydomembersofsucharistocraciesattaintheout-
standingpositions
in
politicallife,buttheyrenderaperhapsmore
effectiveservicetotheworldbymoldii^g
themindsandguiding

537. 494FUTUREOFREPRESENTATIVEGOVERNMENT [CHAP.XVII
thesentimentsoftheircontemporaries,
sothatintheendthey
succeedin
forcing
theirprogramsuponthosewhorulethestate.
Wecannotsupposethattherewillbeany
lackordeficiency
of
suchgenerous
soulsinthegenerations
thatarenow
rising.Butit
hashappenedmorethanonceinthe
longcourseofhuman
history
thattheeffortsandsacrificesofsuch
peoplehavenotavailedto
saveanationoracivilizationfromdeclineandruin.Thathas
occurred,webelieve,largelybecausethe"best"
peoplehavehad
noclearanddefinite
perception
oftheneedsoftheirtimes,and
thereforeofthemeansbestcalculatedtoachievesocialsalvation.
Letushopethatthatclear
perception
willnotbewantingtoday
inthenoblerelementsamong
ouryouth,andthatitmay
so
enlighten
theirmindsandquicken
theirheartsthattheycan
thinkandactin
peace
as
resolutelyand
courageously
asthey
fought
inwar.

538. INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY
Abd-el-Kader(Kadir),77
Abelard,Peter,167
Absolutejustice,
seeJustice
principlesanddespotism,134-135
states,systems,geeAbsolutism
Absolutism, 13,01,136(socialforces),155
(exclusively bureaucratic,andsee256),
254,264,316,864-366(Roman),375-386
(evolutionofbureaucratic),488
Abyssinia(Ethiopia),10,81,83,128,142,224
ActofSettlement,384-385
Activity,122-123;seeSuccessinlife
Adultery,181
Adventurers (associaltype),214,220,228,
231,240,242,243,295,400,403-404,408
Affinities(ofclassandrace),89-40;geeSocial
type
Afghanistan,32,82,142
Africa,477,seeArabs;Mohammedans,Negroes;
North,21-22,163-164,206-207
Agathocles,200,202,404
Agesilaus,45
Agingsocieties(donationsgrowold?),35,66,
175,369,458-464;seeDeclines;Societies,
stationary;Classcirculation
Agriculture, 8,40,923
Albanians,16
Albigenses,192
Albizzifamily,201
Alchemy,4,5
Alcibiades,44
Alexander,ofMacedon,theGreat,29,33,42,
44,75,91,104,356,436; IofRussia,
137; IIofRussia,137
Algeria,30,163-164
AliTebelen,132
Alloys(ofgoodandevilinreligionsanddoc-
trines),177-180,188-191
Almohades,206
Almoravides,206
Alphabet,34,42,59
Althusius,Johannes,S80
Altitude
(as
factorinhistory),7-8
Altruism,120-122,449
Amari,Michele, StoriadeiMusulmani in
Sicilia,Firenze,1854-1872,3vols.in4
(2ded.,Catania,1938,2vols);11,78,
178,181,238,250
Amen,god,seeAxumon
Americas,seeIndians;Negroes;Mexico;Peru;
UnitedStates; inworldequilibrium,
476-477;South,9,30,104,132
AmmianusMarcellinus,368
Ammon,god,74,75,343
Amraon,Otto,Dienattirliche Auslesebeim
Menschen,Jena,1893;DieGesellschafts-
ordnungundikrenaturlicheGrundlagen,
Jena,1898(2ded.,Jena,1900);331,423
Amon-em-ept,236
Amos,Sheldon,TheScienceofPolitic*,New
York,1888;3
Anabaptists,417
Anahua*cplateau(Mexico),9
Anarchism(anarchy),137,195,255,258,272,
273,275,279,286-288(absolutejustice),
291,293-297(theory),816
Ancre,EleonoraDoriGaligai,Mareehaled',31
Anecdotichistory,44,46;seeHistory
Anglo-Saxons. 15,84;seeEngland;United
States
Animalsocieties,47,49
Anthropology, 17,38,42,47-48;teeEvolution;
Race
Anthropopithecus, 28
Anticlericalism,249
Antonelli,Pietro,224
Apostles,170-178
Appointmentsystem(bureaucratic), 407-408,
467,474-475
Apuleius,367
Arabiclanguage,21
Arabs,10,11,15,21,25,28,34,77,124
(morality),133,163-164(factionalwars),
170,250,840-341
Aragon,13,374-375(royaloath)
AratusofSicyon,201
Arcadia,Academy,118
Argentina,182
Ariaeus(Xenophon),344
Aristocracies, seeAristocracy
Aristocracy, 48,46,60(Venetian), 60-64
(hereditary,andsee853,895-896,417-
427),137,848-344(closed,andsee62,
415-416,419-420),358-355(Greek,and
see46),360(Italic),862-363(Rome,and
see367-368),377-878(French),885-386
(English,andsee60),420-427(traitsof,
andsee64-65,128),427-429(socialforces
andtendencies),493*494 (intellectual);
seeAristocratic;Aristocrats
495

539. 496 INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY
Aristocratic, spirit,144,161,408-494; ten-
dency(Mosca),895-396,417-427
Aristocrats,traitsof,64-65,122-123,480-427
Aristotle,1-2
(politicalscience,andsee41),
39,41-43(knowledgeofhistory),88,93,96
(onassentandcoercion),294,350-351,
890-891(onsmallproperty),446-448(on
privateproperty),462,471(onequality);
onclassificationofgovernments,42-43,
5152,187(onmixedgovernments), 386,
879,427,438
Armagnacfamily,205,403
Armaments(asfactorin
history),56,200,226,
850,875-376,443-444
Armenia,15,27
Armies,26,45,56,83,92,101,130,138,141-
148(relationtojuridicaldefense),145
(government by,andsee142-143),172,
203-204,210-211(inrevolutions,andsee
216-217,234-835),221-243(evolution
of
standing),231-233 (discipline),233-237
(officerandprivate),240-241(size),245,
267(Machiavelli on),317-818, 341
(primitive,andsee222),845(Mohamme-
dan),850-352(Greek,andsee223,357-
358),863-364(Roman,andsee204,223,
225,443-444),373,375-376,381,383-384
(England,andsee211),899,405,426
(Venice), 443-444 (modern, and fee
240-242,468-469),468-460(Soviet),469
(democraticconceptions)
Citizen
,228;andseeGuards,national
Conscript ,282-233
Mercenary ,seeMercenaries
Private,230
Standing ,221-243;andseeArmies
Volunteer
,226,232-284;andseeGuards,
national
Army,seeArmies
Artofgoverning(distinguishedfrompolitical
science),1-2,60,202
Artisans,377
Aryans,18,20,24,25,28,34-36
Ashur,god,74,843
Asiaticimmigration,477
Assassinations, political,203-205
Assassins,sect,178
Assemblies,primitivepopular,889-841,849-
852,854,357,360
Assentandcoercion,96,97
Associations, ascetic,179;criminal,178-*179;
teeSocieties,secret
Assyrians,15,29,103
Astrology, 4,5
Astronomy,4
Atheism,248
Athens,GaulthierdeBrienne,Dukeof,82
AugustasCaesar,204,864-365,398,432,463
Australia,415;aborigines,21,22,23,29,458
Austria,12
Autocracy,894-402,405-406,410;seeAuto-
craticprinciple
Autocraticprinciple,394-898,487
Averroes,845
B
Baber(theTiger),Zahir-ud-din-Mahomet sur-
named,437
Babeuf,FrancoisNoel,278,448;seeBuonar-
roti
Babylon,empire,12,22,25,83,36,342,843
Bacon,Francis,4-5,133
Bagaudae,367
Bagdad,caliphate,78,133,225,227-228
Baglionifamily,201
Bagration,MarshalPeter,108
Bairakdar,GrandVizierMustapha,
ofTurkey,
132
Bakunin,Mikhail,195,307
Balance,ofsocialforces,seeSocialforces; of
principlesandtendencies(Mosca),427-429
Balkans,76,105
Ball,John,417
Banana,9
Banking,
seeGovernmentcontrol;Parliamen-
tarism;Money
Barbagallo,seeFerrero
Barclayde
Tolly,MarshalMichel,108
BareredeVieuzac,Bertrand,135
Barley,8
Barnes,HarryElmer,seeGumplowicz
BasilIofByzantium,theMacedonian,403-404
Basilicata,18
Basques,21
Battles(asfactorinhistory),39-40
Baudot,MarcAntoine,276
Bebel,FerdinandAugust,DieFrauundder
Sozialismus,Stuttgart,1894;288
Belgium,12,235
Beliefs,seeCreeds
Bellamy,Edward,LookingBackward,&000-
1887,NewYork,1887;279
Beloch,Giulio(KarlJulius),"La
popolazionr-
della Sicilia antica," Archivio sto:\<>>
ticiliana, 1887; DieBevblkcnmg der
Oriechisch-Romischen Welt,Leipzig,IRStf;
11,348,358
Benningaen,GeneralLevinAugust,108
Bertolini, Pietro, IIgwerno locale
inglese,
Torino,1889;383
Berbers,21,25;seeArabs
Bernadottedynasty,400
Best,governmentbythe,143,448-458,494
Bias,43-44,46-47,438-489,454-455
Bible,74,140,206,224,246,280,430
Biography(andsocialscience),44-46
Bismarck,Otto,Fiirstvon,178,450
Blanc,Louis,Histoiredelafevolutionde1848>
Paris,1868,2vote,;DeVorganisationdu

540. INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY 497
travail,Paria,1840(newed.1841,1847);
153,217-218,221,275,270,448
Block,Maurice,L'Europepolitique
etsociale
t
Paris,1869(newed.1892);288
Bluntschli,JohannKaspar,
PolitikalsWissen-
scha/t,Stuttgart,1876;8,7
Boisgilbert,Edmund,seeDonnelly,Ignatius
Boissier, Gaston,"Etudes d'histoire reli-
gieuse,"Revuedesdeuxmonctes,1889-1800,
Vols.97-99;"Lechristianisme etFinva-
siondesbarbares,"Vol.97,pp.846-878;
"Lechristianisme est-ilresponsable de
laruinede1'Empire?"
Vol.08,pp.52-84;
"Lelendemainde1'invasion," Vol.99,
pp.145-172;180,248
Bonaparte,Joseph,212;Napoleon,
seeNapo-
leonI
Bonchamps,CharlesMelchiorArtus,Marquis
de,197,218
Bonzes,79,179,208
BookoftheDead,Egyptian,124,846
Borgia,Cesare,133,137,404
BorisGodunovofRussia,56
Bossuet,JacquesBenigne,379
Botany,40
Botero,Giovanni,Relaxioniuniversali,Vene-
zia,1671;882-383
Bouillc,FrancoisClaude,Marquisde,215
Bou-Ma/a,SiMohammedbenAbdallah,77
Bourgeoisie,French,145,377-886;seeClasses,
middle
Bourgogne,JeanSansPeur,Duede,205
Brahmanism,76,92,139,177,246,445
Brandenburg,21
Brantome,PierredeBourdellede,99
Bremen,82
Brigandage,Roman,367
BrissotdeWarville,JacquesPierre,Recherche*
philosophiquessurlapropritU
etBUTlevol
t
Amsterdam,1778;276
Britons,459
Broca,PierrePaul,17
Brotherhood,human,seeFraternity;Solidarity
BroughamandVaux,PeterHenry,Political
Science,London,1849,8vols.(Vol. I,
PoliticalPhilosophy);3
Brugsch,HeinrichKarl,GeschichteAegyptiens
unterdenPharaonen,Leipzig,1877(trans.
bySeymour,London,1879);36,67
Bryce,James,HolyRomanEmpire,London,
1871(lastreprint,1935);365,372-378
Buccelarii,367
Buchanan,George,DeJureRegniapudScotos,
1579;380
Buchez,PhilippeJoseph,
Introduction dla
sciencedeI'Mstoire,Paris,1842,2vols.;
Essaid'untrait$completdephilosophicau
pointdevueducatholicisme etduprogrfo*
Paris,1839;279
Buckle,HenryThomas,HistoryofCivilisation
inEngland,London,1861,3vote.;121,
123-127
Buddha,SidatthaGautamaSakyamuni, the,
45-46,271
Buddhism,46,66,75-80,189,165,177,179,
182
t192,251,421,461,473
Buffon,GeorgesLouisde,163
Bulla(bandit),867
Buonarroti,FilippoMichele,Delaconspwation
pourVSgalitSditedeBabeuf,Brussels,
1826,2vols.(trans.Bronteme,London,
1836);GracchusBabeuf
etlaconspiration
desfigaux,Paris,1869;278
Bureaucracy,meBureaucraticstate
Bureaucratic state,36,57(definition), 60,80-
87
(inclassification ofgovernments), 99,
111,117-118(humanitarian trend),141-
144,147-150,159-162(governmentcon-
trol),175,192,203-204,207,208,214-219
(over-bureaucratization andrevolution),
228,256(bureaucratic absolutism),264-
270(reform),281-282,284-285,317-319,
351
(Greece),360-361,364-868(Rome)
870-871, 373,876-886 (evolution of
bureaucraticstate),889,405-406(bureau-
craticautocracy),40&-409,466-468,472,
487-488
Burgundy,Houseof,205,403
Burma,182
Burke,Edmund,288
Bushmen,seeAustralia
Byzantium,Empire
of(EasternEmpire),94,
184,141,142,164,238,345,368-870,896,
403-405,433,463
Cabet,fitienne,VoyageenIcarie,Paris,1848;
279
Cabinets,150-151,259,264,384-385,411;see
Parliamentarism, Parliamentarysystems
Caesar,CaiusJulius,56,90,92,341
Caesar'sColumn,296-297
Caesarism,487
Cairo,caliphate,133
Caledonians,15
California,27
Caligula,CaiusCaesar,45,431
Calvin,John,166,170
Cambon,PierreJoseph,277
Campanella,Tommaso,418
Canada,113,431,476
CanaryIslands,458
Cape
ofGoodHope,
13
Capetdynasty,400
Capitalandlabor,299-301;seeClass
Struggle;
Socialism;Wealth
Capitalism,276-277.288-289;seeSocialism

541. 498 INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY
Capponi, Gino,Storia deltarepubblica di
Firense,Firenze,1876,8vola.;82,201
Capua,siege,110
Carliam,Spanish,212-214
Carrier,JeanBaptiste,135,197
Carthage,29,225
CasimirIIIofPoland(theGreat),55
Cassias,Avidius,451
Castes,80-01,66,70,92,139;amAristocracy
Castile,13
Cathelineau,Jacques,213
CatherineIIofRussia(theGreat),212,432
Catholicism,20,40,79-80,80,94,109,110,129,
180,140-141,140,172,179,184-185,188-
190,194,218,249,251-252,309-372,419,
424-425;seeChurch;Christianity
Caussidiere,Marc,Mtmoires, Paris,1849,2
vols.;217-218
Cavaliers,English,211
Cavallate,Florentine,82,225
Cavour,Camillo,428,450
Cedrenus,Georgius,94
Celibacyof
priests,141,189,419,425
Celman,seeJuarez
Celsus,173-174
Celts,21,459
Century (ashistorical period), 405,nine-
teenth,analyzed,400-477
Cerami,battle,94
CervantesSaavedra,Miguelde,S3,231
Ceylon,10
Chaldea,30,342-343
Championnet,GeneralJeanAntoine,110
Champollion,JeanFrancois,455
Chance(asfactorinhistory),39-40,122,173,
201,288,304,433,450-457
Change*00-09,401-402;seeEvolution;Class
circulation;Progress
CharettedelaContrie,Francois,213
Charlemagne, 108,192,295,871-373
Charles,IofEngland,211,384; IIof
England,211; IIofSpain,403;Vof
Austria,S3,402;XofFrance,385
Chaumette,PierreGaspard,77
Checksandbalances,147-152,seeSeparation
ofpowers;Socialforces,balanceof
Chemistry,4,40
Chemosh,god,74
Cheops,45
Cherbuliez,Victor
(pseud.G,Valbert),*'Un
voyagedansleGuzerate,"Revuedesdeux
mmdea,1885,Vol.72
(pp.081-092);240
Chiaramontifamily,205
Childlabor,472
China,8-10,14,22,24-25,27,82,30,42,49,
58,70,77-79
(religion),81-82(feudalism),
84,131-132,178(secretsocieties,andsee
210),207-210
(Taipingrevolt,andtee192),
(nomads),286(army),251,272
(ancientsocialism),821,345,896,899-401,
405,407(mandarinate), 414,401-402
Christianity, 12,27,40,75-80(asworld
humanitarian religioncreatingnational
andsocialtypes),88(asestrangingforce),
105,107,115,128(moraleffects),140-141,
165,173-177 (earlyspread),
180-184
(morallevel),187,191-192(persecutions),
190,288,245-253(future),280,304,309-
810,816,824,827,867-808(early),872-
874(medieval),421,441,444-445,461,473
Church,Roman,77-80,92,189-141(impor-
tanceofseparatingchurchandstate),103,
189-190(worldliness), 372-374,444;see
Catholicism;Christianity
Cicero,MarcusTullius,93,427
CimonofAthens,354
Circassians,16
Ciompi,Florentine,418,417
Cisneros,Cardinalde,eeXimenez
Citizenship(Graeco-Roman),349-350,860-804
City-state,ancient,42,847-800,379-381,880,
890-891,894-395,897-398,409-410,417,
443-444,445,451,406-467;seeCommunes
Civilservice,407-408;996Bureaucraticstate
Civilization,centersof,10-12,16;declinesof,
eeDeclinesofnations;growthof,8-36;
futureof,249,252-258,256-257,816-820,
869,390-898,416-419,427-429,457-464,
473-494;levelof,seeLevelofcivilization;
civilizations,
feeChina;Egypt;Greece;
Mohammedans;NearEast;Rome
Class,circulation(renovationofruling-classes,
changeinsocialstation),63-64,66-69,
119,122-128,261,808-809,837,348-344,
877,889,895,400-427,433-438,448-453,
462,474;seeDeclinesofnations;Demo-
cratictendency;Successinlife
distinctions, 110-119,268,389-841,871
(feudal),405,418-419,419(utilityof),
470-471;seeSocialtype
hatred,306-310,473,479-480
isolation,118-119,420,470-471
struggle(Marxian), 115,206,275,297-
306,412,479,490
SeeClasses
Classes,468-409(armyorganization), 145
(importance)
exploited(socialist),302-304
higher,
seeRulingclasses
lower,30,107,116-119,156,171-172,247-
248,297-299,887,800-801,377-878,
411-418,438-488,471-472,477-478
middle,144-145,201,205-270,877-378,
tf 888-384,887,890-893,405-418,430,
441-442,447,471,478-479,482-484,
491
parasite(socialist),299-804
ruling, 30,50-55(theory of),65-69
(evolution of),84-85
(feudal), 90

542. INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY 499
(necessity of),105-106,115-110,134,
180,199,222-228,233,236-237,244,
259,284(communism), 291-292,297-
804,310-811,326-327,829-338(theory
of),843,346,849-350,856-357,867,
870-372,385-387,389,891-392,397,
899-414(autocracy),419-427(heredi-
tary),430-438(classcirculation),444-
446,450,452,455,462-464,471-472,
474-475,477-478,482,486,493
Classification ofgovernments, 42-43(Aris-
totle),51-52,80-111,87-95(Comte),
96-102(Spencer),137,836,838,852,879
(St.Thomas),394,896(byprinciplesand
tendencies),427-428,438
Claudian(ClaudiusClaudianus),362
Claudius,Tiberius,33,45,431
Clavel,F.T.Becque,Geschiedenisdervrijmet-
selarijendergeheimegenootschapen,Gonda,
1865(HistoryoftheFreemasonsandof
SecretSocieties);178
Claverhouse,seeGraham
Clericals,164
Clive,Robert,126
Cleveland,Grover,151
Clientage(Greek),349,454
Climate(asfactorinhistory),7-17,89
"Climbers,"social,traitsof,geeSuccessinlife;
Classcirculation
Cobbett,William,111
CodexTheodosianus,131
CognettideMartiis, Salvatore, Socialismo
antico, Torino, 1885,new ed.,1889
(BibliotecadiScienzesociali,Vol.VII);272
Cohesion,group,67,481-482;seeSocialtype;
Declinesofnations
Colajanni,Napoleone,Lasociologiacriminate,
Catania,1889,2vols.,12,13,32,38,307
Colbert,Jean-Baptiste,403,432
Collectivism (asgeneralformofsocialism,
communism, anarchism), 271-828,418
(aristocratictendencyin),439-440,446,
446-448(Marxism)
Colletta,Pietro,StoriadelnamediNapoli,
Papalago,1884,3vols.(trans,byHome,
Edinburgh,1858);seePronio,Kodio
Colonization(andclasscirculation),68
Columbus,Christopher,
53
Comitia(Roman),362-865
Commandments,Ten,120,124
Commerce,82
Communes (medieval), 48,82,84,200-202,
874-375,890,442;Paris,235
Communism,165,168,282-286,292,316,417,
440,442,447-448,485,487;seeCollecti-
vism;Socialism
Compagni, Dino,Crcmica,BelLungo ed.,
CittddiCastello,1918(alsoMuratori,
Raecoliadeglistonciitdiani,Vol.IX)}200
Competitiveexaminations, 86,45
Comte,Auguste,Systemedepolitiquepositive,
Paris,1853,6vols.;3,87-95,330,388
Conflict,seeStruggle
Confucius,93,79,251
Congo,12
Conquest,foreign(andclasscirculation),82-
84,103-104,436-438
Conquistadores, Spanish,15,22,30,126
Conscription (military), 285,240-241,444,
468-469
Conservatism, 460-461;seeClasscirculation,
Societies,stationary
Conspiracy(andrevolution),200-204,220
ConstantineVIIofByzantium, Porphyro-
genitus,94;XIofByzantium,Brag-
antes,433
Constantinople, 27,106;seeByzantium
Constitutional systems(European),262-265,
487
Constitutions (written),138
Consulship(Roman),351
Copernicus,Nicholas,455
Copts,106
Cdrdoba,caliphate,133
Corruption, political,368,408-409,449-452;
seeParliamentarism
Cosmopolitanism, 116;seeSocialtype
Councilsofnotables,339-341,848-851,401;
seeSenates
Coupsd'etat,220;seeRevolutions
Courage,64,212-218,237-240,242,425
Courts,ofjustice,independence of,188-189,
259,261-262,851,385;seeSeparationof
Powers;Parliamentarism
oflove(Provencal),112
royal,403(importance
inautocracies)
Creeds,40,134,172-191,825-326
Crete,ancient,347
Crime,3,11-13;125,267
Crises,cabinet,411
Cristoforo(Manzoni's),Fra,194
Criticism,higher(Biblical),246
Cromwell,Oliver,183,211,884,400
Crosa, Emilio, Sulla sovranitd popolare,
Torino,1915;466
Crusades,130,297,298
Crystallization, social,66-69; seeConser-
vatism;Declines;Societies,stationary
Cuneiformwriting,42
Curiales(Roman),149
Custom,35,46;seeSocialtype
CyrustheGreat,ofPersia,83,75,241; the
Younger,844
Bacia,15
Damascus,25;caliphate,207
BanteAlighieri,81,131,242,484
Banton,GeorgesJacques,215

543. 500 INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY
DariusIofPersia,Hystaspes,33,104,241
Darwin,Charles,18,28,62;eeEvolution
David(biblical),74
Decadenceofnations,seeDeclines
Deccan,10
Decentralization (bureaucratic),265-270
DeCesare,Raffaele,La
fine
diunregno,Citta
diCastello,1805(newed.,3vols.,1908-
1909);257
Decius,Gaius,Emperor,33
Declines,ofnations,32-36,39,119,366-370,
457-464,477-482;seeAristocracy;Class
circulation;Classes,ruling
Decree,legislationby,264
Decurionate(Roman),149,367,442
Defense,juridical,
neeJuridicaldefense
De/ensorcivitatig,149
Delhi,12,404
DelBio,Martin, Disquisitiones magiae,
Louvain,1599-1600;Cologne,1633;5
Demagoguery, 155-158, 392,412-413; see
Suffrage
Democracy,43,46,52,61-62,111(classdis-
tinctionsunder),134(despoticformsof),
137,150-152(American),152-158,160,
174,197-198,219-220(Freemasonryand),
68,258,270,280,810,825-328,332-335
(theoryof),858-856(Greece),878-886
(modernRousseauean),388-389,392,421
(humanitarian),426-429(aristocracyand),
438,442,472,482;seeDemocraticten-
dency;Representativesystem
Democratictendency,395,413-419,422
Demonolatry,93-94
Demoticalphabet,59
Denmark,210
DeSanctis,Gaetano, Storia deirowwm,
Torino,1907-1923,5vols.;862,368
DeSolis,Antonio,Historiadelaconquistado
Mexico,Madrid,1684(trans,byTown-
send,London, 1724,Hooke,London,
1758);397
Despotism,134-137,196,292,296;seeAbso-
lutism;Autocracy;Dictatorship
DeWitt,CornellsHenri,EistmredeWash-
ingtonetdelafondationdelarepublique
de*iStatsUnis,Paris,1868;234
Dictatorship, 391,487,493; ofproletariat,
392,484-487
Diehl,Charles,HistoiredeI'empirebyzantin,
Paris,1919;Byzance,grandeur
etdecadence,
Paris,1919;433
Diocletian,83,463
DionysiusofSyracuse,200,202,424
Display,314,427
Divan(Turkish),401
Divine
right,68,70,84,134,334-335,359,375,
879,462;eeeAbsolutism;Autocracy
Divorce,181
Doctrines,geeCreeds
Dominations,foreign,32-84,108-104,436-438
DonFerrante(Manzoni's),5-6,452
Donnat,Leon,Lapolitique expenmentale,
Paris,1885;3
Donnelly, Ignatius(Edmund Boisgilbert),
Caesar'sCdumn,Chicago,1890;296-297
Doreid-Ben-Sama, 186-187
Dostoevsky,Feodor,ThePossessed,135,195
Dravidicrace,21,24
Druids,59,76
Drunkenness,12
Dumas,Georges,Psychologicdedeuxmessies
positivistes,Paris,1905;830
Dupont-White,CharlesBrook,L'indimdu et
I'Stat,Paris,1857;161
E
East,42,48,105(tolerationin),116;seeNear
East;Babylon;China;Egypt;India,
Mohammedans
EasternEmpire,
seeByzantium
fibelot,Alfred,"LaRevolution deBuenos
Aires,"Revuedesdeuxmondes,Dec.1,
1891;132
Ebionites,179
Ebor-el-Themian ofPalermo,181
Ecclesiastes,280
Economic,interpretation
ofhistory, 8,114,
297-306,850,875-876,418,439-448,461;
production,
controlof,seeGovernment
control
Economics,1-8,5,40-41,287,327-328
Education, 144,269-270,356(Greece),377-
878,410,422,462,471,478
Egypt,ancient,8,10,15,19,22,25,32-33,
85-36,45,59,66-67,81,85(taxation),
87,124,208(nationalism), 223,235-236
(army),238,243-244,342-348,346-347,
396,460;modern,16,21,106,137,202,
436-437,459
Eight-hourday,478
Elara,25
"Elephantsmadwithpride,"285,455
Elevationabovesea-level,7-8
Emperor,conceptof,365-366,373
Empire,EasternRoman, seeByzantium;
Eastern (astype),seeNearEastern;
NearEastern,88,42,48,341-848,846-
847,396-899,403,415,460;seeAssyrians;
Egypt;Persia;Rome
Empiricism,political,463
Encyclopedia,French,31
Enfantin,Barth61emy Prosper. Oeuvresde
vSaint-Sim&n et
d'Enfantin, Paris,1805-
1878,47vols.;169,330,335
Engels,Friedrich,330,440
England,13,15,17-18,21,27,31,84,43,80
(Catholicism),111(classdistinctions),113,
119(rulingclass),132-133,141(liberty\

544. INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY 501
144-145(gentry,andtee150,268-260),
178,182,205,ill1-312(revolutions,and
tee417),225-220(army,andtee283,383-
884,468),231,254,261(parliamentary
families),378-379,381-386(constitution,
andsee263-264),398(liberalism), 414,
431(imperialism,andsee388,476),442,
459-468(conservatism), 470,480(labor)
Englishlanguage,21
Environmental theories,7
Epaminondas
ofThebes,200-201
Equality, 143,276-278,309-310(socialism),
314,326,335,879,892(economic),416,
429,440,447-448,470-473(democracy),
477-478,482
Essenes,124
Ethics,seeMorality
Ethiopia,
seeAbyssinia
Eugenism(Aristotle),353
Eunuchs,399
Euphrates, 9,36
Europe,9-14,16-18,21,28,26-20,31-82,42,
46,888-889(worldsupremacy),475-477
Evolution,18-19,28-41(racial),65,121-124
(moral),289,201,seeDarwin;Marx;
Spencer
Examinations,competitive,36,45
Experimentalmethod,4-5
Exploitersandexploited,302-304
Exposureofchildren,368
Extermination,warsof,29
Extinctionofpeople,458-463
Facts,38,46;seeHistory
Faithandscience, 249-250; seeCreeds;
Religion
Falsehood,425
Family(andrulingclass),49,123,172,321-
822(modern), 840,348-851,353,356,
416-419,423-424,449,456
Fanaticism,167,171-172,185-186;see
Propa-
ganda
Fellahs,Egyptian,14,21,64
FerdinandIIofNaples,137,257
Ferrante,Don(Manroni's),5-6,452
Ferrari,Giuseppe,Corso*ugliacrittoripolitic*
italiani,Milan,1862;1
Ferraris,Galileo,452-453
Ferrero,Guglielmo,Orandezza6decadenzadi
Roma,Milano,1007-1900,5vols.(trans,
byZimmern,London,1000);Laminedela
civilisation
antique,Paris,1021(trans,by
Whitehead, London, 1021); Reaeiane,
Torino,1805;Memoriee
eonfessionidiun
sovrano
deposto,Milano,1020;withCor-
rado
Barbagallo,Romaantica,Firenze,
1021-1022,8vola.(volt.1-8trans,by
Chrystal,London,1018-1010);312-313,
363,365-366,406,441-444
Ferri,Enrico,CriminalSociology,NewYork,
1900;12
Feudalstates(vs.bureaucratic states),57.
81-84,9-g4,90,111,117,141-142,222-
226,242-243,205,871-872,481; proper
(medieval),81-82,111-112,371-87,448
Fischel,Eduard,DieVerfassung England*.
Berlin,1862(trans,byShee,TheEnglish
Constitution,London,1863);233
Fleury,AndreHercule,Cardinalde,87
Florence(Firenze),82,200-201, 25,267,400,
413,417
Force,useof,100-102,190,820
Forces,social,seeSocialforces
Foreigndominations, 103-104,436-438; see
Conquest;Invasions
Formula,political,
seePoliticalformulas
Fouillee,Alfred,"Lapsychologicdespeupleset
1'anthropologie," Revuedesdeuxmondes,
March25,1805;38
Foundersofreligions,parties,165-170
Fourier,Charles, Theoriedesquatre
mouve-
ments,Paris,1808;TraitSder&stociation
domestigue
etagricole,Paris,1822,2vols.;
Nouveaumondeindustriel, Paris,1820
(Brussels,1840,2vols.);168,278,279
France,12-18,18,21,27,80,35-86(moral
evolution), 48,64-65(military valor),
111(classdistinctions),119,153,214-219
(revolutions,andsee110,205,235,811,
310,Revolution,French),220-281(army,
andsee234-235),240,261-262,275-270
(earlysocialism),200,335,374-386(rise
ofmonarchy),388,403,417,432,442,462-
463,466-468(representativesystem)
Francis,St.,ofAssisi(FrancescoBernardone),
120,167-168,180,107,310
Franconia,108;Houseof,373
Fraternity,75-76,472-473,482
FrederickIIofHohenstaufen,Emperor,373;
IIofPrussia,theGreat,142,232-233,
402,482
Freedom(ofspeech,press,thought),145,157,
106,252-253,257,385,410,402
Freemasonry, 178,107,210-220
Freetrade,41
Frenchlanguage,21; Revolution,mRevo-
lutions
Fuegians(TierradelFuego),21-22
Fustelde
Coulanges,NumaDenis,Eccherches
eufquelquesproblemes d'histoire, Paris,
1885;Nouvellesrecherche*,Paris,1801;67,
131
Galen(ClaudiusGalenas),89
Galilei,Galileo,455

545. 502 INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY
Ganges,
Gargano,13
Garibaldi,Giuseppe,234
Garofalo,Raffaele,Lasuperstimone socialista,
Torino-Roma, 1895;288,327
Gaul,56,59,106,341,459
Gebhardt, fimile,"L'fitatd'amed'unmoine
deFan1000,"Revuedesdeuxmondes,
October,1891;94
Genius(racial),25-28,349(Greek);aatalent,
351
Gennaro,San
(Naples),
248
Genoa,82,409
Gentry,English,265-270;feeClasses,middle
Geography,15,42,348
George,Henry,ProgreaandPoverty,NewYork,
Schalkenbach ed.,1929;Protectionand
FreeTrade,London,1886;24,85,285,290-
291
GeorgeIIIofEngland,264,431
Germany,9-10,12,Ifi,18,31,43,103,204,223,
233,280,375,387-388,468,489;Germanic
race,20,35;Germanlanguage,21;Ger-
mans,ancient,14,34,118,222,340-841;
modernGermans,17,27,39,118.225-226
Ghetto,27
GHbellinesandGuelphs,164
GlaberofCluny,Bodulfus,seeMauricePron,
RaoulGlaber:LegCinq
livresdesonhistoire,
Paris,1886;93-94,253
Gobineau,JosephArthur,EssaisurVinSgatite
desraceshumaines, Paris,1853-1855,
4vols.;17,18,381
God,willof,teeDivineright;gods,national,
74-75
Golden,mean,429; rule,120
Goltz,GeneralColmarvonder,DotVolkin
Waffen,Berlin,1884(newed.,1925,trans.
byAshworth,London,1913,butoriginal
introductionmissing);241
Gomme,A.W.,ThePopulationofAthens,
Oxford,1933;358
Goths,33
Gourmont,Bemyde,296
Government,artof,60,202-203; control(of
economic production), 85-86,143-144,
108-162, 255,282-283, 321-323, 368;
bylaw,teeJuridicaldefense; owner-
ship
seeGovernment control;naked
governments, 137,379,427-429;typesof,
13-14,51-52,57;teeClassification of
governments; Politicalorganization
Gracchi,204;CaiusGracchus,444
Graeco-Roman civilization, 10,33,41,45,see
Greece;Rome
Graham,John,ofClaverhouse,133
Grain,8
GrandMogul,400,437,seeBaber
Grant,UlyssesSimpson,151
Grave,Jean,LaSoeUtSmouranteetVanarchie,
Paris,1889(trans,byChyse,SanFran-
cisco,1899);295-296
GreatBritain,seeEngland
Greece,ancient,10-11,18,15-16,20,29,31,
33-34,39,41-46,48,56,68,73,91-92,
107,126,133-134,137,199-202(revolu-
tions),226,238,344,846-359(city-state),
861-362(expansion),376,379,388,390,
897-398(brevityofsplendor),417,443,
462,466,473;modern,27,210,460;see
Byzantium
Greeklanguage,20
GreensandBlues(Byzantine),164
Gregorio,Rosario,Introduzione allostudiodel
dirittopubblico triciliano,Palermo,1794;
Congiderazioni sulla storia diSicilia,
Palermo,1831-1834;13
Gregory,VII,Pope,141,425;ofTours,128,253
Grimm,JacobLudwig,17
Groupinstincts,163
Guanches(CanaryIslands),458
Guard,national,221,234-235,267;Swiss,16,
225-226;Turkish,225,227-228
GuelphsandGhibellines,164
Guicciardini,Francesco, 2,130-131,201,203,
456
Guizot,Francois,217
Gumplowicz, Ludwig, DerRassenkampf,
Inspriick,1884;seeHarryElmerBarnes,
"TheStruggle
ofRaces,"JournalofRace
Development, Worcester,1919;Orundriss
derSodologietVienna,1885;17,62,64,72,
113,331
Gunpowder,23
GustavusAdolphusofSweden,89
HabeasCorpusAct,384
Habits,political,133-134
Hamburg,82
Hammer-Purgstall, Josephvon,Oemdldesaal
der
Lebensbeschreibungen grosser mosli-
mischen Herseher, Leipzig, 1837-1839,
6
vols.;DieGcschichto derAssassinen,
Stuttgart,1818(trans,byWood,London,
1840);170,178,187,06
Hammurabi,codeof,346
Hannibal,297-298
Hansea,409
Happiness,68-69,808-309
Hapsburg,houseof,400
Hastings,battleof,40
Hastings,Warren,126
Hartmann,LudwigMoritz,DerUntergangder
antikenWelt,Vienna,1903;351,365
Earun-al-Rashid(HarunibnMuhammed,the
Orthodox),12

546. INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY 603
Hebrews,ancient,34,74,76,103,107,206,
224-225,358;seeJews
Hegemony,concept,73,858
Heliogabalus,12
Hellenicworld,11;teeGreece
Hellwald,FriedrichAnton,DiemenfcMwhe
Familie,Leipzig,1880;Culturgeschichte in
ihrernatiirlickenEntwickelung,Augsburg,
1876-1877;DerVorgetohwWwhe Menach,
Leipzig,1880;17
Helots,208
Heredity. 60-64,423;hereditary principle,
60-64,800,430;seeAristocracy; Class
Circulation;Family;Rulers
Herodotus,7,17,42,48,343.852
Hesiod,340
Hieroglyphicwriting,82,42
Highlanders,16-17;Scottish,82
Himalayas,10
Hindus,10,32,42,180,238,246;feeIndia
Hindustan,28
Hippocrates, 7,88-80
Historical anecdotes, 44-46; teeHistory;
examples, 208; materialism, see
Economic interpretation
of history;
method,41-58,244,438;mHistory
History,2,41-48,186,203,244,283,201-202,
804-806(finalcausesin),337,379(lagin
historicalscience),438,454(appraisals
of
merit); seeEconomic interpretation
of
history
Hittites,10
Hofer,Andreas,213
Hohenzollern,houseof,400
Holland,17,210,400
Holtzendorff-Vietmansdorf, Franzvon,Pnnsw-
pienderPolitik,Hamburg,1860(French
trans,byE.Lehr,Hamburg,1887),1-3
Homer,44,340-841,348-340,412-413,415,
462;HomericState,340,348,353
Huart,ClementImbault,HistoiredeeArabes,
Paris,1012-1013,2vols.;345
Hue,fivaristeRegis,L'Empirechinois,Paris,
1854,2vols.(trans.,London,1855);58,
84,272
Humanitarianism, 118,420-421
HungWu(Mingdynasty),208
HungHsiuCh'uan(Taiping),208-200
Hungary,12,231
Hypocrisy,180
Illusions(asfactorinhistory),175-176,187.
246-247
Imitation(ascohesiveforceinsociety),tee
Mimetism
Immortality(Confuciuson),251
Imperialism,primitive,103
Independence,warsof,210-211
India,10,21,24,32,42,105-107(Britishrule,
andsee888,431),130(castes),178,288,
46,205(feudalism,andtee223),321
(mutualaid),400,437,445
Indians,American,8,14,10,22-24(inferior-
ity),20,42,422,458-450(extinction)
Indifferentism
(religious),247-240
Individual(asfactorinsocialchange),60
IndoChina,10,24-25
IndoGermanic races,18;teeAryans;Race
Industrialsocieties(Spencer),06-100;indus-
trialism(Comte),05
Inequality (Rousseau on),273-274; fee
Equality
Infallibility,145
Inheritance,systemsof,300;seeHeredity
Initiative, legislative,362-363;private,150;
seeGovernmentcontrol
Insurance,472
Intellectuals,452;seeIntelligentsia
Intelligence(astitletopower),68
Intelligentsia,110,377,452,471
Interests(asmotives),114-115,188-101,445-
446
Intermediate(betweenindividualandstate),
institutions,321-822; sovereignties,
fee
Sovereignties
Invasions(asfactorinsocialchange),32-34,
54,103-104,860-872,887,436-438;tee
Conquests
Inventors,455
Irak-'Arabi,21
Ireland,21,113
Iron(amongIndians),23
Islam,seeMohammedans
Italy,11,860-861,870-372;medieval,Renais-
sance,1,15,31,83-85(decline),48,164,
200-202, 223,230,322,442;modern,
12,13,21,27,81,80,80,164,188,210,
262-268,267,280,207,811-318
(social-
ism),875,460;Italianlanguage,21
IvanIVofRussia,theTerrible,12,56,182
135,227,432,436
lyeyasu,Shogun,400
Iberians,450
Ibn-Hamdis,181
Icaria(Cabet),270
Idealism,166,174-176;ideals(andinterests),
255-256,445-446
Idleness,421-422
Jacqueries,French,208
JamesIIofEngland,211-212,281
Janet,Paul,"Lea
originesdusocialismecon*
temporain,"Revuedefdeuxmondet,Vol.
40,1880,pp.807-422,556-582;Saint-

547. 504 INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY
SimonetleSaini-Simoni,, Paris,1878;
78,880
Janizaries,64,227
Jannet, Claudio,Leittitumoni poliliehe
e
eooialidegli
StateUnit*d'America,Torino,
1881,Biblioteca ditcienze politiche
e
amministrative. Vol.VI;Letfoot*Unit
oontemporaint, Paris,1880,2vols.;68,
15*,294
Japan,25,42,79,182,821-822(mutualaid),
845-846(modernization), 876,880,806
(autocracy), 400-401,405-407(bureau-
cracy),461,463,476
Java,10
Jeffreys,JudgeGeorgeJeffreys,188
Jehovah,74
Jerez,battle(Moors-Visigoths,anno711),40
Jerusalem,25
Jesuits,26,160,104-105
JeauaofNazareth,46
Jews,modern, 27,28,172,468,486;tee
Hebrews
John,ofEngland,874; theFearless,Dukeof
Burgundy,205
Johnson,Andrew,151
Juan,Don,ofAustria(Lepanto),281
Juarez-Celman,Miguel,
182
Judaism,75
Judges,popular
electionof,102;teeCourts
Jugurtha,77
Jukoub-beg,77
Juridicaldefense(governmentbylawanddue
process),100,120,126-162(theory),187,
180,141,144-145(ascriterionofexcel-
lenceofgovernment),
157
f
204,22&-220
(relationtoarmies),248-244,257,266,
292,816(communism),820,826,855,859,
866,884-885,409-410(liberalism),469-
470(representativesystem),475
Jurysystem,161,266-267
Juttemilieu(Cavour),429
Justice,absolute,255,278,286-288,809-810,
810-821,418-419,447-448,458-457,478;
asliberty,196;relative,456-457;sense
of,120,126,166,176,824,412
Kabyles,168-164
Kaimuks,14
Karamzin,NikolaiMikhailovitch, Uittoired*
I'ompiredoRuttie,Paris,1819-1826,11
vols,;77
KemalAtaturk,Mustapha,108
Keynes,JohnMaynard,TheEconomicCon-
sequencesofthePeace,London-NewYork,
1920;489
Kings,feeMonarchy;Rulers
Kings,Bookof,74
Kirke,ColonelPercy(his"lambs"),2S1
Knowledge(learning),astitletopower,59
Koran,140,170,181-182,826,845,896,444-
445
Kupri,Mohammed of,teeMohammed
Kurdistan,Kurds,16
Kutuzov,MarshalMikhail,108
Laborandcapital,
299-801
LactantiusFirmianus,LuciusCaeh'us,180
Lafayette,JeanPaul,Marquisde,215
LaMarckregiment,230;teeMirabeau
Lamartine,Alfonsede,158,217
LaMazeliere,AntoineBous,Marquisde,Le
Japon,histoireetcivilisation,Paris,1907-
1928,8vols.;876,401,406
Land,56-57(astitletopower),81-82,141,147
(associalforce),223,73-274(Rousseau
and),285,299-800,805-806(Loriaon),
823,357,870-372,877-378 (riseof
bourgeoisie),450-451(Russia)
Language,20-21,59
Languet,Hubert,380
Laplanche,JacquesLeonardGoyrede,277
Lapouge,GeorgesVacherde,"L'Anthropologie
etlascience,"Revued'antkropologie, 1887,
pp.136-159;"Selectionssociales,"ibid.,
1887,pp.519-550;"Del'inegalitparmi
leahommes," ibid.,1888,pp.9-58;
"L'Heredit danslasciencepolitique,"
ibid.,1888,pp.169-101;17,18,381
LaRochejacquelein,Henride,213
LaRocheUe,siege,31
LasCasas,Bartolomede,53
Lassalle,FerdinandJoachim,DerBrufwecJuel
xwitchenLassalleundMarx,Stuttgart,
1922;287,289,307,448,479
Latin,language,20-21;race,20
Law,2,125,181,267-268,805,409-410
Lawyers(inrulingclass),60
Lazzaretti,David,168
Leaders,176,218-214;seeApostles;Founders;
Rulers
League,Warsofthe(France),31,36
Learning,59;teeClasses,middle
Lebon,Joseph,185
Legitimacy (rulersassymbolsof),205,215-
216,219
LeMercierdelaRiviere,PierreFrancois
Joachim,L'Ordrenatureleteteentielde*
tocietetpolitiques,London,1767(newed.,
Paris,1910);275-276
Lenin,VladimirOulianov,481,485
Lenormant, Francois,
Histoireanciennede
I'Orient,Paris.1881-1888,8vols.;32-83,
86,67,74,85,87,124
LeoIII,Pope,872
Leroux, Pierre,De 1'fyalite, Paris, 1888;
RefutationfoI'eclectisme, Paris,1M.

548. INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY 605
DeVhumanitf,desonpnneipe
eldeton
avenir,Paris,1840;Malihueetleifaono-
mistes,Paris,1840;279,440,448
Leroy-Beaulien, Anatole,'"LeaJuifset1'antise-
mitisme,"Revuedesdeuxmondes,1891,
pp.92-93;L'Empiredestzars etlet
fitww,Paris,1881-1882; 87,56,77,79,
118-114,137,140
Lescure,LouisMarie,Marquisde,213
Letourneau, Charles Jean,La Sociologie
d'apresV
ethnographic, Paris,1880;L'Evo-
lutiondelamorale,Paris,1880-1886;86-
88,121,126
Letts, 1
Levantines,27
Levelofcivilization,8,14,28-29,32,89,52-03
(dependenceonstructureofrulingclass),
57,70-71,81,183,164-165,228,820,889-
891(middleclass),397-398(autocracy),
405,422,474-476(representativesystem),
480
Lexregiadeimperio,366
LhamaofLhasa,78-79
Liberal, 164,395; principle(Mosca),895,
397-398,409-413,487
Liberalism,180,165.175,191,254,392,478,
482
Liberty,7,13,18,48,130,143-144,158,242-
243(standingarmy),257,260,358,879
(ancientconcepts), 381,410,429,445,
466-470,477,482,486,488
Ligue(HenryIV),31,36
Livy(TitusLivius),43
Literati(inrulingclass),59-60
Literature,89
Logic(andpractice),134
Lombroso,Cesare,L'uomo
delinquente,Torino,
1897-1900,3vols.;CriminalMan,New
York,1911;12
Lombroso-Ferrero, Gina,TheSoulofWoman,
NewYork,1928;457
London,12,34
LopedeVegaCarpio,Felix,33
Loria,Adiille,Teoriaeconomicadettacostitu"
mowpolitico,Torino,1886;LetBases
tconomiques delaconstitution sociale,
Paris,1893;305-306
Louis,XIofFrance,401;XIV,87,111,186,
142,230,876,401-408,482;XV,462;
XVI,212,215-216; XVIII,384-385;
theMoorofMilan,202; Philippeof
France,216-218
Louvois,MichelLeTellier,Marquisde,403,
432
"Lovethyneighborasthyself,"120
Lower,classes,seeClasses; houses,254-255,
257;seeParliaments
LowlandersandHighlanders,16-17
Loyola,Si,Ignatius189-194
Lucian,173
Lucretius,88
Lust,12
Luther,Martin,166,170,174
Luxury,427
Luzio,Alessandro, CarloAlberto$Manini,
Torino,1928,479
Mably,Abb6GabrielBonnotde,Oeuoni<w-
plkei,London, 1789-1790, 13 vols.;
DoutetproposesawppkUotophesfoonomtotet
twrVordr*naturaletemnUeldeetooiMt
poWtiquet,Hague,1766,andVol.XIof
Qeuvres;DelaInitiationouprincipe*fa
lois,Amsterdam,1776,andOew***>Vol.
IX;275-276,448
Macaulay,ThomasBabington, Criticaland
HistoricalEssays.London,1854,8vols.;
2,5,113,178,188-189,212
Macedonia,432
Machiavelli, Niccold, 1,41,43(knowledgeof
history),102,118,202-203(relationto
politicalscience),226,239,267(oncitizen
armies),813,329,394,404,418,435,450
Machines,political,155
Mania,178
Magic,love,5;whiteandblack,435-486
MagnaCharta,874,382,385
MahdiofOmdurman(Mahdism), seeMoham-
medAhmed
Maize,8
Majorian (JuliusValeriusMajorianus),Em-
peror,370,432-433
Majorityrule,6,58,71,146,153-158,254-255.
258-259,284;seeSovereignty, popular;
Suffrage
Malaterra,Goffredo,94
Mamelukes,16,137,436;$eeMercenaries
Mammone,Gaetano,214
Man,antiquity,22
Mandarinate,Chinese,23d
Manes(Manichaeism),271
Manetho,32
Manichaeism, 165,271
Manioc,9
Manu,lawsof,48
Manzoni,Alesaandro,5-6,194,452,40ft
Marat,JeanPaul,197,277
MarcusAureliuaAntoninus,38,128,451-452
Marduk(Merodach),god,74-75,343
Marius,Caius,56,418,443-444
Mario,Carlo(pseud.o/KarlWinkelblach),807
Marquardt, KarlJoachim (andTheodor
Mommsen), Manuelde
antiquitfa to*
mainea, Paris, 1889-1805, 10 vols.;
Organisationfinancier*che*letRomaint,
Vol.Xofabove,Paris,1880;6T,87,148,
364;teeMommsen
MarsiliusofPadua,980-381

549. 506 INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY
Martyrs,sectarian!194,204,816
Marx,Karl,DerBriefwechselawischenLassatte
undMarx,ed.byGustavMeyer,Stutt-
gart,1923;170,185,879,282,287,289,
297,804-307(wages),823,327,330,439-
440(economicinterpretation ofhistory),
446-448(evolutionarytheory),479(class
hatredandsee807),482,484-485(dic-
tatorshipof
proletariat),
490
Maspero, Gaston, ArchMogie egypttenne,
Paris,1887(trans,byEdwards,NewYork,
1892); Histoire ancienne despeuples
d'Orient,Paris,1886(trans,byMcClure,
London,1894);36,67,85,87,124,236
Massaja,Guglielmo, Cardinal,Imieitrenta-
cingueannidimissionsinEtiopia,Roma-
Milano,1885-1895;128
Masses,seeClasses,lower;Society
MasySans,Sinibaldode.LaChineetlet
puissance*chrfaiennes,Paris,1861,2vola.;
58
Matese,13
Mathematics, 4,34
Maury,Alfred,12
Mazarin,GiulioMazzarino,Cardinal,432
Mazdaism,165,192
Mazeliere,seeLaMazeliere
Mazzini,Guiseppe,153,168,185
Mechanics,40
Mechnikov,LevIlTich,Lacivilisation elles
grandsfleuveshistoriques,Paris,1889;86,
38
Medici.Cosimodei.82,193,201,450
Medoume-Men ofBurma,182
Mehemet-Ali,khediveofEgypt,16,64,137,
202,486
Melbourne,WilliamLamb,Viscount,264
Melegari,Dora,449
Memor(pseud,ofRaffaeledeCesare),La
fineditinregno,Citt6diCastello,1895;257
MeneniusAgrippa,apologue,300,480
MenesofEgypt,342-343
Mercenaries,200,205,224-228,230-231,267,
486;seeAdventurers;Armies
Merit,appraisals
of(bureaucratic), 406,458-
455; andsuccessinlife,406-409,416-
419,453-457
Merovingiandynasty,401
Mesha,kingofMoab,74
Mesopotamia, 8,10,343,459
Messalina,45
Messedaglia,Angelo,297
Messiahs,166-171; seeApostles;Founders;
Leaders
Method, historical, 38,41-47,seeHistory;
scientific,88,seeScience
Mexico(ancient),22,80,396,459
MichaelIIIofByzantium,theDrunkard,403-
Michels,Robert,aurSosnologiedesParteiwesena
indermodernenDemokrotie,Leipzig,1911,
(trans,byPaul,PoliticalParties,ASocio-
logicalStudyoftheOligarchicalTendencies
ofModernDemocracy ,NewYork-London,
1915);"Lademocraziaelaleggeferrea
dell"oligarchia,"Rassegnacontemporanea,
vol.Ill,No.5;831-382,334,391,401,412
Mickiewicz,Adam,LesSlaves,Cours
profess^
auCollegedeFrance,Paris,1849,3vols.;
HistoirepopulairedePologne,Paris,1875,
55,112-113.
MiddleAges,10,15,29,31,39,93-94,96-100,
111-112,200,375
Military,prowess,53-56,64-65; societies,
91-92; spirit,64-65,212,237-240,242,
seeCourage; systems,96-98,101-102,
seeArmies
Militias,citizen,232,234-235,267;seeArmies;
Guard,national
Mill,JohnStuart,60
Mille,Pierre,219
Millet,8
Mimetism(imitation),26,73,184-185
Mina,FranciscoJavier,213
Mingdynasty,208
Minorities, organized, 51,53,154-155; see
Classes,ruling;Suffrage
Mirabeau,HonorGabrielRiquetti;Comtede,
Correspondance
entrelecomtedeMirabeau
etlecomtedelaMarck,Paris,1851,8vols.;
63,215,230,234
Miracles,173
Misoneism(neophobia),171
Missionaries,461
Mithraism,165,174
Mixedgovernments, 137,879,427-429; see
Classificationofgovernments
Mizraim,21
Mobs,revolutionary,209,215-216
Mogul,Grand,400,437;seeBaber
Mohammed,166,168-170,174,186,206; II,
64;AmedofOmdurman,theMahdi,
78,169,207; Kuprilu,132
Mohammedans(Mohammedanism), 10-11,25,
27-28,46,70
(principle
ofsovereignty),
75-80(tolerance,churchandstate),105-
108,110,133
(politicalorganization,and
tee344-345), 140,177,181-183(moral
level),186-187,190,192,196-197
(sects),
205-207(revolutions), 326,396(autoc-
racy),421,444-446,461,473
MoUere,182
Mommsen,Theodor(andJoachimMarquardt),
Handbuch derROmischen AUerthUmer,
Leipzig,1873-1888,9vols.;Organisation
desRomischenReichs,BookII,Vol.IVof
above;DasFinanzwesen,BookII,Vol.V
ofabove;TheProvinces
oftheRoman

550. INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY 507
Empire(trans,byDickson,London,1886,
8vols,);104;seeMarquardt
Monarchy,42-43,48,109
(Spain),137,229-
281,894-395 (autocracy), 427-428; see
Classificationofgovernments;primitive ,
839-341;ancient,343,348-853,360-301
(Italic-Roman), 415(Homeric);imperial
Roman ,864-865;medievalbarbarian
,
871,874;medieval imperial,872-374;
feudal
,871-874;absolutenational,
204,878-886,894,899-400(succession);
modernrepresentative ,384-888
Monasteries,26,179,194
Money(associalforce),5,55-58,141-147,301-
302,399
Mongolians,24
Mongols,29,32,208;seeChina;India
Monogenetictheory,19
Monotheism,94-95,178
Montecuccoli,Raimondo,89
Montesquieu,Charlesde,31,41,43;onclimate,
7,18;classification ofgovernments, 52,
336,428,438;onEnglishconstitution,467;
onseparation
ofpowers(liberalism),188,
254,833,386,428,475
Moors,expulsion(Spain),33-34
Morality(morals), 7,11-18(innortherners
andsoutherners),86-38(evolution), 68,
120-180(associalforce),289-291,809,
846-847(ancient),856,428-424(heredity),
434-435(successinlife),449
Morelly,Codedelanatureouleveritableesprit
deslois
tAmsterdam,1755(recentedition,
Paris,1910),275,448
Morocco,163-164
Morselli,EnricoAgostino,"Biondiebruni,"
Illustrazione
popolare,1887;18
Mosca, Bernardo, "IIpensiero
diSaint-
Simon considerate dopounsecolo,"
Riformasociole,Jan.1,1922;416
Mosca,Gaetano,Teoricadeigoverni
eqoverno
parlamentare, Torino, 1884(new ed.,
Rome,1925);"Fattoridellanazionalita,"
Rivista europea, 1882;Lecostituzioni
moderne, Palermo, 1887;Element* di
scienm politico,Roma,1895(2ded.,
Roma,1896;3ded.,Torino,1923);"II
principioaristocraticoedildemocratic
nelpassatoenell'avvenire,"Annuario
dell*universitadiTorino,1902;"Feuda-
lismofunzionale," Carriers dellasera
(Milano),Oct.17,1907;"IIpericolodello
statomoderno," Corriere della sera
(Milano),May27,1909;"Feudalismo
esindacalismo,"Tribuna(Roma),Feb.1,
1920;Appunti didiritto costituzonale,
MUano,1921;50,70,72,153,155,157,
260,381,848,869,882,884,393,417,419,
445,470,490-492
Moseilama(Mosailima),170
Mougeolle, Paul,Statiquedescivilisation*,
Paris, 1883;Leaprobltmes d'kistoire,
Paris,1886;7
Mountaineers,16-17
Mountains,15
Movements,seeParties;Sects
Multiplefunctions(bureaucratic),360-861
MustaphaBairakdar,132
MuzabenNoseir(Abuabd-el-Rhaman, con-
querorofSpain),239
N
Nadir,shahofPersia,404
NaplesKingdomof,109-111,117,131,212-
213,239,256-257,312
Napoleon IofFrance,86(bureaucracy),
108-109,135-186,176,218,231,289,386-
887,400,415(classcirculation),436,463
(asreorganizer),465(Manzoni),487
Nation,seeNations
Nationalguards,221,234-235,267
Nationalism, 26,47,49,72,79-80(religion
and), 107-109(andunity), 208,
460-461(andtradition),481-482 (re-
placingreligionascohesiveforceinsoci-
eties),491;seeSocialtype
Nationality,40,115,461;seeSocialtype
Nations,declinesof,seeDeclines;productsof
worldreligions,75-76
Natural,healingforces,868-369; selection,
121-123;seeEvolution
Naturecults,recurrent,118
Navigation,40
NearEasterncivilization, 10,16,29,34,342-
347(ancient empires);
seeBabylon;
Egypt;Persia;Mohammedans
Nebuchadnezzar ofBabylon,342
Negroes,12,19-20,22-24(inferiorityquestion),
115(U.S.),124,152,222
Nepotism,419
Nero,CaiusClaudius,12,45,431
Newspapers,413,434,492
Niccolod'Uzzano,201
NicholasIofRussia,137
Nile,9-10,32(canals),36,45
Nineveh,25,74,843
Nisco,Nicola,FerdinandoIIeilsuoregno,
Napoli,1884;187
Nit-agritofEgypt,82
Nitti,FrancescoSaverio,L'Europasenza
pace,
Firenze,1921(trans.,Indianapolis,1922);
483
Nobilities, English, 60,144,159,268-269;
hereditary,403;Persian,844;Venetian,
60;seeAristocracy
Nobili-Vitelleschi, Francesco,"Socialismoed
anarchia,"NuovaAntologia,3dseries,
Vol.LV,Jan,15,1895;808
Nordics,feeNorth-South

551. 508 INDEXANDBIBLIOGBAPHY
Normans,15
North-South(andsocialtraits),7,9-15
Novicow,Jacques(lakovNovikov),Commence
ettolonttsociales,Paris,1897,831-832
Numantia,29
Nunziante,GeneralVito,213-214
Objectivemethod,40-41,46-47,186
Observationandexperience,4-5
Ochlocracy,199
Oddifamily,201
Officers,army,222,230,282-233(honor),235-
287(relationstoprivates),
426(courage),
46&-469
Officials,volunteerpublic,265-270;seeSelf-
government
Ohrwalder, FatherJoseph,TenYearsof
CaptivityintheMahdi'iCamp(Wingate
version),London,1892,andseeRichard
Hermann,TheMahdiofAUah(trans,by
John,London,1931);169
Oligarchy,46,354-355(Greek); eeClassifica-
tionofgovernments;
Classes,ruling
OliverottodaFermo,201
Omaribnal-Khattab,206
O'Meara,BarryEdward,NapoleoninExileor
AVoicefrom
St.Helena,London,1822;
135-136
Optimism(Manisbynaturegood),332,392,
447-448,478;feeRousseau,Democracy
OrdinancesofJustice(Florence),417
Organization, political,
seePoliticalorganiza-
tion
Ostrogorski,MoseiJakovlevich,LaDemocratie
etI'organisationde*partispoltiiquet,Paris,
1903,(reviseded.,1911;trans,byClarke,
London-NewYork,1902);389
OttoIofSaxony,S7&-S7S
Over-bureaucratization, 99,218-219(ascause
ofrevolutions); taxation,257
Owen,Robert,168
Pacchioni,Giovanni,Cortodidirittoromano,
Torino,1918;362,865,866
Paganism,174
Papacy,79-80,02,372;mChurch,Catholi-
cism
"Parasols,gilded/'285,455
Pareto,Vilfredo,Leeeytteme*socialities,Paris,
1902; Trattato disociologia generate,
Florence,1923,3vols.(trans.OfThe
MindandSociety,NewYork,1935,
4vols);831-332
Parieu,LouisPierrede,Principetdelaanenee
polttique,(Paris,1875);8
Pgrlf,1,15-217,821,34-85
Parliament, **wParliamentarySystems
Parliamentarism, 138-189, 157,245,255
(definition),259-270(criticismandreme-
dies),280
Parliamentary systems,84,95(Comte),138,
143-144(balanceofsocialforces),150-
151,157,218,234,245,253-270(defects
andremedies),881-386(England), 411,
442,467-468,487
ParthenopeanRepublic,
110
Parthianempire,10
Parties,political,40,10J193-194,196,410-
412;underground,178
Parvenus,feeSuccessinLife;Classcirculation
Pascal,Blaise,456
Patriotism,130,482;seeNationalism
PaulusDiaconus,253
Peasantrevolts,112,211-214,298,417
Peel,Robert,264
Pelopidas
ofThebes,200-201
PeloponnesianWar,126
PeninsularWar(Spain,1808),109,115,210,
212,289-240
Pentaur,poet,45,236
People,
willofthe,*eeSovereignty,popular
PericlesofAthens,45-46,353-355
Periodization, historical,465-466
Persecution,165,190-192,(successof),197
Persia,10,28-29,78,104-106(population),
183,142,165,191-192 (Christianity),
241-242(army),271,344-345,396,404
(Nadir),414,432
Peru(ancient),22,30,81,99,103,396,459
Peter,IofRussia,theGreat,56,185,227,402-
403,482,436; IIIofRussia,212
Philip,ofMacedon,482; IIofSpain,402;
IIIofSpain,33
Philology,17,42
Philosophers (asrulers),451-452
Philosophy(associalscience),2
Physicianandcharlatan,apologue,292-293
Physics,4,34,40
Physiology,49
Pietism,revivalsof,249
PisistratusofAthens,31,200
Pitt,William(theyounger),264
PiusX,Pope,425
Plataea,battle,40
Plato,39,124,355-857,394,418(onfamily),
427,447-448(onprivateproperty),
451-
453,462
Pkuchut,Edmond,"0nroyaumedisparu,"
,Revuede*deuxmondes,July1,1889;182
*
Poitiers,battle,40
Poland,10,54-55(serfdom),83,112-113(class
distinctions),210-211,228,280,280,376,
396,409-411(liberalism)
Polignac,Jules-Armamd,Princede,835
Poll*,term,356

552. INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY 509
Political:
class,seeClasses,ruling
forces,184-152;teeSocialforces
formulas,62,70-72(definitionandtheory),
74,100-107,184(absolute), 145-140
(tendencytoexclusivism),244,440
organization (formofgovernment), 18,
10,35-30,130-134,159,291-292,310,
838-393 (riseofmodern state);as
againsteconomicandevolutionary
theories ofhistoryMosca stresses
importance
offormofgovernmentas
factorinlevelofcivilization: 12,16,
35-30,123,127,130-134,291-S92,800,
460,475-470,478;geeGovernment;
State
science,seeScience,political
Politicians,professional,155-158,259,284,430,
450-451(comparedwithstatesmen)
Politics,scienceof(distinguishedfrompolitical
science),1-2,00
Pollock,Frederick,HistoryoftheScienceqf
Politics,London,1883;3
Polybius,2,52,188,187,427
Polygamy,80
Polynesians,23,25
Polyps,49
Polytheism,94-95
Pomerania,21
Poorandrich(racialsolidarityof),115-110;tee
Classhatred;Classstruggle
Popularsovereignty, seeSovereignty
Population, 8,32,46-49(relationofsizeto
levelofcivilization), 322,848(Greece),
355,357,361-802((Rome),804
Portugal,33-84,263(constitution)
Positivism,87-95(Comte)
Poverty,808-809
(types)
Powers,separationof,seeSeparation
Praetorship,Roman,351
Prasinians,Byzantine,104
Preeminence, seeStruggle
forpreeminence
"Prejudices,divers"(Spencer),40;seeBias
Presidentialsystem(U.S.),150-151,263,888
Press,seeFreedom;Newspapers
Price
fixing,305,324,368
Priests(asrulingclass),59,92,348
Primeministers(autocracy),401-402
Primitive, peoples, societies, 23-24,29-30
(declines),338-339,458-459
Principles,seeCreeds;autocratic
,seeAuto-
cratic;liberal
,seeLiberal; andtend-
encies,894-430,487-488(balance)
Prins,Adolphe,LaDemocratic etUregimepar-
lementairc,Brussels,1884,260
Privilege,378,416-419,470-471
PrivyCouncil,884-385
Progress,30-39
(theory),11(Buckleon),
134-135
(scienceandevolution),197,415-
416(democracy),474;seeClasscircula-
tion;Declines
Promo,Colonel ?,214;seeColletta,Storia,
Vol.II,pp.80/.
Propaganda,184-187,190,192-190
(partisan),
204,220,244(class),307,318-319(social-
ist),412-413,479,492
Property,12,30,130,73-74(Rousseau),850,
418,447*448
Prophets,105-170;seeFounders;Leaden
Prostitution,12
Protectionism,41,09-100,147(agrarian),301-
90ft,81ft
Protestantism, 40,170,170,188-189. 192,
251-252
Proudhon, PierreJoseph,Memoiretwrla
propriety Paris,1840;DelaorJatfonde
Vordredansfftttmantt*,Paris,1848(new
ed.,1849);Syvteme de*contradiction,
feonomiquet
ot*PkUotophiedelamttto,
Paris,1840,2vola.(trans,byTucker,
Boston,1888);Quett-cegutlapropritii.
Paris,1848(trans,byTucker,Princeton,
Massachusetts, 1878);Ledroitautravail
etledroitdeproprietyParis,1848;270,
279,287,448
Prussia,21,142,232-2SS(army),875,432
Public,opinion,150-158,452,404; spirit,144
PuebloIndians,98
Pugatchev,EmelyanIvanovich,212
Puglia,Ferdinando,Ifclitticontralapersona,
Milano,1900;12
Punishment,128
Puritans,English,141
Pyramids,32,45
Pyrenees,13
QuatrefagesdeBreau,JeanLouisArmandde,
Histoire generate desfacethumaines,
Paris,1889;17
QuevedoyVillegas,FranciscoGomezde,38
Quinet,Edgar,270
R
Race,7,17-41(racialtheoriesofhistory),62-
65
(rulingclass),72,113,132-188,237-
240(militaryvalor)
Racialtheories, eeRace
Radical,term,104;radicalism,160
Radulfus,teeGlaber
Rainfall(asfactorin
history),8
RamesesIIofEgypt,45,236
Rationalism,17S,245,247-248
Realestatespeculation,147
Rfelua,Eliafe,JVouwtt*otoffrapkieunJmrwUf,
Paris,1870*1894,19vola;36,84,872
Referendum,157

553. 510 INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY
Reformation,102;seeProtestantism
Reformers,165-170; teeFounders;Prophets
Regulus,Atilius,467
Relief,governmentcontrolof,321-322
Religion,26,35-36,40,46-47,74-80(asbasis
ofsocialdifferentiation), 82,88,127-180
(relationtomorals),135,145,165-170
(founders), 178,175,180-184 (moral
levels),193-194,196-197(religiousstrug-
gle),244-253 (future), 258,339-347
(primitive, ancient),869-370,872-873,
379,383,421,444-446 (asfactorin
history), 461,481-482; feeBuddhism;
Catholicism,Christianity,Mohammedans
Renaissance,81,35,202,379
Renan,Ernest,18,110,174,224,250,827,345
Rensi,Giuseppe,
Oli"ancientregimes"ela
democrama diretta,Bellinzona,1902(new
ed.,1926);331-332
Rentiers,147
Representative system,18,95(Comteon),
152-158(suffrageandjuridicaldefense),
253-270(parliamentarism), 317,333,881-
394(evolution of),416,442,445(Rous-
seau),447,469-470,475-494(inmodern
world)
Republics,parliamentary, 888;Parthenopean,
110;Roman,361-366;Tlaxcala(Mexico),
397
Resemblances, racial,89-40;seeSocialtype
Responsibility* senseof,150-151;ministerial,
262
Revolutions, 117,126,186-187,202(Machia-
vellion),199-221(generaltheory),240,
245,298-299(classcirculation),811,813-
814,317-319,322-328,414-415;ancient,
199-200,204;medieval,202,204-205;
French,31,109,119,129,197,215-217,
284,276-277 (socialism), 817,877-387
(riseofbourgeoisie),414-415,(classcircula-
tion),442,444(army),466-468(origins);
modern,203-204,216-217(1830),216-
217(1848);Mohammedan, 97,205-207;
peasant,211-214;Russian,441,484
Ricardo,David,57
Rice,8
Richandpoor,115-116
Richard,IofEngland,CoeurdeLion,197;
IIIofEngland,133
Richelieu,ArmandJeanduPlessis,Cardinal
de,432
Rights,civilandnatural,456
Robespierre,Maximilien,135,197
Rodbertus,JohannKarl,807
Rodio,General ?,218-214; teeColletta,
Sforia,Vol.H,pp.80/,
Rodrigues,Olinde,Saint-Simon eltonpremier
tent,Paris,1832;880
RodulfusGlaberofCluny,seeGlaber
Rome,republic,13,15,17,20,29,81,33,34,48
56(army),67,76-77(assimilationofcon
queredpeoples),92,103-104(imperialism)
107(slavery),118,181,133(Polybiuson)
137-188(balanceofsocialforces),142-144
174-175,188,204,225,286-289(army)
260-261,297-299(rulingclass),351,
360-
370(constitutional history),390,898,417
440-441,443-444(armament), 460,473
RomanEmpire,83,45,70,84-87,131
148-149(bureaucratic reform),191-19$
(Christian persecutions), 223,226-221
(mercenaries),248-249,327,846,864-37ii
(republicandempire),887,896,405,414
428,431-433(classcirculation),441-44$
(economicfactorsindecline);RomanWai
(England),15
Rostoptchin,CountFeederVassilievich,108
RothariCode,48
Rousseau,JeanJacques, 31,52,118,12-
(optimisticconception
ofhumannature)
166,170(predecessor
ofMarx),174,185
254(democracy-socialism), 258(populai
sovereignty),273(oninequality),275-27C
(classstruggle),289,291,294-295(char-
acter),888,379-380(socialcontract),386,
391,442(communism), 445,466,475
Rousset,Leon,A.traver*leChine,Paris,1878;
36,58,77,84,209,236,251
Ruffini,Francesco,"Guerraeriformecostitu-
zionali," Annuario dell*univertita d\
Torino,1920;LagionnezzadelContedi
Cavour,Torino,1912,881,428
Rulers(asfactorsinhistory),186-138,141-142
(feudal),193,218,398-404(hereditary,
autocratic),430-433(influenceon
ruling
class),449-453 (traits);legitimacyand
physicalpersonsofrulers,204-205,216-
216
Russia,Caarist,9,12-18,17,27,49,55-56
(serfdom),77
(religionandunity),85,
97,108-109(Napoleon), 110,113-114
(class distinctions), 131-132, 149-150
(bureaucratic reform), 212,223,227
(army),256,396,403,405,432,436,450-
451(landreform);sovietrepublic,414,
418,428,441,469(army),484,484-486
(racesandnewrulingclass)
Rutilius,Claudius,362
S
Sadducees,165
Saguntum,29
St.Bartholomew'sEve,31,36
Saint-Simon,ClaudeHenri,Comtede,Oeuvres
deSaint-Simon et
d'Enfantin,Paris,1865-
1*878,47vols.;"Lettresd'unhabitantde
Geneve,""Parabole politique","Nou-
veauchristianisme," inRodriguea(which

554. INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY 511
see);Nouveau christianisme: Dialogue*
entreunoontervateur ettinnovateur,Paris,
1824(newed.,1825,trans,bySmith,
NewChristianity,London,1884);320-830,
334-835,416,453;Saint-Simonianism, 169,
278,880,416,453
Sakyamuni,
seeBuddha
Saladin(YusufibnAyub),16,197,436
Sallust(CaiusCrispusSallustius),418
SalvianofMarseilles,118
Salza,Hermannvon,103
Samnites,17
SanchoPanza,290
Sanctis,seeDeSanctis
Sanskrit,21,42
Sardis,25
SargonIofAkkad,342-843
Saul,74
Savings,147
Savoy,Houseof,375,400
Saxons,341
Scandinavia,10
Scarabelli,Ignazio,Sulsocialismoelalotiadi
clatse,Ferrara,1895;307
Schfiffle, AlbertEberhard Friedrich, The
Quintessence ofSocialism, Bosanquet
trans.,NewYork,1890(newed.1902);
288
Scherer,EdmondHenryAdolphe.LaDemocratio
etlaFrance,Paris,1884;157,260
Schlumberger,GustaveLeon,Uepopeebyzan-
tinealafindudixiemesidele,Paris,1896;
433
Schur6,iSdouard,"LalegendedeChrisna,"
Revuedesdeuxmondes,Aug.15,1895;
"LeBouddhaetsalegende,"ibid.,Aug.1,
1888;139
Science,8-4(methods), 84,38,40,59-60
(associalforce,andsee144-145,250),
249-250(history of),422-423(heredity
andaptitudefor),429,452-453,473-474
,natural,29
,social,3,28,40-49(methods),244,327-
328(socialism),445,453,463-464
,political, 1-6,41-47(methods), 202
(relationtoartofgoverning),283,886-
837,347,445,457-464
Scipio,Africanus,PublinsCornelius,29
Scolari, Saverio,Deldirittoamministrativo,
Pisa,1866,3,283
Scotland,10,17,21,32,205,459
Scribes,59-60
Seaman,EzraChampion,
TheAmericanSystem
ofGovernment,NewYork,1870;152,157,
260
Secretsocieties,177-178,210,219-220
Sects,168-180,184-198,207
Selection,natural,30,81,34;seeEvolution
Self-government, 148,159,383
Self-sacrifice, 18,124,129,177-178,203
Semiticraces,18-20,24-25,84
Senart,Emile,"Unroide1'Indeautroisieme
siecleavantnotreere:AcokaetleBoud-
dhisme,"Revuedetdeuxmondes,Mar.1,
1889,189
Senates,138-139 (declineofmodern),150
(U.S.),389-841
(primitive), 848-351
(Greece),360,362-363(Borne),365-366
Seneca,MarcusAnnaeus(theElder),456,472-
478
Seniority(bureaucratic),407-408
Sentiment,114-115,120-130(socialcontrolof
),
246,250,411-412
Separation,ofchurchandstate,139-141;of
powers,188-144,254,883,351(ancient),
362,365(Rome),386,428,475;seeSocial
forces,balanceof
Serfdom,202,371,441-442
Settlement,Actof,384-385
Sforza,GaleazzoMaria,ofMilan,203
ShepherdKings,Egypt,10
Siberia,9
Sicily,11,18-14,32,36,94(Saracens),105,111
(classdistinctions), 132, 181,204-205
(medieval),282(Spanish)
Sidon,25,82
Signoria,Italian,375
SimondeMontfort,197
Silesia,21
SixtusV,Pope,425
Size,ofstates,48-49,seePopulation;ofarmies,
240-241
Skepticism,187
Slavery,107,344,346,380,448-444,456
Slavicrace,20-21,223
Smith,Adam,5
Social:
democracy,281,teeCommunism, Social-
ism
forces(theirmultiplicitydetermineslevel
ofcivilization,andtheirnumberand
balanceinrulingclassesthegrade
of
juridicaldefenseorliberty),100-101,
144-145, 151-152 (U. S.),154-162
(suffrage), 196,244,253-254 (riseof
new),256,258,266,285,292(under
communism), 298,385-386(inEnglish
constitution),389-890(underrepresen-
tativesystem),415,422,434-486,461-
462;balanceofsocialforces,145-152;
196-198,259-260,291-292,301,380-
390,428-429,475,487-488
heterogeneity,116-117
organization,
seePoliticalorganization
science,seeScience
surveillance,127
type,21,25-29,38-39(raceasfactorin),
44,46,49(sizeof
population),71-80
(generaltheory),103-110(relationto
politicalorganization), 115-116 (cla*s

555. 512 INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY
straggle), 126,159(stationary), 196
(worldunity),244(influenceofcreeds
upon),S87,389,461
Socialism,80,115,146,164-165,177,188,189-
191, 45,247-248 (aareplacing
Chris-
tianity),252-255(Rousseau), 258,270-
294(generaldiscussion),297-821(causes
andremedies),824-825(Christian),891-
898,412(bourgeois leadership), 442,
446,472,478-480(relationtorepresen-
tativesystem), 482,485-487 (relation
tocommunism)
Societies, antisocial,116-117;primitive,
tee
Primitive;secret,177-178,210,21^-220;
stationary,86,66,461;seeClassCircula-
tion;Declines;Progress
Society,andstate,158-159;originsof,274
(Rousseau); seePolitical organization;
Socialtype
Sociology,2-8,28,88,47,828,888
Socrates,81
Soldiers,222-228,285-287; seeAdventurers;
Armies;Mercenaries;Officers
Solidarity,human,75-76,472-478,482;tee
Fraternity
Soils,teeDeSolis
Solomon,74
SouthAmerica,9,80,104,182
Southerners-Northerners, 7,9-15
Sovereignties,intermediate,872(feudal),878-
881,896,481(syndicalist);
seeSovereignty
Sovereignty, principle of,70,seePolitical
formulas; ,popular,52,254,258(social
forces),261(fallacies),270,859(Greece),
866(Rome),879-881(Rousseau,medieval
conceptions),886,391-892(inrepresenta-
tivesystem),394,446,466,471(equality),
488;feeDemocracy;Liberty;Representa-
tiveSystem
Spain,12,15,21-22,80-81,38-84(decline),
104-105,132,212-213(revolutions),220-
221,229-232(army),289-240(military
valor);Napoleonicwars(1808),109,115,
210,212,239-240;Legitimist invasion
(1822),109,117
Spencer,Herbert,PrinciplesofSociology,New
York,1897;18,40,46,47,7195-102,338
Staatfkunrt, 1
Staatitwitaenschaft,
1
Stabilityandchange,68
Stahl,FriederichJulius,276
Standardoflivingandhappiness,308-309
State,80,103(expansionism), 107-110,158-
159
(findsociety), 161(worship),
269,338-393(evolution ofmodem),
409-410,428;teeGovernment; Political
organization
ofnature,294
Statesman(andpolitician),450-451
Stationarysocieties(civilizations,socialtypes),
teeSocieties
Statistics,213
Stofflet,JeanNicolas,213 *
Stoics,Stoicism,124,165,183,309
Stolypin,PiotrArkadyevich,450-451
Struggle(conflict),163-165,197-198(necessity
of),285(undercollectivism)
lorexistence(evolution), 19,28-30,121-
122
forpreeminence,28-80,121-122,290-291.
434,452,456,473;teeClasscirculation;
Success
class(Marxian),seeClassstruggle
Stuartdynasty,383-884
Successinlife(individual),87,59-64,120-124,
287(meritand,andtee37,309-310,
453-457),403-404(underautocracy),406-
409(relationtoprinciplesandtendencies),
416-420,429,433-436,449-457;teeClass
circulation;Struggle
SuezCanal,16
Suffrage,143,150-158(generaltheory),254,
258,262,264-265(bureaucraticcontrolof),
280,284,310-311(aacauseofsocialism),
385-386(England),389,891-392(ascause
ofdeclineofrepresentativesystem),410-
411,413(limited,andtee492),430,467-
468,471(equalityand),474-475,489
Sulla,LuciusCornelius,204
Sumerians,25
Superstition,andrationalism,247-248
Survivaloffittest(orbest),12-23;seeEvolu-
tion;Morality;Preeminence
Suaiana,25
Suvarov,MarshalAlexei,108
Sweden,12,400
Swissguards,225-226,teeGuards;Mercenaries
Switzerland, 16,225-226,230,409
Sympathy,120
Syndicalism,817-318,893,480-481,488-489
Syngenism,72
Syria,10,21,34
Tacfarinas,77
Tacitus,MarcusClaudius,2,14,34,45,118,
340
Taine,Hippolyte,2,18,330
Taipingrebellion,China,192,208-210
Talmud,27
Tanis,10
Tarde,Gabrielde,LacriminalitScompared,
Paris,1886;"Foulesetsectesaupointde
vuecriminal,"Revuedeedeuxmondea,
Nov.15,1898;12,126
Tasmanians, 29,458
Tatars,32
Tartars,teeTatars

556. INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY 513
Taxation,83,86-87(socialfunctionof),149,
158,257,269(modernburdenof),322-
828(revolutionby),854-865(Greece),
867(Rome),406,441-442(ascauseof
declineinRome)
Temperature (asfactorinhistory),7-15;see
Climate
Tendencies (aristocratic anddemocratic),
894-430
TeutonicKnights,108
Thebes,10
Themistocles,45
Theocracies,59,92
TheodosianCode,181
Theodosius,Emperor,870
Theology,2,92
Theories,886;seeCreeds;Principles;
Politi-
cal
,teePoliticalformulas
Thersites(Homer),412-418
Thiers,LouisAdolphe,HistoireduContulatet
deI*Empire,Paris,1845-1869, 21vols.
(trans.London, 1857-1861, 20vols);
109,212-213
ThirdSection,Russian,150
ThirtyYears'War,126
ThomasAquinas,St.,879-880,428,4*8
Thugs(Hindu),178
Thureau-Dangin, Francois, Histoire dela
Monarchic deJuillet,Paris,1888-1892,
7vols.;169,221,285
Tiberius,45
Tigris,86
Time(associalcure-all),260-261
TimoleonofCorinth,200
Tlaxcalarepublic(Mexico),897
Tocqueville,Alexisde,152,276
Toleration,78(Mohammedan), 145,250-251
Topography (asfactorinhistory),15-16
Torah,27
Toreno,Jos6Maria,Condede,Hittoriadel
levantamiento, guerrayrevoluci&n de
Espafia,Madrid,1889,8vols;109,212
Torquemada,Juande,197
Torrianifamily,200
Traderoutes,15-16
Tradition(ascohesiveforce),85
Trajan,468
Travelers,47-48,338-339
Tribes,primitive,48-49
Tripoli,164
Tudor,dynasty,882-888
Turenne,HenrideLatourd*Auvergne,Mar
echalde,89
Turiello, Pasquale, Governo governanti,
Bologna,1887,2vols.;267
Turkey,Turks,16,27-28,82,77,97(assent),
105,107-108
(politicalformula) 182,227
(army),888(decline,tee476),896,899
TwelveTables,Lawsof,48
Tyler,Wat,417
Type:
national,75
ofpoliticalorganization,
338-339
(primi-
tive),842-847(NearEastern),360-370
(Roman),875(modern); teePolitical
organization; Classification ofgovern-
ments
social,teeSocialtype
Tyranny,instinct,185-136,teeSocialforces,
balanceof;Greek,350,853,355
Tyre,29,82
Tyrol,212-213(Hofcrinsurrection)
Uganda,22
Ulpian(DomitiuBUlpianus),866
Unamuno,Miguelde,"Endefensadela
haraganeria," inSdiloquiotyconversa-
ciones,Madrid,1911;421
Unionism,labor(syndicalism), 317-318,480-
481
UnitedStatesofAmerica,12,24,27,84,57-58
(democratic spirit),68(classcirculation,
andtee415),70,115(negroes),144,150-
152(socialforces),211(Revolutionary
War,andsee431),233-484(army),263
(presidential system,andtee150-152,
63,894,398,487),392(suffrage),467
(appointivesystem),476-477(asworld
power,Asiatics)
Unity,group(aspredominanceofa
singlesocial
force),134,147,163,196,seeSocialforces,
Despotism; national
,78(Greekcon-
ception), 812;world, 196,872-373
(medieval);seeFraternity;Solidarity
Universities,378
Utilitarianism,122
Utilities,heterogeneous,37
Utopias,
168
Uzzano,Niccolod',201
Valbert,G.,seeCherbulie*
Valencia,38
ValentinianIofRome,149
Vanni,Icilio,288
Varigny,C.de,"UnsocialistechinoisauXI
siecle,"Revuedetdewmondet,Vol.87,
1880,pp.922-934;272
Vaaa,Gustavus,210,400
Vega,Lopede,teeLopedeVega
Vendeerevolt(FrenchRevolution), 109,115
197,212-214
Vendetta,99
Venice,aristocracyin,60,66,82,225,876,896,
409,426,438
Venetians(Byzantine),164
Vergil,04
-

557. 514 INDEXANDBIBLIOGRAPHY
Vespasian,
438
Vico,Giambattista,72
VictorAmadeusIIofSavoy,402
Vienna,12
VigodeBoussillon,Col,F.P.,Mtmoires mili-
taires,summarizedinP.VigodeRoussil-
lon*"LaGuerred'Espagne,"Revuedet
deuxmondes,Vol.106,1801;100
Villetard,Edmund,Insurrectiondu18mars,
Paris,1872;210,811
Violence,crimesof,12,120
Visconti,Barnabd188; family,200
Vizier,officeof,845
Vladimir,St.,12;-theGreatofRussia,150
Volta,Atessandro,455
Voltaire,81,86,111,174,226,271,462
Volunteerarmies,101-102;teeArmies
VonderGoltz,geeGoltz
W
Wages,
inhistory,804-806,824,868;modern
risein,472
Wahabis,78,207
Wales,459
Waliszewski, Kasimierz,ImntheTerribh,
trans,byLoyd,Philadelphia,1004;Peter
theGreat,trans.Loyd,NewYork,1807;
TheRomanceofanEmpress,CatherineII
ofRusria,NewYork,1804;482
War,20,80-40(chanceasfactorin),100-101
(effects,andsee126-127),168-164(types
of,andee222-223),107(progressand
andfee242-248),240-243(sizeofarmies),
208,804,488-484(World,andsee400);
Peloponnesian ,126;Peninsular
,tee
Peninsular,Spain;warsofindependence
210-211
Warens,Mme.de(LouiseFrancoiseEleonore
delaTourduPil),204
Washington,Gorge,284
WatTyler,417
Wealth(capital),40,57
(associalforce,andfee
141-145);141-145(distribution,andtee
314,483),255,285-286 (collectivism),
202/200-310 (shareofcapitalinproduc-
tion),814
(display),322-323(distribution
bytaxation),887,418(hereditary),426-
427(andsocialtendencies),488
Wellington,ArthurWeUesley,Dukeof,100,
280
Wheat,8
"WhenAdamdelved,"4lt
Whiterace,10-28
Willofpeople,70-71;seeSovereignty,popular
William, I,theConqueror, ofEngland, 15;
IIIof(Orangeand)England,211;
IVofEngland,264
Winkelblach,Karl,seeMario,Carlo
Witt,geeDeWitt
Worms,Ren,Philosophicde*ecienoeisociales,
Paris,1003;458
Xenophon,42,80-00(Comte),104,226,844
Xerxes,241
XimenezdeCisneros,CardinalFrancisco,281
Yellowrace,21-22; river,9
Yelui-Cutsai,818
Z
Zama,battle,40
Ziska,Jan,168
Zoology,40
Zoroaster,75,104-105
ZumalacarreguiydeImaz,Tomaade,218
Zwingli,Ulrich,170