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1. Chapter two: the concept of network Networking is referred as connecting computers electronically for the purpose of sharing information. Resources such as files, applications, printers and software are common information shared in a networking. The advantage of networking can be seen clearly in terms of security, efficiency, manageability and cost effectiveness as it allows collaboration between users in a wide range. Basically , network consists of hardware component such as computer, hubs, switches, routers and other devices which form the network infrastructure. These are the devices that play an important role in data transfer from one place to another using different technology such as radio waves and wires .

2. Cont.…… There are many types of network available in the networking industries and the most common network are Local Area Network ( LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN ). LAN network is made up of two or more computers connected together in a short distance usually at home, office buildings or school. WAN is a network that covers wider area than LAN and usually covers cities, countries and the whole world.

3. Cont.….. Organizational networking is as critical today as was the process of vertical integration of production in the large scale organizations of the industrial era. Networking has proceeds through a number of processes that reinforced each other over the last 25 years: large corporations decentralize themselves as networks of semi-autonomous units; small and medium firms form business networks, keeping their autonomy and flexibility while making possible to pull together resources to attain a critical mass, enabling them to compete in the market;

4. Cont.….. small and medium business networks become providers and subcontractors to a variety of large corporations; large corporations, and their ancillary networks, engage in strategic partnerships on various projects concerning products, processes, markets, functions, resources, each one of this project being specific, and thus building a specific network around such a project, so that at the end of the project, the network dissolves and its components form other networks around other projects. Thus, at any given point in time, economic activity is performed by networks of networks built around specific business projects.

5. Cont.…. Networking can be perceived not only on the level of individual social relationships, but it now integrates the economic system as well. so that studying the economic structure of the information society is only possible through networking (Kelly, 1998). The economic structure of the information society is called the “ network economy ”. The term network economy signals that the creation of products and services, the creation of value, take place within the networks themselves. The reason why networks operate successfully is that in the new social and economic environment, networks are able to efficiently create knowledge and process information, they are also able to adapt quickly to the rapidly changing global conditions, flexibly adjusting to altered conditions (Castells, 1996).

6. Cont. ….. The development of these networks is the result of complicated interaction, the boundary between one organization and another is less marked within the network. The strength of the network lies in the fact that the bilateral relations between the members are embedded in the network, and their value depends on the value of the network. The greater a network is, the more valuable it is (Shapiro – Varian, 2000). The various participants in these networks small enterprises as well as large companies, self employed persons, state, university and company research institutes all have a place of their own within the network.

7. Cont.….. The network approach can be used for analyzing relationships within smaller groups and also for analyzing complex global systems. Several disciplines deal with the investigation of networks: besides mathematicians, social scientists also take part in network research. The logic of network operation made it possible, via the computers, to simultaneously send to and other well-known American homepages, an impracticable amount of queries, temporarily making them inoperative.

8. Cont.… Networks have become the most basic elements of human civilization since everyday life would be Unimaginable today without modern road, public utilities and communication networks. Although the scientific investigation of social networks has been going on for some decades it has only recently become such a popular area of research. Hundreds of millions of people use the network of the Internet on a daily basis, which is why it has been found to have a fundamental effect on the social system of relationships, on formal and informal structures, and the development of trust.

9. Cont.…. At the end of the previous millennium, several large companies owed their competitive advantage and success to having changed to the new network operational mode . From the end of the 1990’s , more and more large companies (among them started to reorganize their operation according to the principle of networking. Other , more traditional, non-companies such as car factories, textile manufacturers, banks etc. also carried out the change successfully.

10. Cont.….. Generally Networking has become the foundation of the new economic structure of information society, where human knowledge and information flow in digital space and the complex system of connections take the place of traditional elements of capital. The essence of the network can be grasped in the long term relationships of cooperation and coopetition between economic operators. Networking appears not only among independent organizations, but also within individual organizations as well. Relationships of subordination and super ordination are increasingly replaced by horizontal organization.

11. Network Society The expression “network society” first appeared in sociology in the late 20th Century. The concept became better known through the work of Manuel Castells (Castells, 1996, Castells1Cardoso, 2006). According to Castells (born in Spain) who has researched in France and the United States, network society has a new social structure and process which is ensured by information and communication technologies based on microelectronics. In a network society , it is with the help of computer networks that information is created, processed and transmitted, building on the knowledge accumulated in the network hubs.

12. Cont.…… According to Castells (Castells, 1996), in the age of industrial society, networks played an important role mainly in the private sphere, while in production and in the civil and public sphere, hierarchical institutions; large companies, the state, the church and the army, structured as levels of power vertically built on one another played the dominant role. In network societies , the basic institutions transform and become more flexible and changeable.

13. Cont.…. In the economic sphere , operational methods that have become more effective through technological development can be observed. For example the internal communication and work organization of multinational companies and the technological innovation accompanying development through production processes supported by robots. In Castells’ model, there were three equally important consequences of all these changes: Science and innovation played a decisive role in the changes since the spread of microelectronics made the development of new information and communication technologies possible.

14. Cont.…. 2. The labor market changed as well with the development of the network economy. The new network company forms require a highly qualified, flexible, independent workforce. 3. The internal organizational structure of the companies changed radically according to the logic of the network. The formation of network society first started in the 1960’s. Network logic has an effect on all subsystems of society, yet at first, only technological and economic changes could be detected. According to Castells, the social, political and cultural effects could only be touched some 15-20 years later.

15. Cont.…. According to Castells, the members of network society are not separate people, but rather individuals who cultivate highly developed systems of relationships. The value of the individual is positively reappraised in the network society this is one of the most distinctive cultural characteristics of the new society. In the network society, the ‘communication space ’ surrounding the individuals is significantly transformed, and one of the important components of this process is the change of form of the media. Castells emphasizes three major transformations of the media : these are:

16. Cont.… Mass communication is mainly concentrated in the hands of international media enterprises that are both, global and locally embedded. This is true of music publishing, and television, as well as the radio and printed media. In the network society, communications channels are digitalized and interactive . Accordingly, the developed societies of the world are increasingly turning away from the mass media and orientating themselves towards personalized, tailor made media contents. Thanks to the new communications technologies, a new media type has developed and become stronger, dubbed a ‘horizontal communications network’.

17. Cont.…. Good examples of the increasing number of new communications forms appearing on the Internet are three new “inventions”: the blog (internet diary), the volg (video diary), and the podcast (own radio broadcast). These individually provided contents are easily accessible to anyone, at the same time their producers are able to remain independent of media companies and national governments.

18. Cont.….. Apart from the constant and universal presence of the media, globalization has also caused significant changes in the social system. the development of network society is rocking the foundations of the institution of the nation state: since the network society operates globally , the state cannot work solely within a national framework any more. At the same time, there are serious cultural obstacles in the way of setting up a worldwide government that adjusts to the process of globalization . With the construction of the network state , national governments may renounce part of their countries’ sovereignty. The European Union is the best example of this, where all the nation states are organized into a form of social, economic and political network (Castells, 2006).

19. New media and society The ongoing switch from analogue to digital , impersonal to personal/social, and one-way to dialogic media is affecting our society in interesting ways. The days of analogue media are coming to an end and, indeed, are over in many places. Now digital television conversion is complete in the United States and the European Union, and many old media formats are being digitalized for example , books and documents scanned into PDFs, old home movies being turned into DVDs, and record players with USB outputs digitizing people’s viny collections.

20. Cont.…. As we discussed earlier, new media increase participation and interactivity , giving audience members and users more control over content and influence over media decisions. Research shows that new media users , especially heavy users who are more actively engaged, tend to be male, middle class, and white . New Media and Democracy Scholars and reporters have noted the democratizing effect of new media, meaning that new media help distribute power to the people through their personal and social characteristics.

21. Cont.…. Instead of the powerful media outlets exclusively having control over what is communicated to audiences and serving as the sole gatekeeper, media audience interactions are now more like a dialogue. The personal access to media and growing control over media discourses by users allows people to more freely express opinions, offer criticisms, and question others communicative acts that are all important for a functioning democracy . A recent national survey found that young people, aged fifteen to twenty-five, are using new media to engage with peers on political issues. “Social Media Powers Youth Participation in Politics,”

22. Cont.… The survey found that young people are challenging traditional notions of youthful political apathy by using new media platforms to do things like: start online political groups, share political videos using social media, or circulate news stories about political issues. Political engagement using new media is viewed as more participatory, since people can interact with their peers without having to go through official channels or institutions. “ Social Media Powers Youth Participation in politics. Generally new media have many impacts on different social activities with in the world.

23. New Media and Social Visibility New Media can increase social visibility of different issues. People who participate in the technologies of New Media, such as citizen journalists, can perform key roles of an NGO such as, ‘monitoring and accountability and public communication’. New Media activists are performing functions of civil society by virtue of their monitoring actions (in filming or writing about an incident) which help hold governments to account by communicating this information to the wider public. Blogs and citizen journalists often question the ‘transparency and accountability’ of traditional media outlets, challenging the hegemony of dominant or state narratives.

24. Cont.…. Hence, blogs, citizen journalism and activity on YouTube are linked to the issue of visibility when the subject matter concerns particular incidents of monitoring. The online platform Ushahidi , which used crowdsourcing to monitor electoral violations during Egypt’s visit to the ballot boxes shows how individuals are engaging fully with the monitoring aspect whilst highlighting the potential issue of electoral fraud.

25. Cont.…. New Media can provide the platforms for this discussion: blogs and social networks such as Facebook allow alternative voices to speak when the traditional media is not free to do so. Comment boxes blog posts allow discussion of issues that otherwise may be obscured in traditional media. They can also provide a platform for self-representation and allow excluded voices to have a social presence.

26. Chapter three New Media and Convergence New media is a broad term that emerged in the later part of the 20th century to encompass the consolidation of traditional media such as films, images, music, spoken and written word, with the interactive power of computer also called convergence , computer-enabled consumer devices and most importantly the internet. New media holds out a possibility of on-demand access to content any time, on any digital device, as well as interactive user feedback, creative participation and community formation around the media content.

27. Cont.. Digital code is the technological basis for media convergence , enshrined in Nicolas Negroponte‟s (1995) phase, from atom to bits‟, in which he recognized the transformative power of converting words, sounds and images into bits of electrical information. The potential of digitally converged media technologies has been an object of widespread attention for over a decade and has been most specifically focused on convergence of broadcast Television and the networked computer meaning to merge TV and Computer .

28. Cont.…. This triggered the dream ticket for media conglomerate giants to grip the new form into its own clutches and Time Warner merger controlled the major U.S market and thus started monopolization of new media in the broader sense. Convergence of the new media includes both technological and social advancement electronic development of telecommunication, development in interactivity with computers has helped in the development of communication in the past and will do so in the future.

29. 3.3 New Media and Online Journalism Online journalism is defined as the reporting of facts when produced and distributed via the Internet . Online news sources began to proliferate in the 1990s in North Carolina. In 2001 the American Journalism Review called Salon the Internet's "well-known independent venue for journalism.“ In 2008 and 2009 audiences for online journalism continue to grow. for the first time, more Americans reported getting their national and international news from the internet, rather than newspapers . Young people aged 18 to 29 now primarily get their news via the Internet .

30. Cont.…… The Internet challenges traditional news organizations in several ways. Newspapers may lose classified advertising to websites, which are often targeted by interest instead of geography . The Internet has also given rise to more participation by people who are not normally journalists. Bloggers write on web logs or blogs. Traditional journalists often do not consider bloggers to automatically be journalists. This has more to do with standards and professional practices than the medium.

31. Cont.….. But, as of 2005, blogging has generally gained at least more attention and has led to some effects on mainstream journalism . such as exposing problems related to a television piece about President George W. Bush's National Guard Service. Other significant tools of online journalism are Internet forums, discussion boards and chats, especially those representing the Internet version of official media.

32. Cont.…. The widespread use of the Internet all over the world created a unique opportunity to create a meeting place for both sides in many conflicts, S uch as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the First and Second Chechen Wars. Often this gives a unique chance to find new, alternative solutions to the conflict, B ut often the Internet is turned into the battlefield by contradicting parties creating endless "online battles." Internet radio and podcasts are other growing independent media based on the Internet.

33. Cont.…… Many news organizations based in other media also distribute news online, but the amount they use of the new medium varies. Some news organizations use the Web exclusively or as a secondary outlet for their content. The Online News Association, founded in 1999, is the largest organization representing online journalists, with more than 1,700 members whose principal livelihood involves gathering or producing news for digital presentation.

34. Cont.….. News reporters are being taught to shoot video and to write in the succinct manner necessary for the Internet news pages. Some newspapers have attempted to integrate the internet into every aspect of their operations, i.e ., reporters writing stories for both print and online , and classified advertisements appearing in both media;

35. Citizen Journalism Jay Rosen (2008), a professor of journalism at New York University, describes citizen journalism as a phenomenon in which the audience employs the press tools they possess in order to inform one another (2009, Pressthink.org). In other words, citizens become contributors to the media, using many different forms of distributing information. The term which is commonly used while explaining citizen journalism is “citizen media ”.

36. Cont.….. According to Aparna (2013), that term was defined it as “the transformative processes they bring about within participants and their communities”. Citizen media contributes to the variety of media outlets. As stated by Dwvendi (2013), the occurrence of citizen-generated content is a response to mainstream traditional media, which oftentimes neglected public interests and had a biased portrayal of events and news.

37. Cont.….. Citizen Journalism is also known as "public", "participatory", and “democratic "),"revolutionary" or "street" J ournalism is based upon public citizens "playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and disseminating news and information."

38. Cont.…. Similarly, Courtney C. Radsch defines citizen journalism "as an alternative and activist form of newsgathering and reporting that functions outside mainstream media institutions, often as a repose to shortcoming in the professional journalistic field that uses similar journalistic practices. B ut is driven by different objectives and ideals and relies on alternative sources of legitimacy than traditional or mainstream journalism."

39. Cont.…… New media technology, such as social networking and media-sharing websites, in addition to the increasing prevalence of cellular telephones, have made citizen journalism more accessible to people worldwide. Due to the availability of technology, citizens often can report breaking news more quickly than traditional media reporters. Notable examples of citizen journalism reporting from major world events are, the Arab Spring, the Occupy Wall Street movement, the 2013protests in Turkey, and the 2010 Haiti earthquake.

40. Cont.….. Citizen journalism, as a form of alternative media, presents a “radical challenge to the professionalized and institutionalized practices of the mainstream media” According to Terry Flew, there have been three elements critical to the rise of citizen journalism : open publishing, collaborative editing, and distributed content .

41. Cont.…. The idea behind citizen journalism is that people without professional journalism training can use the tools of modern technology and the global distribution of the Internet to create, augment or fact-check media on their own or in collaboration with others. For example , you might write about a city council meeting on your blog or in an online forum. Or you could fact-check a newspaper article from the mainstream media and point out factual errors or bias on your blog. Or you might snap a digital photo of a newsworthy event happening in your town and post it online . Or you might videotape a similar event and post it on a site such as YouTube.

42. Cont.….. J . D. Lasica classifies media for citizen journalism into the following types: Audience participation (such as user comments attached to news stories, personal blogs, photographs or video footage captured from personal mobile cameras, or local news written by residents of a community). Independent news and information Websites (Consumer Reports). Full-fledged participatory news sites (convo , Now Public, Ohmy News, DigitalJournal.com, Ground Report, fair observer). Collaborative and contributory media sites (Slashdot, Kuro5hin, News vine) Other kinds of "thin media" (mailing lists, email newsletters) Personal broadcasting sites (video broadcast sites such as Ken Radio)

43. Cont.….. The citizen journalists then transmit that information to their audience through a blog or microblog, such as Twitter. In this sense, they act as gate watchers for the mass media and serve the traditional gatekeeper function for their niche audiences. They may comment on how one media outlet covered a story while another did not or how one outlet used more credible sources than the other. They may also critique a media outlet for shallow coverage or over coverage. Interestingly , the information generated by these citizen journalists increasingly influences the mainstream media’s coverage.

44. Quiz (5%) 1 . What does citizen journalism means? Discuss.(2.5%) 2 . New media technology, such as social networking and media sharing websites, in addition to the increasing prevalence of cellular telephones , have made citizen journalism more accessible to people worldwide .(0.5%) A. True B. False 3. Define the term online journalism?(2%)

45. Blogging and Twittering Blogging has become an effective way for individuals to participate in the dialogue: blog is to declare your presence; to disclose to the world that you exist and what it’s like to be you; to affirm that your thoughts are at least as worth hearing as anyone else’s; to emerge from the spectating audience as a player and maker of meanings’. Its participatory nature is fundamentally important, for a blog b/c it is not merely a ‘channel for authentic expression’ but also the expression of agency. The blogosphere ‘provides a bridge between the private, subjective sphere of self-expression and the socially fragile civic sphere in which publics can form and act’.

46. Cont.….. By this we mean that through blogging or commenting, the individual transforms from a passive observer or ‘consumer of political party propaganda, government spin or mass media news’, to an actor who actively engages in ‘challenging discourses, sharing alternative perspectives’ through ‘publishing their own materials. The ability of ‘regular’ individuals to consume , produce and disseminate their own, alternate media using online platforms has helped fuel the ‘revolution of individual subjectivity’ in which individuals in the region are imagining ‘their relationship with the world differently’ by putting themselves ‘at the center of their own narratives.

47. Cont.….. Like those in the Arab revolutions who used mobile phones to report unfolding events helped shape the narrative of these revolutions, giving these individuals ‘a sense of ownership over events’ which had previously been lacking. Citizen Journalists who write, film, post, tag, comment and engage with an alternate set of media actively participate in the ‘agenda-setting processes through ‘telling their own stories ’. It is this participation through expression which is crucial, to the development of ‘democratic discourses’.

48. Cont.…… Twitter , a microblogging service, has emerged as a new medium in spotlight/ attention through recent happenings, such as an American student imprisoned in Egypt and the US Airways plane crash on the Hudson River. Twitter users follow others or are followed. Unlike on most online social networking sites, such as Facebook or My Space , the relationship of following and being followed requires no reciprocation. A user can follow any other user, and the user being followed need not follow back.

49. Cont.….. Being a follower on Twitter means that the user receives all the messages (called tweets) from those the user follows. Common practice of responding to a tweet has evolved into well-defined markup culture: RT stands for retweet, ’@’ followed by a user identifier address the user, and ’#’ followed by a word represents a hashtag. This well-defined markup vocabulary combined with a strict limit of 140 characters per posting conveniences users with brevity in expression. The retweet mechanism empowers users to spread information of their choice beyond the reach of the original tweet’s followers.

50. Cont.…… A Twitter user keeps a brief profile about oneself. The public profile includes the full name, the location, a web page, a short biography, and the number of tweets of the user. The people who follow the user and those that the user follows are also listed. Twitter tracks phrases, words, and hashtags that are most often mentioned and posts them under the title of "trending topics" regularly. A hashtag is a convention among Twitter users to create and follow a thread of discussion by prefixing a word with a ‘#’ character.

51. Cont.….. With the invention of the Internet , citizen journalism became universally accessible. Sharing and publishing information has become easier and faster than ever, especially with the development of blogs and social media. That being said, some authors claim that blogging is journalism , whereas other experts disagree. However , during the 21st century, blogs have become one of the more notable platform for sharing information, opinions, feelings and other various content.

52. Cont.…. Yagodin (2014:) explained the difference between alternative media , blogs and social media are full of untraditional ways of creativity and expressions of subjectivity . In this digital world , it has become a common practice of traditional media to use online sources of information, such as blogs and posts on social media. There is an abundance of examples showing this practice. There are videos filmed by citizen journalists or eyewitnesses. incorporated in reports on the news or an article dealing with reactions on social media about major events. Scholars calls those instances “ blogization ” .

53. Cont.…… Axel Bruns and Tim (2012) stated that, because of the character limit, tweets must necessarily have fragments of journalistic activity. b/c tweets contain a summarized version of information, they often have links to further materials, with other users commenting and evaluating the posted content. Based on that, it could be concluded that the users are creating content together, providing the context of an event, and are participating in the news making. However, Bruns and High field did not classify those users as journalists. The authors (2012: 12) stated that those users have a hybrid role as a “producer”, a mixture of words “user” and “producer”.

54. Cont.…… According to them, Twitter participants are neither producers of news coverage or just random users . Posts on Twitter often include hashtags, which are commonly used during breaking news and help the public to discover news faster. Bruns and Highfield (2012: 13) stated that the primary function of Twitter is its mechanism to discover news, rather than fully replacing platforms for news coverage.

55. Cont.…… The authors (2012: 14) have also described the process of discovering the news and providing context: Twitter users come across early rumors about an event, often via Twitter itself, some search for further information; some include an appropriate hashtag for the event, which leads to more people finding about the event and searching for even more information.

56. New Media and Prospects for Democracy New Media and Democracy Scholars and reporters have noted the democratizing effect of new media, meaning that new media help distribute power to the people through their personal and social characteristics. Many media scholars have commented on these changes as a positive and more active and participative alternative to passive media consumption. Instead of the powerful media outlets exclusively having control over what is communicated to audiences and serving as the sole gatekeeper, media audience interactions are now more like a dialogue.

57. Cont.….. The personal access to media and growing control over media discourses by users allows people to more freely express opinions, offer criticisms, and question others communicative acts that are all important for a functioning democracy. A recent national survey found that young people, aged fifteen to twenty-five, are using new media to engage with peers on political issues. “Social Media Powers Youth Participation in Politics,”

58. Cont.….. The survey found that young people are defying traditional notions of youthful political apathy by using new media platforms to do things like start online political groups, share political videos using social media, or circulate news stories about political issues. These activities were not included in previous research done on the political habits of young people because those surveys typically focused on more traditional forms of political engagement like voting, joining a political party, or offline campaigning.

59. Cont.….. Political engagement using new media is viewed as more participatory, since people can interact with their peers without having to go through official channels or institutions. “Social Media Powers Youth Participation in communication .

60. Cont.….. Although the digital divide is a continuing ethical issue , new media have had a more positive effect on places that are often left out of such technologies. For example , although many people in developing countries still do not have access to dependable electricity or water, they may have access to a cell phone or the Internet through NGO programs or Internet cafés.

61. Cont.…… To help keep users within their domain, some large new media platforms like Facebook and Yahoo! create expansive environments that include news, social media connections, advertising, and entertainment . which allow users to click around and feel like they are moving freely even though they are not leaving the general owner’s space. New media provide ways of countering some of the control and participation issues that audiences have typically faced as the lines blur between producers and consumers of media. The phrase alternative media is often associated with new media.

62. Cont.…… Blogs that are most relevant to our discussion of democracy are those whose authors engage in citizen journalism and/or gate watching. Citizen journalists increasingly play a part in shaping local and national discussions of news and have received positive and negative evaluations from mainstream media and audiences.

63. Cont.….. Generally: New media have had a democratizing effect on society, as they help distribute power to people through their social and personal characteristics. The personal access to media and growing control over media discourses by users allows people to more freely express opinions, offer criticisms, and question others communicative acts that are all important for a functioning democracy . The democratizing nature of new media hasn’t been welcomed by all, as governments, institutions, and individuals engage in various types of content filtering.

64. Chapter four 4.1. What is globalization? Globalization is a term in heavy current usage but one whose meaning remains obscure, often even among those who invoke it. Indeed , Jan Aart Scholte states that “ globalization stands out for quite a large public spread across the world as one of the defining terms of late twentieth-century social consciousness.” The term is often distinguished more by what it is not, rather than what it is.

65. Cont.….. James Rosenau recognizes such a tendency when he states that: Globalization is not the same as globalism, which points to aspirations for an end state of affairs wherein values are shared by or pertinent to all the world’s five billion people, their environment, their roles as citizens, consumers or producers with an interest in collective action designed to solve common problems. Nor is it universalism values which embrace all humanity, hypothetically or actually. Anthony McGrew is also states that globalization constitutes a multiplicity of linkages and interconnections that transcend the nation states (and by implication the societies) which make up the modern world system. It defines a process through which events, decisions and activities in one part of the world can come to have a significant consequence for individuals and communities in quite distant parts of the globe

66. Cont.…… Anthony McGrew is also states that globalization constitutes a multiplicity of linkages and interconnections that transcend the nation states (and by implication the societies) which make up the modern world system . It defines a process through which events, decisions and activities in one part of the world can come to have a significant consequence for individuals and communities in quite distant parts of the globe.

67. Cont.….. Globalization is defined here as a set of economic and political structures and processes deriving from the changing character of the goods and assets that comprise the base of the international political economy in particular, the increasing structural differentiation of those goods and assets .   Mid-20th century capitalism was organized within the framework of the (now universal) nation-state system. Which combined the principles of mercantilist and liberal organization into a new international regime of ‘embedded liberalism.’

68. Cont.….. This regime subordinated trade to systems of national economic management, anchored in strategic economic sectors like steel and farming. Together, international and national institutions regulated monetary and wage relations to stabilize national capitalisms within a liberal trade regime. Its extension to the so-called third World, as the decolonization process unfolded, generated the paradigm of ‘development.

69. Cont .….. Globalization as Confluence of Economic Phenomena Alternatively , globalization might be characterized functionally by an essentially related series of economic phenomena. These include the liberalization of markets, privatization of assets, retreat of state functions (particularly welfare ones), diffusion of technology, cross-national distribution of manufacturing production (foreign direct investment), and the integration of capital markets . In its narrowest formulation, the term refers to the worldwide spread of sales, production facilities, and manufacturing processes, all of which reconstitute the international division of labor.

70. Cont .….. Often globalization is condensed into a discussion of whether national income, as measured largely in terms of growth, is converging or diverging. Linking globalization to processes of economic integration, Robert Z. Lawrence, for example , makes the broad statement that “economic integration generally leads to convergence, with poorer economies growing more rapidly than richer economies.”

71. Cont.….. Jeffrey G. Williamson , also argued in his presidential address that globalization leads to convergence and has done in prior historical periods. Along with ‘ globalization ’ and ‘ competitiveness ’ the theme of ‘convergence ’ has spilled over into public discussions of policies and prospects for developing countries. All these economic phenomena liberalization, deregulation, etc. appear to have historical precedents.

72. Cont.…… Globalization As Technological and Social Revolution It would be inconsistent to ignore a more extreme theoretical perspective that being the view that we are witnessing a decisive shift away from industrial capitalism to a postindustrial conception of economic relations. The same economic phenomena identified earlier are important not just because they represent a unique cluster of activity but because they represent new form of activity.

73. Cont.….. This view depicts a striking revolution among techno-industrial elites, driven mainly by technological advances, that ultimately renders the globe a single market. This is a comprehensive and complex vision: of globally integrated production; of specialized but interdependent labor markets; of the rapid privatization of state assets; and of the inextricable linkage of technology across conventional national borders.

74. Cont.….. A classic shift is taking place that influences the way we think about a variety of social and economic relations. In contrast to our first formulation, time here is of little meaning. Space, furthermore, has been compressed as a result of technological development, although the effect of such compression may be to enhance heterogeneity , captured in the notion of ‘ globalization .’ Here an extensive reorganization of economic activities is underway at regional/local levels, while an explosion of information/communication and commodities/services flows is occurring across cities , regions, and nations.

75. Cont.……. Globalizing firms are generally labeled transnational corporations; localizing firms, seeking to replicate themselves on a regional basis, may be better termed ‘ multinational corporations .’ Consistent with this distinction, the two behave in very different ways. Multinational firms may decentralize production and sales but their decision-making remains firmly centralized in a hierarchical structure.

76. 4.2 Cosmopolitanism, Society and Globalization globalization looks like universalization of all connections and relations, the emergence of single structures in various spheres of social life at the planetary level, cosmopolitanism is a state of mind, ideology, belief, or, finally, a specific system of philosophical vision of the world and human place in it. globalization and cosmopolitanism emerged in different historical epochs. They are created by different reasons and express different sides of social life.

77. Cont.….. Cosmopolitanism is a cultural phenomenon, characterizing human world outlook, while globalization is a trend of social development, directed towards the emergence of the all-inclusive world. Cosmopolitanism is concerned to disclose the cultural, ethical and legal basis of political order in a world where political communities and states matter. Cosmopolitan multilateralism takes as its starting point a world of ‘overlapping communities of state’.

78. Cont.…… Recognizing the complex structures of an interconnected world, it views certain issues such as housing, sanitation and policing as appropriate for spatially delimited political spheres (the city, region or state), while it sees others such as the environment, world health and economic regulation as requiring new, more extensive institutions to address them. Deliberative and decision-making centers beyond national territories are appropriately situated when cosmopolitan principles can only be maintained properly in a transnational context;

79. Cont.……. Thus, a cosmopolitan polity would need to establish an overarching network of public opportunities, covering cities, nation-states, regions and the wider global order. It is possible to conceive of different types of political engagement on a continuum from the local to the global, with the local marked by direct and participatory processes while larger domains with significant populations are progressively mediated by representative mechanisms. The possibilities of direct involvement in the public affairs of small communities are clearly more extensive compared to those which exist in highly differentiated social, economic and political circumstances.

80. Cont.….. Accordingly, a cosmopolitan organization would seek the creation of an effective and accountable administrative, legislative and executive capacity at global and regional levels to complement those at national and local levels. This would require : The formation of an authoritative assembly of all democratic states and agencies a reformed General Assembly of the United Nations, or a complement to it. The creation of regional parliaments and governance structures ( for example, in Latin America and Africa) and the enhancement of the role of such bodies where they already exist (the European Union) in order that their decisions become recognized and accepted as legitimate independent sources of regional and international regulation.

81. Cont.….. The opening-up of functional international governmental organizations ( such as the WTO, IMF and World Bank ) to public examination and agenda setting. General referenda / votes cutting across nations and nation-states at regional or global levels in the case of contested priorities concerning the implementation of core cosmopolitan concerns.

82. Cont.……. Political cosmopolitanism involves the development of administrative capacity and independent political resources at regional and global levels as a necessary complement to those in local and national polities. At issue is strengthening the administrative capacity and accountability of regional institutions like the EU (European Union) along with developing the administrative capacity and forms of accountability at the level of the UN system itself.

83. Cont.….. A cosmopolitan polity does not call for a reduction of state power and capacity across the globe. Rather , it seeks to establish and develop political institutions at regional and global levels as a necessary complement to those at the level of the state. This conception of politics is based on the recognition of the continuing significance of nation-states, while arguing for layers of governance to address broader and more global questions. The aim is to forge an accountable and responsive politics at local and national levels alongside the establishment of representative and deliberative assemblies in the wider global;

84. Cont.……. Cosmopolitanism , as rejection of national isolation, as broadening the idea of fatherland to the whole world and striving for the world without state borders emerged in the Ancient Times. People in that period did not know real construction of the Earth and the limits of the inhabited world they correlated not with a globe but with a cosmos . That is why the emergence of the cosmopolitan ideas in that time we can and should understand as the first symptom, first sign of globalization, which at the level of rationality revealed itself when in reality there was, of course, no globalization.

85. Cont.…… The discovery of America and then the first circumnavigation of F.Magellan put a beginning for real globalization, which , having begun from discovering and exploring new territories , i.e., in the sphere of geography, very soon pulled into its orbit the spheres of economy, politics, and culture . And cosmopolitan views first time acquired a principal opportunity to transcend the boundaries of abstract speculation and to be realized in the sphere of practical activity.

86. Who Are the Cosmopolitans? Once introduced into complex organizations in the late 1950s ( Gouldner , 1957; 1958), research on cosmopolitans has focused almost exclusively on individual professionals (i.e., university faculty , scientists, and engineers ). and , to a lesser extent , on employees in business organizations (Haas, 2006 ;). However , processes of globalization have given rise to more diverse types of cosmopolitans, some more familiar than others, thereby rendering the focus on professionals outdated at best.  

87. Cont.….. For analytical purposes , we have identified three broad groups of cosmopolitans the global elite, highly mobile professionals, and ordinary cosmopolitans all of whom play a significant role in contemporary international business.

88. 4.3. Impact of Globalization on the Nation-States Economic , social, demographic and technological forces are dramatically altering relationships among nations as well as the nature of politics, public policy, administration, institutional relations within the nation-states (Jun & Wright, 1996). The wave of globalization is certainly not resistible although often confronted with a lot of mixed reactions, which to some degree reflects a lot of frustration and dissatisfaction, especially from the GS (Global South).

89. Cont. ……. One of the hair-splitting arguments pertaining to globalization is that it is seen as an economic monster whose objectives include, among others, the wiping away of the nation-state’s sovereignty especially with regard to socio-economic and political autonomy. As a matter of fact, the nation-state is seen as a powerless partner in the process and does not have the power or mandate to control or have a democratic voice pertaining to the principles and policies under which the globalization gospel is advanced.

90. Cont.…… Contrarily , some schools of thought maintain that globalization has significantly progressed as an economic, social, technological and politically integrative process, because of the sound involvement of the nation-state through the liberalization and rapid expansion of the markets as well as the harmonization of trade. However , at the turn of the millennium , realities proved that a lot of poor countries had and continued to have blocking debts, despite being on board of the globalization ship. So the debt forgiveness was the latest solution for dismissing poverty of poor countries (Easterly, 2002, p. 124)

91. Cont.…. Conditions are set in a straight-forward manner, in order for the nation-states to sit at the globalization table, firstly there is need to liberalize democracy (in a sense they have to subscribe to the capitalist philosophy of governance), which , in turn, would ascertain that the liberalization of the markets becomes a smooth transitional process. Simply put, global changes prescription terms under which the national government should function. As earlier hinted, the formulation of the local administrative policies should be so that they are in line with the prescriptions of globalization.

92. Cont.….. The nation-states have limited powers to challenge the hegemonic, unjust and plethoric economic injustices pursued by institutions such as the IMF, WB (World Bank) as well as the WTO. Under globalization, the nation-states’ sovereignty remains in midpoint as power steadily shifts to the most powerful financial and corporate institutions. Adams et al. (1999, p. 1) charged that globalization has subjected the national governments to an atmosphere where they have seen their sovereignty and control over domestic political and economic affairs rapidly diminish, whatever sovereignty governments in the developing world managed to obtain with decolonization are now rapidly eroding.

93. Cont.…… Neoliberalism has destroyed and rushed the nation-states’ models of development and replaced them with models, which embrace the needs and demands of the supranational organizations. Globalization is supposed to cushion the socio-economic and political environment and yet it is apparent that the ground for operation is uneven. The political destruction that comes to the fore within the nation-states end up compelling the duties elites to move their money out of the country a condition that leads to the growth of appalling economic conditions, as the currency begins to lose value which ultimately leads to economic recession.

94. Cont.….. The responsibilities of the nation-states at the birth of globalization have proved to be discharge into a world of complexity as divided attention on whether to address the liberties and the welfare of the citizens or satisfy the demands of the global village persistently creates an evolving dilemma. According to Panic (2003), globalization deprived the nation-states’ power and sovereignty in that constitutional where changes are made in lieu of the fear of breaking ranks with the powerful economies.

95. Cont.…… The painful truth though is that under capitalism, the business of the day is focused on amassing wealth through private initiatives, rather than attaching value to accumulation for the aspirations of all the citizens within the nation-states. Globalization leads to the evolution of weak states which consequently cripples democracy and in the absence of a strong democracy, we can rest assured that the civil society will remain in disasters and condemned.

96. Globalization and the Nation-State: The Economic Perspective Economically , globalization has built a monopoly whereby the class capitalist society which is dominated by the transnational corporations in the GN (Global North) is taking precedence over everything, thus swaying in the GS into terrible economic depression. The Seattle protests against the WTO (World Trade Organization) in 1999 are a clear indication of the animosity that the world has against the policies of globalization , which perpetrate poor conditions of the working class throughout the world. The working class does not own the means of production and as so their input on policy is very much limited. Berberoglu (2005) argued .  

97. Cont.……. The term global corporation may be less misleading, but still makes one think of a corporation representing the interests of everyone on the globe, which is false. Some economists are now using the more precise term, transnational corporations. The one viewpoint uniting all these corporations is the notion that the whole world is their oyster; that vast profits may be made by the control of markets in as many countries as possible. (p. 18)

98. Cont.….. If then the transnational corporations which are entirely based on the GN are the ones in charge of driving the engine and turning the wheels of globalization, does not it, therefore, hold water that the nation-state, especially in the GS , has a little saying more, so they do not have any bargaining power in as far as formulating the rules of the game. The playing field is rather rough and the nation-state to some degree is compelled to be a sweet angel and adopt and implement global policies as they are or face the music by being put off by the corporate world monsters.

99. The end Thank you for your attention!!!