NRM Extension Teckniques Extension Teckniques ppt.pptx

NARM

1. NRM EXTENSION TECHNIQUES Course Code: NRM442 Course Credit: Cr.Hr/ECTS : 2(2+0)/3 By Abel Arja

2. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Concept of Extension The original concept of extension was that of bridging the gap between the farmers and the sources of information or knowledge . Such sources included organizations or institutions generating knowledge and technologies such as research centers, universities and administration. Research Extension Farmer (This is also called technology transfer).

3. What you understand from the picture?

4. Principles of Extension 1. Principle of cultural difference . Extension work to be successful, it must be carried out in harmony with the cultural pattern of the people. 2. Grass roots principle. Extension program should start with local groups, local situations and local problems. 3. Principle of indigenous knowledge. Instead of ignoring the indigenous knowledge systems as outdated, the extension agent should try to understand them and their implication in the life of the people, before proceeding to recommend something new to them. 4. Principles of interest and needs. People’s interest and people’s needs are the starting point of extension work. Extension work shall be successful when it is based on the interest and needs of the people as they see them.

5. CONT… 5. Principles of learning by doing. Learning remains far from perfect, unless people get involved in actually doing the work. People should learn what to do, how to do, and with what result. 6. Principle of participation. Most people of the village community should willingly cooperate and participate in identifying the problem, planning of projects for solving the problems and implementing the projects in getting the desired results. 7. Family principle. Family is the primary unit of the society. The target for extension work should, therefore, be the family. That is, developing the family as a whole, economically and socially. Not only the farmers, the farm women and farm youth are also to be involved in extension program. 8. Principle of leadership. Identifying different types of leaders and working through them is essential in extension. The leaders may be trained and developed to act as carriers of change in the villages.

6. 9. Principles of adaptability . Extension work and extension teaching methods must be flexible and adapted to suit the local conditions . 10 . Principles of satisfaction. The end product of extension work should produce satisfying results for the people. Satisfying results reinforce learning and motivate people to seek further improvement. 11. Principles of evaluation. Evaluation prevents stagnation. There should be continuous built-in methods of finding out the extent to which the results obtained are in agreement with the objectives fixed earlier. CONT…

7. Extension Method Extension methods may be defined as devices used to create situations in which new information can pass freely between the extension worker and the farming communities. It can also be defined as the tools and techniques used to create situations in which communication can take place between the rural people and the extension workers. The extension methods can be grouped based on the number of people they aim to reach : Individual extension methods Group extension methods Mass extension methods

8. The extension agent meets the farmer at home or on the farm and discusses issues of mutual interest, giving the farmer both information and advice. Individual meetings are probably the most important aspect of all extension work and invaluable for building confidence between the agent and the farmer . Farm/Home visit Office calls Personal Letter Telephone calls Informal contacts 1. Individual extension method

9. Advantages of individual extension method Immediate feedback Freedom of speaking is high Solving problems of investment decision, Integration of Extension agents' information with the farmer and Building trust between the two parties . Disadvantages of individual extension method Costs are very high in terms of travel resource, etc. Small proportion of a target group could be reached. It is seldom a solution for promotion of collective interests

10. 2. Group extension methods The rural people or farmers are contacted in a group , which usually consists of 20 to 25 persons. These groups are usually formed around a common interest. These methods also involve a face-to-face contact with the people & provide an opportunity for the exchange of ideas , for discussions on problems & technical recommendations & finally for deciding the future course of action . Group meetings/discussions Demonstrations Advantages of group methods A large number of farmers can be reached, even if the material and staffing provision of the extension service is limited. Extension costs per head of the target group are reduced . Field days Field Tours

11. Group methods permit more participation by the target groups. Techniques of group dynamics can be used to accelerate the spread of information and increase the willingness of the farmers to make decisions. Disadvantages : These include the following Wide diversity in the interest of group members may create a difficult learning situation . Vested interests, caste groups and village factions may hinder free interaction and decision-making by the group members Difficult to give attention to all members CON’T

12. 3. Mass extension methods Printed media (e.g. newspaper) Radio Television

13. Advantage of mass extension methods: They reach large and varied audiences They reinforce individual and group contact methods by complementing or supplementing them. They save time and expense in reaching large numbers. Limitation of mass extension methods: Less intensive and less effective than individual and group contact methods in bringing about changes in practices. Lack the advantage of “social contacts” or “personal touch” The information provided may not apply to special situations or individual needs. Difficult for the result to be evaluated. One way flow of information Possibility to ignore the message is high CONT…

14. CHAPTER TWO EXTENSION APPROACHES Definition : Agricultural extension approach refers to the dominant guide and style of action of an extension system to achieve its goals. It is the philosophy or the doctrine for extension system that informs , stimulates and guides the aspects of the system like its : structure , leadership , programs , resources , linkages etc. Many extension approaches have been implemented from time to time in different parts of the world.

15. General Clientele Approaches Training and Visit Extension Approach (T&V) Integrated (Project) Approach Educational Institution ( University-Based ) Extension Approach Farming Systems Research/Extension (FSR/E) Approach Commodity Specialized Extension Approach Participatory Extension Approach (PEA) (Client-Based and Client-Controlled Extension) Cost Sharing Approach (Extension as a Commercial Service) CONT… These approaches have different objectives, but one common objective has always been to guide and educate the farmers regarding the utilization of improved agricultural technology so that they can raise their agricultural productivity and can make it profitable for them. Eight main Extension approaches are:

16. General Clientele Approaches(General Agricultural Extension Approach) Assumes that t echnology and information are available which are not being used by the farmers and if this available technology could be effectively communicated to the farmers, farm practices would be improved and the farmers could increase their per hectare yield . Top-down oriented as the technology is being transferred from extension to rural people . Purpose : Improve the welfare of the participants Program planning: This is controlled by the extension organization. Implementation: The methods used are demonstrations, visit to farmers, conducting meetings, tours, sometimes these activities are supported by radio, posters & other publications. Success is usually measured by increase in the national production.

17. Advantages Integrated development could be achieved Large coverage It can interpret national government policies and procedures for the farmers Relatively easy to control by central government. It provides for rapid communication from ministry level to rural people. Disadvantage It lacks two way communication Field staffs are not accountable to the rural people. Expensive and inefficient CONT…

18. Training and Visit Extension Approach (T&V) Assumes that extension field persons are poorly trained, not up-to-date and not visit farmers and further anticipate that management and supervision is not adequate. It also assumed that there is lack of two way communication between research extension and farmers. Purpose : Is to induce farmers to increase production of specified crops . Control of program planning is centralized. Implementation: Relies basically on visits by village level extension workers to small group of farmers or to individual contact farmers. Success is measured by increase in yields & total production of crops being emphasized.

19. Advantages of T&V approach Close working relationship between research, extension and farmer Organized extension service provision Because of regular training, It gives and works a guideline up-date with timely information. Close supervision of extension activities Logistical support to extension staffs are more available. Disadvantages T&V approach Lack of actual two-way communication. Not cost effective Not work in absence of good research establishment (No ready technologies ) T & V cannot increase production unless the contemporary parts of the small farmer development package like input supply & credit, market mechanisms & price incentives are in place. CONT…

20. Integrated (Project) Approach Assumption : It assumes that large government funded approaches are not likely to have a significant impact upon either agricultural production and rural people, and that better results can be achieved in a particular location during a specified time period with large infusions of outside resources . sometimes it is assumed that the successful methods and techniques, demonstrated inside the project will be replicated in other locations throughout the country. Project approach has to rely on special outside funds by the donor agencies. The lifetime of a project is relatively shorter and is limited to a specific location.

21. Purpose : to demonstrate within the project area, what can be accomplished in a relatively short period of time. To test a variety of alternative extension methods/ approaches so as to learn which are most appropriate for the particular setting. The program planning is usually outside the project location, with the central government, the donor agencies or some combination as may be indicated in the project agreement. Implementation : project management staff, project allowances for field staff with better transportation, facilities, equipment, better housing than regular government program and as well as foreign advisors for local staff. The project staff is exclusively responsible for the execution of the program plans according to a set line of directions by the government and donor agencies. Success is measured usually in short run achievements like the adoption of recommended technologies by the people in the project area. CONT…

22. Advantages of Project Approach Quick results will be achieved in short period of time. New technologies and methods can be tested and experimented . Disadvantages Project Approach Time too short Anticipates a flow of the ‘good ideas’ in the project area to other places. When the supply of money ends, so does the project. i.e. The assumption of continuity seems usually to be un warranted. Once project termination looms, there is a running down as staff leave and the field unit straggles to become reintegrated in to a larger national system. A tendency to consume a large proportion of resources on baseline surveys & the establishment of a temporary logistic base. Pressures to show immediate results leading to fictitious reporting. CONT…

23. Educational Institution (University-Based) Extension Approach Assumption Colleges or schools of agriculture have technical knowledge which is relevant & useful to farm people. And teaching staff need interaction with ‘real farmers’ in order to be good teachers of agriculture. Purpose To help rural people learn about scientific agriculture and To help teachers & students at schools learn about actual farming practice. Program planning : Program planning tends to be controlled by the educational institutions. Implementation is usually through non-formal instruction in groups, with individuals and with other methods & techniques . Some universities have also established their own radio stations and have their television channels for the effective transmission of the technologies developed by them. Measure of success : High rate of adoption of recommended practice and some times also participation of farmers in the institutions extension activities.

24. CONT… Advantages of Educational Institution Extension Approach It can help educational institutions in providing real world relevant examples to their academic teaching materials. It can bring researcher to the farmers so that they will be able to identify the problems of farmers and provide solutions . Disadvantages of Educational Institution Extension Approach The tendency to the institutions to speak too academically which could not easily understood by the farmers. There is competition (i.e . competition which may develop between personnel from ministry of agriculture & personnel of ministry of education).

25. Farming Systems Research/Extension (FSR/E) Approach Assumptions : Too often, agricultural extension efforts have failed because the technology available to field extension personnel did not ‘fit’ the local farming systems. So, if such technology is not available, it needs to be generated locally. Purpose: To generate more appropriate technologies for farmers and where possible to improve policies & support services for farm production, to raise farm families welfare & to enhance society’s goals. To provide extension personnel with research results to meet the results to meet the needs & interests of local farming system conditions. Program planning: Control of program is shared jointly by local people, agricultural extension & agriculture researchers. Measures of success: It is the extent to which people adapt the technologies & continue to use them over time. Implementation is through the partnership of research and extension personnel with each other and with local people/farmers, taking a “systems approach” to the farm and Extension methods such as meetings, tours and demonstrations are used

26. Problem solving in that FSR teams seek researchable problems and opportunities to guide research & to identify ways for making local services and national policies more attuned to the farmers needs. Comprehensive because FSR team consider the whole farming activity (consumption as well as production to learn how to improve the farmers output & welfare, to identify the flexibility for change in the environment & to evaluate the results in terms of both farmers & society’s interests. Interdisciplinary: in that researchers & extension staff with different disciplinary back grounds work with farmers in identifying problems & opportunities searching for solutions implementing the results. Complementary: because it offers a means for using the outputs of other research & development organization and for giving direction to others’ work. The main features of FSR/E

27. Interactive in that FSR teams use the results from research to improve their understanding of the system & to design subsequent research & implementation approaches. Dynamic: in that often team introduce relatively modest changes in the farmers’ condition first & the favorable results encourage more significant changes latter. Responsible: to the society in that FSR team keep the long-run interests of the general public - both present & future in mind as well as those of the farming groups immediately affected.   CONT…

28. FSR activities The basic FSR activities are : Target & research area selection, Problem identification & development of research base, Planning on-farm research, On-farm research analysis & Extension of results. Advantages of FSR The messages & the technologies are ‘fit’ to the realities of people. Linkage between research & extension Disadvantages of FSR It is a team approach, so costs are usually too high. It takes time & patience to study the farming system. Reporting & administrative control is difficult

29. Commodity Specialized Extension Approach This approach tends to focus on one export crop such as coffee, sugar, tobacco, cotton or rubber. The objective of this approach is to produce & market relatively high value commodities efficiently & effectively. These commodities are generally produced for export, as they generate foreign exchange. Assumption is that the way to increase productivity or production of a particular commodity to concentrate on it. It is also assumed that grouping extension with such other functions as research, input supply, marketing, credit and same time’s price control will make the whole system effective. The purpose is to increase the production of particular commodity. The program planning controlled by the commodity organization. The success of the approach is measured by the increase of the product of given commodity.

30. Implementation: t ends to be in the form of instructions given to cultivators by the extension staff. This is often done by word of month in face- to-face communication. Demonstration & printed media may also be used. CONT… Advantages of the Commodity Specialized approach The technology tends to ‘fit’ the production problems & therefore the messages tend to be appropriate. Agricultural extension tends to be efficient & effective since extension activities tend to be coordinated with both input supply & marketing of out put. Better coordination with research & marketing, messages tend to be delivered timely. Focus on narrow range of technical concerns, closer management & supervision , fewer farmers for a given extension worker. Being smaller & more focused, it tends to be easier to monitor, evaluate & relatively more cost effective.

31. Disadvantages of the commodity specialized approach Interest of farmers may have less priority It does not provide advisory service to other aspects of farming in the case of farmers who produce more than one commodity. e.g. Soil conservation, food production, livestock production etc .... Farmers may be forced with several extension workers from different agencies, with competing advice or demands. Needs & potentials of the whole farm may not be considered. Its narrow focus means that environmental factors may be ignored. Extension objectives are determined by agency needs & priorities not those of farmers. Only minority farmers (with particular type of soil, proximity to processing plants, above average land holding or identified by some criteria) may be potential beneficiaries   CONT…

32. Participatory Extension Approach ( Client-Based and Client-Controlled Extension) Participation of the people involved in development programs is often seen as a way to make these programs more successful specially for solving problems of poor people. Assumption : Farming people have much wisdom regarding production of food from their land, but their levels of living & productivity could be improved by learning more of what is known outside. There is an indigenous knowledge system and while it is different from ‘scientific knowledge system’ there is much to be gained by the interaction of the two. Purpose : to increase the production of farming people & to increase the consumption & enhance the quality of life of rural people. Success is measured through continuity of local extension organizations & the benefits to the community. Since programs are planned locally the extent to which program goals and objectives are achieved is also a measure of success .  

33. Implementation with this approach involves meetings with small, large, specialized and general community groups. In addition demonstrations are typical features with this approach. The farmers’ associations and community organizations visit each others’ farms, plan tours to distance places to see the recommendations being practiced successfully . Extension agents’ tasks are to stimulate farmers to organize groups and help them to work effectively for their own benefit. CONT…

34. Advantages Development of self confidence in each participant Increasing the relevance of extension messages to farmers’ needs, Enhancing learning through purposeful participation and group pressure, Securing appropriate recommendations from researchers through participatory feedback, Assisting in adjusting inputs of supplies, credit and marketing to farmers’ needs, and increasing efficiency and effectiveness of agricultural extension CONT… Disadvantages Lack of control of the program, Difficult to manage central reporting and accounting

35. Cost Sharing Approach (Extension as a Commercial Service) It is an extension approach where the cost of agricultural extension is supposed to be shared between the clients & agricultural extension system. The assumption with this approach is that an extension system is more likely to achieve its goal if those who benefit from it share same part of the cost. It is assumed that the program is more likely to fit local situations and personnel are more likely to serve the interests of the clientele of the program if the costs are shared between the ‘outside’ sponsors of the program & the ‘inside’ target groups for the program. It also assumes that farm people are too poor to pay the whole cost. So, central and regional government typically provides most of it.

36. Purpose : Helping farm people learn those things they need to know for self-improvement and increased productivity. It is for this purpose that local people are willing to pay part of the cost to make funding of Agricultural extension affordable & sustainable both at the central & local levels. It is therefore considered as one of the most promising approaches to financing agricultural extension. Control of program planning is shared by the various levels paying the costs but must be responsive to local interests in order to maintain ‘cooperative’ financial arrangements. i.e. Local people tend to have a strong voice in program planning. Success is measured by farm people’s willingness and ability to provide some share of the cost. CONT…

37. The advantages of cost sharing approach include: Local control of program planning, which increases the relevance of the program contents and methods to the needs and interests of clientele, this tends to higher adoption rates Local people’s influence on the recruitment and selection of extension staff, Lower cost to central governments as the cost is shared by lower levels of governments, and often by the farmers/community organizations. The dis advantages with this approach are: It is difficult to control program planning and personnel, Financial management and other aspects of administration tend to be complex and difficult CONT…

38. CHAPTER THREE PARTICIPATORY EXTENSION APPROACH The concept of participatory approaches Participation refers people’s involvement in decision-making processes, in implementing programs, their sharing in benefits of development programs and their involvement in efforts to evaluate such programs The concept of participatory approaches refers to methods and practices that actively involve stakeholders—especially local communities—in decision-making processes related to projects, policies, and resource management.

39. Is a participatory learning process where farmers and villagers are involved in identifying, prioritizing and analyzing problems, make action plans to address these problems, implement and monitor activities in the action plans. Emphasizes the value of local knowledge and the importance of empowering communities to take an active role in managing their resources. It contrasts with top-down approaches where decisions are made by external experts without significant input from those directly affected . Implies a major, but not exclusive role for local populations in allocating rights and responsibilities over resources. CONT…

40. Participatory Approaches for Natural Resource Management Participatory natural resource management is a practice that involves local communities in the decision-making process for managing natural resources. Involve engaging local communities, stakeholders, and other relevant parties directly in the management and decision-making processes around natural resources like land, water, forests, and wildlife. Focus on collaboration and shared responsibility, ensuring that those who are most affected by natural resource management decisions have a voice in shaping them.

41. Levels of participation in Natural Resource Management Manipulation: The lowest rung applies to situations of ‘none-participation’, where participation is contriving as the opportunity to indoctrinate. Information: When stakeholders have informed about their rights, responsibilities, and options, the first important step towards genuine participation takes place. The main drawback at this stage is that emphasis has placed on one—way communication, with neither channel for feedback nor power for negotiation .

42. Consultation: This level entails two—way communication, where stakeholders have the opportunity to express suggestions and concerns, but no assurance that their input will be used at all or as they intended. Therefore , it could be said that at this level stakeholders are ‘participating in participation’. The most frequent approaches to consultation are chaired meetings where stakeholders do not contribute to the agenda, public hearings, and surveys . CONT…

43. CONT… Consensus building: Here stakeholders interact in order to understand each other and arrive at negotiated positions, which are tolerable to the entire group. A common drawback is that vulnerable individuals and groups tend to remain silent. Decision—making : When consensus is acted upon through collective decisions, this marks the initiation of shared responsibilities for outcomes that may result. Negotiations at this stage reflect different degrees of advantage exercised by individuals and groups.

44. Risk—sharing: This level builds upon the preceding one but expands beyond decisions to encompass the effects of their results, a mix of beneficial, harmful and natural consequences. Things being constantly in flux, there is always the element of risk, where even the best-intended decisions might yield the least desired results. Hence , accountability is fundamental at this level, especially when those with the greatest advantage may be the ones with the least at risk. Partnership: This relationship entails exchange among equals working towards a mutual goal. Since partnership builds upon the proceeding levels, it assumes mutual responsibility and risk sharing.   CONT…

45. Passive Participation : People participate by being told what is going to happen or has already happened. It is a unilateral announcement by an administration or project management without any listening to people’s responses. The information being shared belongs only to external professionals. 2. Participation in Information Giving: People participate by answering questions posed by extractive researches using questionnaire surveys or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings, as the findings of the research are neither shared nor checked for accuracy. Typology of participation in Natural Resource Management

46. 3. Participation by Consultation: People participate by being consulted , and external agents listen to views. These external agents define both problems and solutions and may modify these in the light of people’s responses. Such a consultative process does not concede any share in decision making, and professionals are under no obligation to take on board people’s views. 4. Participation for Material Incentive: People participate by providing resources , for example labor, in return for food, cash, or other material incentives. Much on-farm research falls in this category, as farmers provide the fields but are not involved in the experimentation or the process of learning. It is very common to see this called participation, yet people have no stake in prolonging activities when the incentives end . CONT…

47. 5. Functional Participation : People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined objectives related to the project, which can involve the development or promotion of externally initiated social organization. Such involvement does not tend to be at early stages of project cycles or planning, but rather after major decisions have been made. These instructions tend to be dependent on external initiators and facilitators, but may become self-dependent. 6. Interactive Participation : People participate in joint analysis , which leads to action plans and the formation of new local institutions or the strengthening of existing ones. It tends to involve interdisciplinary methodologies that seek multiple perspectives and make use of systemic and structured learning processes. These groups take control over local decisions , and so people have a stake in maintaining structures or practices. CONT…

48. CONT… 7 . Self-Mobilization : People participate by taking initiative independent of external institution to change systems. They develop contacts with external institutions for resources and technical advice they need, but retain control over how resources are used. Such self-initiated mobilization and collective action may or may not challenge existing inequitable distribution of wealth and power.

49. Co-Management in Natural Resource Co-management is : a situation in which two or more social actors negotiate, define and guarantee amongst themselves a fair sharing of the management functions, entitlements and responsibilities for a given territory, area or set of natural resources . Defined as sharing of responsibilities, rights and duties between the primary stakeholders, in particular, local communities and the nation state. Co-management in natural resource management is a collaborative approach where multiple stakeholders, including local communities, government agencies, and sometimes private entities, share the responsibility and authority for managing natural resources.

50. Co-management involves shared governance of natural resources between the government and local communities . CONT… Recognizes the value of combining traditional knowledge with scientific management practices . Successful co-management requires clear agreements , mutual trust , and effective communication between all parties involved. A pluralist approach to managing natural resources, incorporating a variety of partners in a variety of roles, generally to the end goals of environmental conservation , sustainable use of natural resources and the equitable sharing of resource-related benefits and responsibilities .

51. Characteristics of Co-Management Capitalizes on multiplicity and diversity . Different social actor possesses different capacities and comparative advantage in management, and a partnership stress and builds upon their complementary roles. Multi-party but also multi-level and multi-disciplinary. Processes, agreements and institutions are inclusive rather than exclusive, they attempt to include all the bearers of interests and concerns who wish to participate. Based upon a negotiated, joint decision-making approach and some degree of power sharing and fair distribution of benefits among all institutional actors. Stand on the concept of common good , the trust that it is possible to follow action that harmonizes different interests while responding, at least to some extent, to all of them . Part of abroad social development towards more direction and collaborative democracy

52. Preparatory Phase : Assessing the need and feasibility of co-management Identifying stakeholders and resources Establishing a start-up team and gathering information Negotiation Phase Developing a common vision and strategy Negotiating management plans and agreements Establishing co-management organizations. Learning-by-Doing Phase Implementing plans and agreements Monitoring and evaluating progress Adapting strategies based on feedback Phases of Co-Management

53. Critical assumptions underlying the participatory approach Participatory approaches facilitate local empowerment by creating opportunities for specific disadvantaged groups, such as women or the landless, to have access to external resources (training, credits) or to mobilize their own resources (organization, knowledge, skills). The use of participatory approaches will allow the integration of local knowledge systems into local project planning and implementation. Therefore , in particular during the planning process, emphasis should put on the mutual assessment and mobilization of local knowledge and management systems . Participation does not just mean getting the basic information out of the community in order to "target" the project interventions effectively.

54. Participatory planning facilitates a two-way learning process between the local community and the project. This two-way learning process should facilitate the timely adjustment of project support services to changing local realities . participatory planning will enhance political commitment and institutional support for local planning by building a common understanding between institutions and local groups. CONT…

55. Key Principles of Applying Participatory Methods Inclusion - of all people, or representatives of all groups who will be affected by the results of a decision or a process Equal partnership - recognizing that every person has skill, ability and initiative and has an equal right to participate in the process, regardless of their status. Transparency - all participants must help to create a climate conducive to open communication and building dialogue. Sharing power - authority and power must be balanced evenly between all stakeholders to avoid the domination of one party. Sharing responsibility - similarly, all stakeholders have equal responsibility for decisions that are made, and each should have clear responsibilities within each process.

56. Empowerment - participants with special skills should be encouraged to take responsibility for tasks within their specialty, but should also encourage others to also be involved to promote mutual learning and empowerment. Cooperation - is very important; sharing everybody's strength reduces everybody's weaknesses. CONT…

57. CHAPTER FOUR What is monitoring and evaluation ? Monitoring is a continuous process of collecting and analysing information to compare how well a project, programme or policy is being implemented against expected results. PARTICIPATORY MONITORING AND EVALUATION Evaluation is the systematic and objective assessment of an on-going or completed project, programme or policy, its design, implementation and results.

58. Definition of Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation Participatory monitoring & evaluation (PM&E): A process through which stakeholders at various levels engage in monitoring or evaluating a particular project , share control over the content, the process and the results of the M&E activity and engage in taking or identifying corrective actions . A process of self-assessment, collective knowledge generation, and cooperative action in which stakeholders in a program or intervention substantively and collaboratively identify the monitoring and evaluation issues , collect and analyse data , and take-action as a result of what they learn through this process.

59. Participatory M&E is about engaging different stakeholders, especially targeted beneficiaries, in monitoring and evaluation processes. PM&E focuses on the active engagement of primary stakeholders. CONT… The following stakeholder groups are typically involved in PM&E: The end users of project goods and services, including both men and women at the community level Intermediary organisations, including NGOs Private sector businesses involved in the project Government staff at all levels.

60. Principles of Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation Participation: By involving people who are directly affected by the project, PM&E ensures that these voices—often those who are least heard—have a real influence over the program. It shifts the power from a top-down approach to a bottom-up approach, which can make projects more relevant and successful. Negotiation: PM&E requires open discussions between all parties involved, such as project staff, local leaders, community organizations, NGOs, and others. These discussions help define each group’s role and responsibilities, and they provide a chance to work through different opinions about the project’s focus, methods, and intended actions. It’s a way to create clear, shared expectations and to manage conflicts in a constructive way .

61. Learning: PM&E emphasizes learning for everyone involved, aiming to use these lessons to improve the program. Participants learn new skills and knowledge that help them understand their needs, set priorities, and plan actions. This shared learning is beneficial for making adjustments during the project and for applying lessons in future initiatives. Flexibility: PM&E needs to be adaptable, responding to changes in circumstances, community needs, or available skills. Methodologically Eclectic: PM&E uses a wide variety of methods and tools, often including local practices that make sense in the project’s context . CONT…

62. Relevance of Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation By involving those directly affected, a more clear picture of what is actually happening in a program can be drawn­ both successes and failures . Key stakeholder groups may feel empowered through participating in the process­ they share responsibility for the evaluation processes and results. There is potential to develop capacity and skills in evaluation generally; these can then be applied to other programs and activities. Development practitioners identify several benefits associated with PM&E. These are:

63. When information is generated as a routine part of program operations, there is greater likelihood that this information will be used directly to make mid­course corrections and modifications as the program is implemented. There is substantial benefit for team building and creating commitment through collaborative inquiry. The learning associated with participating in such a process is experiential and can bring a deep sense of meaningfulness to the work. CONT…

64. Differences B/N Conventional And Participatory M&E Aspect Conventional M&E Participatory M&E Purpose Primarily for accountability to funders and external reporting. Focuses on learning, empowerment, and improving project outcomes from within. Stakeholder Involvement Limited; often restricted to evaluators, managers, and funders. High: includes community members, beneficiaries, and all relevant stakeholders actively. Role of Stakeholders Generally passive; stakeholders are often only data sources or informants. Active participants; stakeholders help design, collect, and interpret data and findings.

65. Aspect Conventional M&E Participatory M&E CONT… Decision-Making Top-down; decisions on what to evaluate and how are typically made by external evaluators or project managers. Bottom-up; stakeholders help set priorities, choose indicators, and shape the evaluation process. Methods Used Often standardized, quantitative methods like surveys and statistical analysis. Emphasizes flexible, qualitative, and visual methods such as focus groups, community mapping, and storytelling. Process Structured, with a pre-set plan and little flexibility for changes. Adaptive and flexible, evolving based on stakeholder feedback and project needs. Ownership of Findings Findings are often owned and controlled by external evaluators or funders. Findings are co-owned by stakeholders, fostering accountability and buy-in.

66. CONT… Aspect Conventional M&E Participatory M&E Focus of Evaluation Measures outputs and outcomes against predetermined targets and indicators. Focuses on relevance, processes, outcomes, and the value of the experience for participants. Data Interpretation Carried out mainly by evaluators or data analysts. Jointly interpreted by stakeholders Feedback and Reporting Reporting is formal and aimed primarily at external stakeholders or funders. Reporting is tailored for accessibility to all participants, often using simple language, visuals, or community forums. Outcome Results are used to judge success or failure and may impact future funding. Results are used to empower participants, improve ongoing projects, and foster learning and accountability.

67. Steps in A Participatory Evaluation Process The 4 Steps of a PM&E Process

68. Step 1: Planning the Process Identification of stakeholder groups to be involved in the planning of the PM&E process. Stakeholders define the objectives of the PM&E , what will be monitored, how and by whom. This step includes the identification of relevant indicators. In some cases, a common set of indicators is developed, while in other instances different stakeholder groups develop their own sets of indicators. This requires a lengthy process of negotiation, contestation and collaborative decision-marking among various stakeholders.

69. Step 2: Gathering Data Data on implementation processes, strategies and results can be collected using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative methods can include: community surveys; interviews.

70. CONT… Qualitative methods can includes participatory learning methods using visual (e.g. rich pictures, locality mapping), interviewing and group tools (e.g. focus groups) and exercises.

71. Step 3: Analysing Data While data analysis is often thought of as a rather mechanical and expert-driven task, PM&E should be an opportunity to actively involve various categories of program stakeholders in the critical analysis of successes and constraints and the formulation of conclusions and lessons learned.

72. Step 4: Sharing the Information and Defining Actions to Be Taken Not all stakeholders can be involved in M&E data collection and analysis. I n this step the results of preceding M&E activities are shared with other stakeholders, and There is discussion of appropriate actions to be taken based on the findings.

73. #Quiz (5%) What is participatory monitoring & evaluation (PM&E) ? (1%) Write at least three differences b/n conventional and participatory M&E (2%) List the steps involved in a participatory evaluation process (2%)

74. CHAPTER FIVE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF INNOVATION Definition of Terms Innovation: is an idea, practice, methods or objects that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. Innovation is not always the result of recent research or invention. Example , fertilizer is an innovation in some remote parts of Ethiopia but it is not an innovation or new technology for many who have been used it for many years .   Diffusion: the spread of an innovation into the social system from one decision making unit (individual, household, organization) to the next overtime.

75. Adoption: the decision to apply an innovation and continue to use it for relatively long period of time. An individual who use a technology for a single time and discontinue using it can not be regarded as adopter . Similarly an individual who adopt a part of the recommended package of practice can not be considered as adopters . An innovation adoption index indicates the proportion of adoption by an individual from the set of recommended practices or technologies Social system: referring to the group or groups of people that an innovation diffuses through. CONT…

76. Adoption Process Individuals have been found to pass through a series of mental stages from the time they are first exposed to an idea or practice to the time they adopt it as a part of their behavior. These series of mental stages are type of decision-making process . Five stages have been identified as: Awareness Interest Evaluation Trial Adoption

77. Awareness stage A person becomes aware of new idea, product, or practice for the first time. He knows very little about any of its special qualities, it usefulness, or how it is likely to work for him. During this stage of the process the individual has not been inspired to find more information about the innovation. CONT… Interest stage A person develops interest about in the new idea or practice. He want to know about what it really is, what it will do, how it will work for him. Needs and actively seeks additional detailed information.

78. CONT… Evaluation stage The prospective adopter weighs the pro and con of the new idea or innovation, and relates it to his own situation. He asks himself if the idea is good for him. Here the individual prospective adopter has to take a decision either to adopt or reject the innovation. Trial stage At this stage, a person tries out the new idea or practice, usually on a small scale to see how it fits into his situation. During this stage the individual determines the usefulness of the innovation and may search for further information about it.

79. CONT… Adoption stage The individual decides that the new practice is good enough for full—scale use. In this stage the individual finalizes their decision to continue using the innovation and may use the innovation to its fullest potential.

80. Innovation-Decision Process 1. Knowledge : individuals are exposed to an innovation and an initial idea that something might change; 2. Persuasion : more information and experiences cause the individual to develop either a positive or negative attitude about the innovation itself; 3. Decision : an individual decides whether and how to act. A decision could be to not adopt, or to wait and watch the results obtained by somebody else; 4. Implementation : people decide to adopt the innovation, even on a small scale. 5. Confirmation : if the results are positive as expected, the innovation is definitively accepted, but if the contrary happens, the innovation may be rejected.

81. Attributes of Innovations and Rate of Adoption Some innovations are adopted more rapidly than others because the farmers perceive them to have different characteristics. A number of studies have analyzed the relation between characteristics of an innovation and its rate of adoption. Relative advantage : the more advantageous the change appears to be, the more will it be adopted. The advantages, as well as the disadvantages, should be communicated clearly; individuals and groups can then ponder costs and benefits and make up their minds, even before beginning to participate in the process.

82. 2. Compatibility: with socio-cultural values and beliefs, with previously introduced ideas or with farmers felt needs. E.g . it is very difficult to introduce pig husbandry in Christian/Muslim society even if it is very profitable enterprise. 3. Complexity: refers to the level of real or perceived difficulty of the innovation. It is related to the concept of continuity or discontinuity seen above. For some people, a certain change could be very difficult to understand or to manage, while others might find it easy. There are cultural, generational and gender aspects that make the same innovation appear to be more or less complex to different groups of stakeholders; innovation often fails because they are not implemented correctly. CONT…

83. CONT… 4. Trialability: a farmer will be more inclined to adopt an innovation which he tried first on a small scale on his own farm and which he proved to work better than an innovation he has at hand. This trialability may be related to ‘divisibility’ as with fertilizers, for example. Although large machines cannot be ‘divided’, some-times they can be hired before they are purchased . 5. Observability: a crop variety planted in a field is observable than a bookkeeping or financial management techniques.

84. There are different categories of farmers . According to Rogers (1971), the farmers based on their innovativeness can be classified as: Innovators Early adopters Early majority Late majority Laggards Adopter Categories and their Characteristics

85. All individuals in a social system do not adopt an innovation at the same time . Rather, they adopt in an ordered time sequence, and they may be classified into adopter categories on the basis of when they first begin using a new idea. CONT… Innovators: The innovators include a small minority of people (about 2–3 percent of the population), who, by education, economic situation and/or personal psychological attitude, are comfortable in taking risks. They like to try new things and do not have a fear of failure, or their economic situation is such that they can risk a partial loss of income.

86. Characteristics of Innovators: Have larger farms. High net worth and risk capital. Willing to take risks. Usually not past middle age Generally, well educated Have respect and prestige in progressive communities but not in conservative type of communities. Mentally alert and actively seeking new ideas . CONT…

87. Early Adopter: Early adopters are a more integrated part of the local social system than innovators . Whereas innovators are cosmopolites, early adopters are localities. This adopter’s category, more than any other, has the greatest degree of opinion leadership in most social systems. Potential adopters look to early adopters for advice and information about the innovation. The early adopter is considered by many as “the man to check with” before using a new idea .

88. This adopter category is generally sought by change agents to be a local missionary for speeding the diffusion process. Because early adopters are not too far ahead of the average individual in innovativeness, they serve as a role model for many other members of a social system . Characteristics Early Adopter : Younger than those who have a slower adoption rate, but not necessarily younger than the innovators They are not the persons who test the untried ideas but they are quickest to use tried ideas in their own situations. Have large farms. Higher education than those who adopt more slowly CONT…

89. High income . They participate more in the social activities of the community and in government programs . CONT… Early Majority: The early majority adopt new ideas just before the average member of a social system. The early majorities interact frequently with their peers, but leadership position; are rarely held by them. The early majority may deliberate for some time before completely adopting a new idea. Their innovation-decision is relatively longer than that of the innovator and the early adopter.

90. Characteristics of Early Majority : Slightly above average in age, education and farming experience. They take a few more farm journals and bulletins than the average. They have medium high social and economic status. Less active in formal groups than early adopters, but more active than those adopting later. In many cases, they are not formal leaders in the association They also attend extension meetings and farm demonstrations. They associate mainly with people of their own community. CONT…

91. Late Majority: The late majority adopt new ideas just after the average member of a social system. Adoption may be both an economic necessity and the answer to increasing social pressures. Innovations are approached with a skeptical and the late majority do not adopt until most other in their social system have done so. Characteristics: have less education and are older than the early majority. They form the major part of formal organizational membership, although they participate less in such formal groups.

92. They take fewer leadership roles than the earlier adopters. They take and read fewer papers, magazines and bulletins, than the early majority. They do not participate in as many activities outside the community as do people that adopt earlier. Unwillingness to risk scare resources Uncertainty about innovation must be removed before adoption CONT…

93. Laggards: Laggards are the last to adopt an innovation. They possess almost no opinion leadership. They are the most locality in their outlook of all adopter categories, many are near isolates. The point of reference for the laggard is the past. Decisions are usually made in terms of what has been done in previous generations. This individual interacts primarily with others who have traditional values. When laggards finally adopt an innovation, it may already have been superseded by another more recent idea which the innovators are already using.

94. Laggards tend to be frankly suspicious of innovations, innovators, and change agents. Their traditional direction slows the innovation decision process to a crawl. Adoption lags far behind knowledge of the idea. Characteristics: Least education. Oldest. Participate least in formal organizations, cooperatives and government programs. They hardly read farm magazines and bulletins. CONT…

95. The End of Class

96. What is innovation? Write the difference between innovator and laggard Write at least 4 stages of Adoption Process #Quiz (5%)