oral hypoglycemic agents.Agents which are used for treatment of diabetes mellitus

oral hypoglycemic agent

1. Overview The pancreas is both an endocrine gland that produces the peptide hormones insulin , glucagon , and somatostatin and an exocrine gland that produces digestive enzymes. The peptide hormones are secreted from cells located in the islets of Langerhan s (β cells produc e insulin , α cells produce glucagon, and δ cells produce somatostatin). These hormones play an important role in regulating the metabolic activities of the body, particularly the homeostasis of blood glucose.

2. Overview Hyperinsulinemia (due, for example, to an insulinoma) can cause severe hypoglycemia. More commonly, a relative or absolute lack of insulin, such as in diabetes mellitus, can cause serious hyperglycemia, which, if left untreated, can result in retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, c a a n r d diovascular complications. Administration of insulin preparations or oral hypoglycemic agents can prevent morbidity and reduce mortality associated with diabetes.

3. Overview Anti-diabetic medications treat diabetes mellitus by lowering glucose levels in the blood. With the exceptions of insulin , exenatide , and pramlintide , all are administered orally and are thus also called oral hypoglycemic agents or oral antihyperglycemic agents. There are different classes of anti-diabetic drugs, and their selection depends on: Nature of the diabetes Age and situation of the person Other factors.

4. Diabetes Mellitus Type I ⦿ Type 1 diabetes most commonly afflicts individuals in puberty or early adulthood, but some latent forms can occur later in life. The disease is characterized by an absolute deficiency of insulin caused by massive β-cell necrosis. Loss of β-cell function is usually ascribed to autoimmune-mediated processes directed against the β- cell, and it may be triggered by an invasion of viruses or the action of chemical toxins. As a result of the destruction of these cells, the pancreas fails to respond to glucose, and the Type 1 diabetic shows classic symptoms of insulin deficiency (polydipsia, polyphagia, polyuria , and weigh t loss) . Typ e 1 diabetic s require exogenous insulin to avoid the catabolic state that results from and is characterized by hyperglycemia and life-threatening ketoacidosis.

5. Diabetes Mellitus Type ⦿ I I Most diabetic s ar e Typ e 2 . Th e diseas e is influence d by genetic factors, aging, obesity, and peripheral insuli n resistance rather tha n by autoimmune processes or viruses. The metabolic alterations observed are milder than those described for Type 1 (for example, Type 2 patients typically are not ketotic), but the long-term clinical consequences can be just as devastating (for example, vascular complications and subsequent infection can lead to amputation of the lower limbs).

6. Types of ⦿ D M Diabete s mellitus typ e 1 i s a disease caused by the lack of insulin . Insulin must be used in Type I, which must be injected. Diabetes mellitus type 2 is a disease of insulin resistance by cells. Treatments include: agents that increase the amount of insulin secreted by the pancreas agents that increase the sensitivity of target organs to insulin agents that decrease the rate at which glucose is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.

7. Types of DM Type 1 Type 2 Age of onset Usually during childhood or puberty Frequently over age 35 Nutritional status at time of onset Frequently undernourished Obesity usually present Prevalence 5 to 10 % of diagnosed diabetics 90 to 95 % of diagnosed diabetics Genetic predisposition Moderate Very strong Defect or deficiency B cells are destroyed, eliminating the production of insulin Inability of B cells to produce appropriate quantities of insulin; insulin resistance; other defects

8. Insulin forms Form Onset Peak Effect Duration Lispro* 0.3 – 0.5 1 – 2 3 – 4 Regular* 0.5 – 1 2 – 4 5 – 7 Glargine 1 No peak * Only forms that can be used intravenously; peak action in 2 to 4 min Kinetics (in Hours) of Insulin Forms with Subcutaneous Injection

9. Symptoms of Hypoglycemia

10. DRUG GROUPS OHA Insulin secretagogues Sulfonylureas Meglitinide analogue Insulin sensitizers Biguanides Thiazolidinediones (TZD) α-glucosidase inhibitors Dipeptidyl Peptidase-IV inhibitors

11. Adverse effects of OHAs Meglitinide Sulfonylureas Hypoglycemia Biguanides α-Glucosidase inhibitors GI disturbance Biguanides Nausea Thiazolidinediones Risk of hepatotoxicity Sulfonylureas Meglitinides Thiazolidinediones Weight gain

12. 1) Insulin secretagogues Useful in the treatment of patients who have Type 2 diabetes but who cannot be managed by diet alone. Best response to OHA is seen in one who develops diabetes after age 40 and has had diabetes less than 5 years. Patients with long-standing disease may require a combination of hypoglycemic drugs with or without insulin to control their hyperglycemia. Oral hypoglycemic agents should NOT be given to patients with Type 1 diabetes.

13. A. Sulfonylureas glipizid e , and Thes e agent s ar e classified a s insulin secretagogues, becaus e the y promote insuli n release fro m th e β cells o f the pancreas. The primary drugs used today are tolbutamide and the second- generation derivatives, glyburide , glimepirid e .

14. A. Sulfonylureas Mechanism of action: stimulation of insulin release from the β cells of the pancreas by blocking the ATP-dependent K + channels, resulting in depolarization and Ca 2+ influx reduction in hepatic glucose production increase in peripheral insulin sensitivity.

15. A. Sulfonylureas Pharmacokinetics: Given orally, these drugs bind to serum proteins Metabolized by the liver Excreted by the liver or kidney Tolbutamide has the shortest duration of action (6-12 hours), whereas the second-generation agents last about 24 hours

16. A. Sulfonylureas Adverse Effects: Weight gain Hyperinsulinemia Hypoglycemia These drugs should be used with caution in patients with hepatic or renal insufficiency, because delayed excretion of the drug-resulting in its accumulation-may cause hypoglycemia. Renal impairment is a particular problem in the case of those agents that are metabolized to active compounds, such as glyburide. Glyburide has minimal transfer across the placenta and may be a reasonably safe alternative to insulin therapy for diabetes in pregnancy.

17. B. Meglitinide analogs This class of agents includes repaglinide and nateglinide . Although they are not sulfonylureas, they have common actions.

18. B. Meglitinide analogs Mechanism of action: Thei r actio n i s dependen t o n functionin g pancreati c β cells. They bind to a distinct site on the sulfonylurea receptor of ATP-sensitive potassium channels , thereby initiating a series of reactions culminating in the release of insulin. However, in contrast to the sulfonylureas, the meglitinides have a rapid onset and a short duration of action . They are are categorized as postprandial glucose regulators. Meglitinides should not be used in combination with sulfonylureas due to overlapping

19. B. Meglitinide analogs Pharmacokinetics: These drugs are well absorbed orally after being taken 1 to 30 minutes before meals. Both meglitinides are metabolized to i n the inactiv e product s b y CYP3A4 liver . Excreted through the bile.

20. B. Meglitinide analogs Adverse Effects: Incidence of hypoglycemia is lower than that of the sulfonylureas . Repaglinide has been reported to cause severe hypoglycemia in patients who are also taking the lipid-lowering drug gemfibrozil . Weight gain is less of a problem with the meglitinides than with the sulfonylureas. Must be used with caution in patients with

21. 2) Insulin sensitizers Two classes of oral agents-the biguanides and thiazolidinediones improve insulin action. These agents lower blood sugar by improving target- cell response to insulin without increasing pancreatic insulin secretion. They address the core problem in Type II diabetes— insulin resistance.

22. A. Biguanides Metformin (glucophage) , the only currently available biguanide it increases glucose uptake and utilization by target tissues, thereby decreasing insulin resistance. Requires insulin for its action, but it does not promote insulin secretion. Hyperinsulinemia is not a problem. Thus, the risk of hypoglycemia is far less than that with sulfonylureas

23. A. Biguanides Mechanism of action: reduction of hepatic glucose output, largely by inhibiting hepatic gluconeogenesis. Slowing intestinal absorption of sugars Improve s periphera l glucos e uptak e and utilization. o r in agents, Metformin may b e use d alone combination with one of the other as well as with insulin. when Hypoglycemia has occurred metformin was taken in combination.

24. A. Biguanides Pharmacokinetics: Metformin is well absorbed orally, is not bound to serum proteins It is not metabolized Excretion is via the urine.

25. A. Biguanides Adverse effects: These are largely gastrointestinal. Contraindicate d i n diabetic s with a h n e d p / a o t r ic disease, infarction , severe acute renal myocardial infection , o r diabetic ketoacidosis. It should be used with caution in patients greater than 80 years of age or in those with a history of congestive heart failure or alcohol abuse. Long-term use may interfere with vitamin B 12 absorption.

26. B. Thiazolidinediones Another group of agents that are insulin sensitizers are the thiazolidinediones (TZDs) or, more familiarly the glitazones . Although insulin is required for their action, these drugs do not promote its release from th e pancreati c β cells; thus , hyperinsulinemia does not result. Troglitazone was the first of to be t a h p e p s r e ove d fo r th e treatmen t o f Typ e 2 diabetic, but was withdrawn after a number of deaths due to hepatotoxicity were reported. Presently, two members of this class are available, pioglitazone and rosiglitazone .

27. B. Thiazolidinediones Mechanism of action: Exact mechanism by which the TZDs lower insulin resistance remains to be elucidated They are known to target the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ)-α nuclear hormone receptor. Ligands for PPARγ regulate adipocyte production and secretion of fatty acids as well as glucose metabolism, resulting in increased insulin sensitivity in adipose tissue, liver, and skeletal muscle.

28. B. Thiazolidinediones Pharmacokinetics: Both pioglitazone and rosiglitazone are absorbed very well after oral administration and are extensively bound to serum albumin. b y different Bot h underg o extensiv e metabolism cytochrome P450 isozymes. Pioglitazone : ⦿ Renal elimination is negligible, with the majority of the active drug and metabolites excreted in the bile and eliminated in the feces. Rosiglitazone : The metabolites are primarily excreted in the urine.

29. B. Thiazolidinediones Adverse Effects: ⦿ Very few cases of liver toxicity have been reported with rosiglitazone or pioglitazone. Weight increase can occur, possibly through the ability of TZDs to increase subcutaneous fat or due to fluid retention. Glitazone s hav e bee n associate d with osteopenia and increased fracture risk. Othe r advers e effect s includ e headach e and anemia.

30. 3) α-glucosidase inhibitors Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors are oral anti- diabetic drugs used for diabetes mellitus type 2 that work by preventing the digestion of carbohydrates (such as starch and table sugar ). Carbohydrates are normall y converted int o simple sugars (monosaccharides), absorbe d through which the can be intestine. Hence, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors reduce the impact of carbohydrates on blood sugar.

31. α-glucosidase inhibitors Acarbose and miglitol are orally active drugs used for the treatment of patients with Type 2 diabetes.

32. α-glucosidase inhibitors Mechanism of action: These drugs are taken at the beginning of meals. They act by delaying the digestion of carbohydrates, thereby resulting in lower postprandial glucose levels. Both drugs exert their effects by reversibly inhibiting membrane- bound α-glucosidase in the intestinal brush border. This enzyme is responsible for the hydrolysis of oligosaccharides to glucose and other sugars. Consequently, the postprandial rise of blood glucose is blunted. Unlike the other oral hypoglycemic agents, these drugs do not stimulate insulin release, nor do they increase insulin action in target tissues. Thus, as monotherapy, they do not cause hypoglycemia. However, when used in combination with the sulfonylureas or with insulin, hypoglycemia may develop.

33. α-glucosidase inhibitors Pharmacokinetics: Acarbose is poorly absorbed. It is metabolized primaril y b y intestinal bacteria , an d some o f th e metabolites ar e absorbe d an d excrete d int o the urine. On the other hand, miglitol is very wel l absorbe d bu t ha s n o systemic effects. It is excreted unchanged by the kidney.

34. α-glucosidase inhibitors Adverse effects: Th e major side effect s are diarrhea , and abdominal Patieinnftlsamwmitahtory flatulence, cramping. bowel dinisteesatisnea,l colonic ulceration , or obstructio n should no t use these drugs.

35. 4) Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor DPP-4 inhibitors or gliptins , are a class of oral hypoglycemics that block DPP-4. They can be used to treat diabetes mellitus type 2. The first agent of the class - sitagliptin - was approved by the FDA in 2006. Glucagon increases blood glucose levels, and DPP- 4 inhibitors reduce glucagon and blood glucose levels. The mechanism of DPP-4 inhibitors is to increase incretin levels (GLP-1 and GIP), which inhibit glucagon release, which in turn increases insulin secretion, decreases gastric emptying, and decreases blood glucose levels.

36. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor Sitagliptin is an orally active dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV) inhibitor used for the treatment of patients with Type 2 diabetes. Other agents in this category are currently in development.

37. Sitagliptin Mechanism of action: Sitagliptin inhibits the enzyme DPP- IV, which is responsible for the inactivation of incretin hormones, such as glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). Prolonging the activity of incretin hormones results in increased insulin release in response to meals and a reduction in inappropriate secretion of glucagon. Sitagliptin may be used as monotherapy or in combination with a sulfonylurea, metformin or a glitazone.

38. Sitagliptin Pharmacokinetics: Sitaglipti n i s wel l absorbed afte r oral administration. Food does not affect the extent of absorption. The majority of sitagliptin is excreted unchanged in the are renal urine . Dosag e adjustments recommended fo r patient s with dysfunction.

39. Sitagliptin Adverse Effects: In general, tolerated, adverse sitagliptin is well th e most common with effect s being and headache. Rnaatesospohfarhyynpgoitgislycemia are comparable to those with placebo when sitagliptin is used as monotherapy or in combination with metformin or pioglitazone.