Organisational behaviour(Introduction)

An introduction to the wide field of organisational behaviour

1. ORGANISATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
INTRODUCTION

2. Definition
It is the field of study that investigates the
impact of individuals, groups and structureon
behaviour in the organisation for the purpose
of applying such knowledge towards improving
organizational effectiveness
It is a systematic study of the behaviour and
attitudes of both individuals and groupswithin
the organisations
Concerns itself with the scientific study or the
behavioral process which occurs in work
settings”

3. Focuses on understanding and explaining
individual and group behavioursin
organisations
It is concerned with what people do in an
organisation and how that behaviour affects
performance
The understanding, prediction and
management of human behaviourin the
organisations
More micro than macro

4. OB is a field of study that investigates the
impact that individuals, groups, and structure
have on behaviour within an organization.
OB focuses on improving productivity,
reducing absenteeism and turnover, and
increasing employee job satisfaction and
organizational commitment.
OB uses systematic study to improve
predictions of behaviour.

5. OT vs. OB vs. HRM
Organizational Theory
Focuses on the organisation as the unit
of analysis. Organizational attributes
such as goals, technology and culture
are the subject of study.
Organizational theory often uses an
across-organizational approach or macro
perspective in gathering new knowledge.

6. Human resources management
Attempts to apply the principles of the
behavioral sciences in the workplace
While OB is somewhat more concept oriented,
HRM is more concerned with applied
techniques and behavioral technology.
HRM tries to provide a link between the
individual and the organisation by designing
and implementing systems to attract, develop
and motivate individuals within the
organisation

7. OB
Emphasis on the
scientific study of
behavioral
phenomena at
individual and group
level
Level of analysis -
Micro/theory oriented
OT
Focuses largely on
organizational and
environmental
phenomena
Level of analysis -
Macro/theory
oriented

8. HRM
Focuses on the
application of
behavioral
knowledge in
selecting, placing,
and training personal
Level of analysis -
Micro/application
oriented field of
study

9. The Rigour of OB
OB looks at consistencies
What is common about behaviour, and
helps predictability?
OB is more than common sense
Systematic study, based on scientific
evidence
OB has few absolutes
OB takes a contingency approach
Considers behaviour in context

10. Beyond Common Sense
Systematic Study
Looking at relationships, attempting to
attribute causes and effects and drawing
conclusions based on scientific evidence
Behaviour is generally predictable
There are differences between individuals
There are fundamental consistencies
There are rules (written & unwritten) in almost
every setting

11. Exhibit 1-3
Basic OB Model, Stage I
Organization systems level
Group level
Individual level

12. Contributing Disciplines to the
OB Field
Psychology
Sociology
Social Psychology
Anthropology
Political Science

13. Contributing Disciplines to the
OB Field
E X H I B I T1-3a

14. Contributing Disciplines to the
OB Field (cont’d)
E X H I B I T1-3b

15. Contributing Disciplines to the
OB Field (cont’d)
E X H I B I T1-3c

16. Contributing Disciplines to the
OB Field (cont’d)
E X H I B I T1-3d

17. Exhibit 1-2
Toward an OB Discipline
Social psychology
Psychology
Behavioural
science
Contribution Unit of
analysis
Output
Anthropology
Sociology
Political science
Study of
Organizational
Behaviour
Organization
system
Learning
Motivation
Perception
Training
Leadership effectiveness
Job satisfaction
Individual decision making
Performance appraisal
Attitude measurement
Employee selection
Work design
Work stress
Group dynamics
Work teams
Communication
Power
Conflict
Intergroup behaviour
Formal organization theory
Organizational technology
Organizational change
Organizational culture
Conflict
Intraorganizational politics
Power
Organizational culture
Organizational environment
Behavioural change
Attitude change
Communication
Group processes
Group decision making
Group
Comparative values
Comparative attitudes
Cross-cultural analysis
Individual

18. WHY BOTHER STUDY
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
1.Practical application
2.Personal growth
3.Increased knowledge

19. Practical application
There are important practical benefits to
understanding the principles of organizational
behaviour:
Development of personal styles of leadership can
be guided by knowledge of the results of studies
of OB that have attempted to relate leadership
styles to situational requirements
The choice of problem solving strategy or the
selection of appropriate employee appraisal format
can be guided by an understanding of the results of
studies in the associated topic areas

20. Practical application (cont..)
In the area of performance enhancement, benefits can
be gained by applying knowledge gathered in the field
of OB
Because the environment in which the organisation
operates is increasing in complexity, one must
understand how to design effective organizational
structures and how to relate to individuals from diverse
and often international background
Being able to deal effectively with others in
organizational settings requires understanding of OB

21. Practical application (cont..)
Attracting and developing talented individuals
are 2 issues critically important to the survival
and prosperity of an organisation
Emphasis of human element instead of on
technical financial and other tangible
resources often separate competing
organisations when it comes to organizational
performance. This occurs because all serious
competitors in a given industry are likely to
have attained nearly the same level of
technical sophistication

22. 2.PERSONAL GROWTH
The second reason for studying OB is the
personal fulfillment we gain form
understanding our fellow human
Understanding others may also lead to
greater self-knowledge and self insight
Such personal growth is an aspect of
education that is often cited as the greatest
benefit of studying the liberal arts and
sciences

23. Personal growth (cont…)
Advancement in the business world
It is also important for advancement in business world –it can
make a difference when it comes to advancing beyond an
entry level position.
Entry level hiring are based largely on technical competency,
such as certification in a specialized area e.g. CPA.
Bachelor’s degree, MBA etc.
Promotions however are often based on more that mere
technical competency.
They are based on demonstrated abilities to understand and
work effectively with superiors, peer and subordinated.
In short, an understanding of organizational behaviour may be
invaluable to you once you have that first job and seek to
distinguish yourself

24. 3.INCREASED KNOWLEDGE
To gather knowledge about people in a work setting
At minimum, the filed seeks to gather knowledge for
its own sake just like some sciences like Physics
and chemistry; the practical use of certain findings
may not be practical for years.
Same could apply to Organizational Behaviour.
Some early theories were not of immediate use but
are today useful
Additionally, the study of OB can help one think in a
critical fashion about matters that relate to
experience of working. Such critical thinking ability
can be useful in analyzing both employees and
personal problems

25. challenges facing organisations today
that have made it necessary for
managers to Study OB

26. Exhibit 1-1 Challenges Facing
the Workplace
Workplace
Organizational Level
•Productivity
•Developing Effective Employees
•Global Competition
•Managing in the Global Village
Group Level
•Working With Others
•Workforce Diversity
Individual Level
•Job Satisfaction
•Empowerment
•Behaving Ethically

27. Today’s Challenges in the
Workplace
Challenges at the Individual Level
Job Satisfaction
Empowerment
Behaving Ethically
Challenges at the Group Level
Working With Others
Workforce Diversity

28. Today’s Challenges in the
Workplace
Challenges at the Organizational Level
Productivity
Developing Effective Employees
Absenteeism
Turnover
Organizational Citizenship
Competition From the Global Environment
Managing and Working in a Global Village

29. Productivity
Productivity
A performance measure including
effectiveness and efficiency
Effectiveness
Achievement of goals
Efficiency
The ratio of effective work output to the
input required to produce the work

30. Effective Employees
Absenteeism
Failure to report to work
Turnover
Voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal
from the organization
Organizational citizenship behaviour
Discretionary behaviour that is not part of an
employee’s formal job requirements, but is helpful
to the organization

31. Challenges facing organisations
1.Improving quality and productivity
More and more managers are confronted with the challenge of
having to improve their organisations productivity and the
quality of their products and services.
In improving quality and productivity, they are implementing
programmes like TQM and Business Process Reengineering
(BPR)
2. Improving people skills/interpersonal skills
OB gives the manager the opportunity to completely exercise
insight in behaviour, how to alter the behaviour and generally
improve interpersonal skills
The subject matter of OB helps both practicing managers as
well as potential managers to develop skills that can be used
on the job

32. Challenges facing organisations
(cont…)
3. Managing workforce diversity
Workforce diversity has important implication for management
–managers will need to shift their philosophy form treating
everyone alike to recognizing differences and responding to
them in ways that will ensure employee retention and greater
productivity.
4. Responding to Globalization
The world today is continuous becoming global village.
Organisations no longer constraint themselves to national
boarders.
OB provides us with fundamental concepts to enable us focus
on how cultural differences might require managers to modify
their managerial practices

33. Challenges facing organisations
(cont…)
5. Empowering people
Managers are empowering employees; they are
putting employees of what to do.
They have to learn how to give up control and
employees have to learn how to take up responsibility
for their work.
6. Stimulating innovativeness and change
This implies that today successful organisations must
foster innovation and master the art of change, or they
become extinct.
Victory will go to organisation that maintain flexibility,
continually improve quality and beating competition in
the market place

34. Challenges facing organisations
(cont…)
7. Coping with temporariness
Today change is an ongoing activity for most manages.
Managing in the past could be characterized by long periods of
stability, interrupted occasionally by short periods of change.
But managing today could be described as long period of on
going change, interrupted occasionally by short periods of stability
The world that most managers and employees face today is that
of permanent temporariness.
There is permanent change in the jobs themselves, so workers
need to continuously update their knowledge and skills to perform
new jobs requirements
Today managers and employees must learn to cope with
temporariness. They have to live with flexibility and
unpredictability.

35. Challenges facing organisations
(cont…)
8. Dealing with employees’ loyalty
Today, organisations seek to be lean, and mean by closing
down operations, moving to low cost regions, closing the less
profitable branches, and eliminating entire levels of managing
and replacing permanent employees with temporary ones.
These kinds of changes result in a decline of employee loyally.
Employees perceive that their employers are less committed to
them and as a result, they result to being committed to their
employer
The manager therefore is to devise ways to motivate workers
who feel less committed to their employers, but at the same
time maintain organizational global competitiveness

36. Challenges facing organisations
(cont…)
9. Improving Ethical Behaviours
Organisations today are characterized by cut backs,
expectations of improving workers productivity and
tough competition in the market place.
Due to there pressures, employees feel pressured to
cut corners, break roles, and engage in other forms
of questionable practices could also be contracted to
give guidance to employees
Today managers need to create an ethically healthy
climate, living by example, for employees where
they can do their work productively and confront
minimal degree of ambiguity regarding what
constitutes right and wrong behaviour.

37. OB –HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE

38. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (1900
–1945)
First developed by Fredrick W. Taylor
(1856 –1915)
Taylor aimed at making management a
science abased on a well recognized,
clearly defined and fixed principles
He replaced the rule of the thumb
method of scientific management

39. He advocates the use of
Observation
Measurement
Experimentation
Analysis
Rationality
Reasoning
As a chief instrument for developing
managerial systems

40. The basic components of scientific
management as propounded by Taylor are:
Determination of the standard of performance
Functional foremanship
Responsibilities of management
Differential piecework system of wage payment
Mental revolution

41. Determining the standards of performance
Taylor introduced the “time and motion study”
to identify exactly how long it takes to do a
task and identify and eliminate wasteful
motions
Functional foremanship
Here Taylor called for separation of planning
from doing where the functional foreman
(specialist) did the planning of various aspects
of work

42. Responsibility and management
Managers should accept responsibility for
planning, directing and organising
Managers should perform these functions in a
scientific way –i.e. analyse all operations and
develop scientific methods of doing them
Workers should be scientifically selected and
trained
Managers should heartily cooperate with
workers to ensure that work is done according
to scientifically selected managers

43. Differential piece work system of payment –to ensure that
workers turn out optimal production –so that workers who work
hard get more
Mental revolution
Taylor held that the technique of determining work standards,
delimiting wasteful operations and differential piece rate system
of wage payment should benefit the worker in form of higher
wagepayment and the employer in form of higher productionand
this would result to a “mental revolution” between ,management
and workers
They would develop a cooperative rather than antagonistic
attitude towards each other

44. Criticism of Tailors Study
Saw man as an economic being -man
is only motivated by money
Saw that man can be programmed as a
machine –in the development of
standards of performance

45. The Hawthorne Studies (1924 –
1945)
The Hawthorne Experiments
The experiments were carried out between
1927 and 1933 at the Chicago Hawthorne
plant of the Western Electric Company. Four
studies were carried out namely:
The illumination studies
The Relay Assembly Test Room Studies
The interviewing Program
The Bank Wiring Room studies


46. a)The illumination studies
These studies were expected to determine
the relationship between the level of
illumination and worker’s productivity.
It was expected that worker’s productivity
would increase with increasing levels of
illumination.
The studies failed to prove any relationship
between worker’s productivity and level of
illumination

47. b)The Relay Assembly Test Room Studies
These studies were carried out to determine
the relationship between worker’s productivity
and improved benefits and working conditions.
The studies found out thatthere was no
cause –and –effect relationship between
working conditions and output.
Rather, there were other factors that affected
worker’s output such as his/her attitudes and
supervisor behavior

48. c) The interviewing Program
A group of employees were interviewed to learn more
about their opinions with respect to their work, working
conditions and supervision. The workers suggested
that:
Psychological factors help determine whether a worker
is satisfied or dissatisfied in any particular work
situation
The person’s need for self-actualization determines
his/her satisfaction in the work.
A person’s work group and his relationship to it, also
determines his/her productivity.

49. d) The Bank Wiring Room studies
This study was expected to study the effect of
group influence on workers productivity.
The researchers found out that an informal
grouping and relationship was a critical factor
in the workers’ productivity.
The informal group determined the group’s
productivity, and functioned as a protective
mechanism (served both for internal and
external purposes).

50. Conclusions on Hawthorne
experiments
An industrial organization is a socio technical
system. The socio part is the human aspects that
need to be taken care of in order to increase
workers’ productivity and the technical system is the
physical aspects that also need to be improved.
Employee attitudes and morale are also important
as determinants of productivity.
Other factors include worker’s personality and
supervisor’s behavior. These two also affect
worker’s altitude and morale.
A worker’s social group has a prevailing effect on
his or her altitude and productivity

51. Criticisms of the Hawthorne studies
The philosophical basis
By emphasizing the social needs of human being
rather than the economic needs and self-interest,
these studies conflict the philosophical basis of
economic theory.
Methodology
The study methodology lacks the basis for
generalizations.
Findings
The cause –and –effect relationship conclusions lack
general support and scientific verifiability.

52. Contribution
The Hawthorne Studies have however
made the following contribution OB.
Their finding on the importance of informal
groups is also a key to organization theory.
Their emphasis on employee altitude
towards work as an additional to other
factors was a breakthrough in OB.

53. CONTINGENCY APPROACH
(1945 –PRESENT
Following World War II, a new approach on
organizational behaviour began to develop
Called the contingency approach, it acknowledged the
difficulty of offering simple general principles to explain
or predict behaviour in organizational setting
The approach sought to specify the conditions under
which we can expect to find certain relationships.
As such it represented a search for the factors that
would aid in predicting and explaining behaviour

54. Organizational behaviour researchers who subscribe t the
contingency approach believe that employee behaviour is too
complex to be explained by only a few simple and straight
forward principles. Instead, they seek to identify the factors that
are jointly necessary for a given principle to hold
Contingency researchers recognize the interdependency of
personal and situational factors in determination of employee
behaviour
therefore if you ask what is the best way for a manager to
behaviour –autocratically or democratically, the contingent
researcher will consider issues like subordinates expectations
and preferences and the situations at hand, cultural differences,
etc

55. CULTURE –QUALITY MOVEMENT
(1980 –PRESENT
TQM is a corporate culture characterized by increased customer
satisfaction through continuous improvements, in which all
employees actively participate
Two terms that gained quick interest among managers and
organizational researcher’s wee organizational culture and
quality improvement.
The authors of several books in the early 1980s –Peter
Waterman ( In Search of Excellence), Deal and Kennedy (
Corporate Culture) and others focus on how to build a strong set
of shared positive values and norms within a corporation (that is a
strong corporate culture) while emphasizing quality service, high
performance and flexibility.

56. Advocates of culture –quality movement
claim that productivity and financial
return can be significantly enhanced by
developing culture that emphasize key
values
Presently, the evidence suggest that,
properly introduced, there are some
economic advantages to following
culture-quality movement

57. THEORITICAL
FRAMEWORKS OF OB

58. OB –Theoretical Framework
Although OB is extremely complex and
includes many inputs and dimensions,
three frameworks:
The cognitive,
Behaviouristic,
social cognitive frameworks
Can be used to develop an overall model
for OB

59. Cognitive Framework
The cognitive approach to human behaviour
has many sources of inputs ( the five senses)
Cognition, which is the basic unit of the
cognitive framework, can be defined as the act
of knowing an item from information
Under this framework, cognition precedes
behaviour and constitutes input into the
persons thinking, perception, problem solving,
and information processing

60. Edward Tolman Cognitive
framework
Although Tolman believed behaviour to be
appropriate unit of analysis, he felt that
behaviour is purposeful, that it is directed
towards a goal
He felt that cognitive learning consists of a
relationship between cognitive environmental
cues and expectations
Through experimentation, he found out that a
rat could learn to run through an intricate
maze, with purpose and direction, towards
goal (food)

61. Tolman observed that at each point in the
maze, expectations were established –in
other words, the rat learned to expect a certain
cogitative cue associated with the choice point
might eventually lead to the food
If the rat actually received the food, the
association between the cue and the
expectancy was strengthen, and leaning
occurred
Tolman’s approach could be depicted that
learning is an association between the cue
and the expectancy)

62. In his laboratory experiment, he found that
animals learned to expect a certain event
would follow another –for example, animal
learned to behaviour as if they expect food
when a certain cue appeared.
Thus, Tolman believed that learning consist of
expectancy that a particular event will lead to a
particular consequence
This cognitive concept of expectancy implies
that the organisms is thinking about or is
conscious or aware of, the goal.

63. Thus Tolman and others espousing the
cognitive approach felt hat behaviour is
best explained by these cognitions
Applied to OB, cognitive approach has
dominated unit of analysis such as
perception, personality and attitudes,
motivation, decision making and goal
setting

64. BEHAVIOURISTIC FRAMEWORK
The roots of behavioristic theory of human
behaviour can be trace back to the work of
Ivan Pavlov and John Watson
These pioneering behaviorists stressed the
importance of dealing with observable
behaviour instead of the elusive mind that had
preoccupied earlier psychologist
They used the classical conditioning
experiment to formulate the stimulus-response
(S -R) explanation of human behaviour

65. Both Pavlov and Watson felt that behaviour
could be best understood in terms of S-R
A stimulus elicit response
They concentrated mainly on the impact of the
stimulus and felt that learning occurred when
the S -R connection was made
Ivan Pavlov who attributed leaning to the
association or connection between stimulus
and response (S-R

66. Based on Pavlov classical conditioning
experiment using dogs as subjects
When presented with meat powder (
unconditioned stimulus) -the dog secreted
saliva (unconditioned response)
When he merely rang a bell (neutral stimulus)
the dog did not salivate
When meat was accompanied with the ringing
of the bell several times, then Pavlov rang the
bell without presenting the meat, the dog
salivated to the bell alone

67. Conclusion -that the dog has become
classically conditioned to salivate (conditioned
response) to the sound of the bell (
conditioned stimulus
Thus classical conditioned can be defined as a
process in which a formerly neutral stimulus,
when paired with an unconditioned stimulus,
becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicit a
conditioned response; in other words, the S-R
connection is learned

68. Example of Pavlov S -R
Stimulus (S)
Is stuck by a pin
Is shocked by an
electric current
Is surprised by a
loud sound
Is tapped below the
kneecap
Response ®
Flinches
Jumps/screams
Jumps/screams
Flexes lower leg

69. B.F Skinner
Another psychologist whose work explains this
framework is B. F. Skinner.
He felt that the early behaviorists helped explain
respondent’s behaviours (those behaviours elicited by
stimulus) but not the more complex operant
behaviours
In other words, the S -R approach helped explain the
physical reflexes, for examples, when stuck by a pin
(S), the person will flinch ( R) or when tapped below
the kneecap (S) the Epson will extend the lower leg (
R)

70. Skinner felt that classical conditioning explains only
respondent (reflexive) behaviours. –i.e. involuntary
responses that are elicited by a stimulus
He felt that more complex, but common human
behaviour cannot be explained by classical
conditioning alone.
He noted that the greater part of the behaviour of an
organism was under control of stimuli which were
effective only because they were correlated with
reinforcing consequences
Through his research thus , skinner posited that
behaviour was a function of consequences, not the
classical conditioning eliciting stimuli

71. He felt that most human behaviour affects, or operates
on, the environment to receive a desirable
consequences.
This type of behaviour is learned through operant
conditioning
Operant conditioning is concerned primarily with
learning that occurs as a consequence of behaviour,
or R-S.
It is not concerned with the eliciting causes of
behaviour, as classical , or respondent, conditioning is
The organism has to operate on an environment (thus
the term operant conditioning) in order to receive the
desirable consequences.

72. The preceding stimulus does not cause the
behaviour in operant conditioning; it serves as
a cue to emit the behaviour. For skinner and
other behaviorists, behaviour is a function of
its contingent environmental consequences
So behavourisitic approach is environmentally
based. It posits that cognitive processes such
as thinking, expectancies, and perception may
exist but are not needed to predict and control
or manage behaviour

73. On the other hand, Skinner found out
through his operant conditioning
experiment, that the consequences of a
response could better explain most
behaviour than elicit stimuli could
He emphasized the importance of the
response-stimulus (R -S) relationship

74. Example of Skinners operant
conditioning
Response ®
Works
Talks to others
Enters a restaurant
Enters a library
Increases
productivity
Completes a difficult
assignment
Stimulus (S)
Paid
Meets more people
Obtain food
Finds a book
Receives merit pay
Receives praise or a
promotion

75. Today operant conditioning has much greater
impact on human learning than classical
conditioning
It explain much of organizational behaviour
E.g. people go to work to feed, cloth and
house themselves and their families -working
(conditioned response) is instrumental in
obtaining food, shelter and clothing
Managers can analyse the consequences of
organizational behaviour, to change the
environment, and help accomplish goals

76. Social cognitive Framework
The cognitive approach has been accused of being
mentalistic, and the behavioristic approach has been
accused of being deterministic.
Social Cognitive theorists argue that the S-R model
and to a lesser degree the R –S model, are too
mechanistic explanation of human
The social cognitive approach tires to integrate the
contribution so both of these approaches
Social cognitive theory recognizes the importance of
behaviorism’s contingent environmental
consequences, but also includes cognitive processes
of self regulation

77. Based on the work of Albert Bandura social learning
theory and David and Luthans, this framework
proposes a social learning approach to organizational
behaviour
Social learning takes the position that behaviour can
best be explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal
interaction among cognitive, behavioral and
environmental determinants.
The persons and the environmental situations do not
function as independent units but, in conjunction with
the behaviour itself, reciprocally interact to determine
behaviour

78. Bandura explains that “it is largely through their
actions that people produce the environmental
conditions that affect their behavior in a reciprocal
fashion
The expediencies generated by behaviour also partly
determine what a person becomes and can do which
in turn, affects subsequent behaviour
A triangular model of Organizational participants,
organizational environment and organizational
behaviour takes this social learning work of Bandura
and translates it into relevant unit of analysis and
variables of organizational behaviour

79. Org. participant, environment and behaviour -relationship
participantcontrol their own behaviour to the extent that they rely
on cognitive support and manage relevant environmental cues
and consequences
Cognitive representation of reality helps guide organizational
behaviour
Much of complex behaviour is acquired by directly observing
others in the surrounding environment
Bandura has taken his social leaning and developed into the
more comprehensive social cognitive theory (SCT). Specifically
SCT recognises the importance of behaviorism’s contingent
environmental consequences, but also includes cognitive
processes of self regulation
Bandura identified five basic human capabilities as a part of SCT

80. Human capabilities
Symbolizing
Forethought
Observational
Self regulatory
Self reflective

81. Basic human capabilities
Symbolizing -employees process visual
experiences ( customer named Applegate) into
cognitive models (apple) that then serves as a
guide for future action (remembering the
name)
Forethoughts -employees plan their actions
(what I am going to do), anticipate
consequences (what I am going to get for it)
and determine the level of desired
performance (what my performance goal is)

82. Observational: Employees learn by
observing the performance of
thereferentgroup (peers, supervisors
and high performers) and the
consequences of their actions

83. Self-regulatory: Employees self regulate
their actions by setting internal standards
(aspired level of performance) and by
evaluating the discrepancy between the
standard and performance (where do I stand)
in order to improve .

84. Self-reflective: Employees reflect back
on their actions (how did I do?) and
perceptually determine how they believe
then can successfully accomplish the
task in the future given the context
(probability of success between 0 to
100% is estimated)