Organizational Behaviour - Individual Determinants of OB II
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About This Presentation
Perception - Meaning, Perceptual process and Mechanism, Motivation - Types of Motivation, Theories of Motivation, Learning - Meaning, Principles of Learning, Theories of Learning.
Slide Content
UNIT 3 UNIT 3
INDIVIDUAL
DETERMINANTS OF OB -II
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 1
MR.T.SOMASUNDARAM ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT STUIDES
KRISTU JAYANTI COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
BENGALURU
INDIVIDUAL
DETERMINANTS OF OB -II
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 1
MR.T.SOMASUNDARAM ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT STUIDES
KRISTU JAYANTI COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
BENGALURU
UNIT 3: INDIVIDUAL DETERMINANTS OF UNIT 3: INDIVIDUAL DETERMINANTS OF
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR --IIII
Perception: Meaning; Need; Perceptual
process; Perceptual mechanism; Factors
influencing perception; Motivation;
Meaning; Nature; Motivation process;
Theories
of
motivation
(Maslow’s
Need
Theories
of
motivation
(Maslow’s
Need
Hierarchy Theory, Herzberg’s Two factor
Theory, McGregor Theory X & Y);
Learning: Meaning; Components of
learning; Theories of learning (Classical
conditioning and Operant conditioning
only)
;
principles
of
learning
.
2
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR --IIII
Perception: Meaning; Need; Perceptual
process; Perceptual mechanism; Factors
influencing perception; Motivation;
Meaning; Nature; Motivation process;
Theories
of
motivation
(Maslow’s
Need
Theories
of
motivation
(Maslow’s
Need
Hierarchy Theory, Herzberg’s Two factor
Theory, McGregor Theory X & Y);
Learning: Meaning; Components of
learning; Theories of learning (Classical
conditioning and Operant conditioning
only)
;
principles
of
learning
.
2
Meaning: U
Perception means perceiving
(i.e.)giving meaning
totheenvironmentaroundus. U
Itis
perceiving
objectswhatwearefacedwith.
(E
.g
.)
Looking
at
a
painting
some
may
perceive
it
as
PERCEPTION PERCEPTION
(E
.g
.)
Looking
at
a
painting
some
may
perceive
it
as
beautiful,the othersasugly.Then,thequestionarises
is why the same objects is
perceived/ understood
differentlybydifferentpeople. U
Theanswertoitisperceptionwhichisa
cognitive
(gaining of knowledge through thought and senses)
factorofhumanbehavior.
3
Perception means perceiving
(i.e.)giving meaning
totheenvironmentaroundus. U
Itis
perceiving
objectswhatwearefacedwith.
(E
.g
.)
Looking
at
a
painting
some
may
perceive
it
as
PERCEPTION PERCEPTION
(E
.g
.)
Looking
at
a
painting
some
may
perceive
it
as
beautiful,the othersasugly.Then,thequestionarises
is why the same objects is
perceived/ understood
differentlybydifferentpeople. U
Theanswertoitisperceptionwhichisa
cognitive
(gaining of knowledge through thought and senses)
factorofhumanbehavior.
3
U
The ability to see, here or become aware of something
throughthe
senses,understandingsomething
.
U
Individuals differ in the way of understanding and
appreciating the environment, things and people around
them.
(E.g.)onepersonmayadmireapieceofjewellerywhileothers
mayconsiderthe
same
as
just
average
same
as
just
average
andstillanotherperson
mayfinditunimpressive.
U
Whatappearstobe
goodtosomemayappearto
bebadtoothers.
U
Thishappensbecauseofdifferenceinperception.
4
The ability to see, here or become aware of something
throughthe
senses,understandingsomething
.
U
Individuals differ in the way of understanding and
appreciating the environment, things and people around
them.
(E.g.)onepersonmayadmireapieceofjewellerywhileothers
mayconsiderthe
same
as
just
average
same
as
just
average
andstillanotherperson
mayfinditunimpressive.
U
Whatappearstobe
goodtosomemayappearto
bebadtoothers.
U
Thishappensbecauseofdifferenceinperception.
4
Definition:
“Perceptioncanbedefinedastheprocessof
receiving,
selecting, organizing, interpreting
(understanding),
checkingandreactingto
sensorystimuli
ordata.”
“Perception can be defined as a process by which
individuals
organise and interpret
(understand)their
sensory impressions
in order to give meaning to their
environment
.”
environment
.”
“Perception includes all those processes by which an
individual receives information about the environment seeing, feeling, tasting and smelling
. Perceptual process
shows functioning by three class like
objects or event
perceived,
environment
in which perception occurs and
individual
doingtheperceiving.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 5
“Perceptioncanbedefinedastheprocessof
receiving,
selecting, organizing, interpreting
(understanding),
checkingandreactingto
sensorystimuli
ordata.”
“Perception can be defined as a process by which
individuals
organise and interpret
(understand)their
sensory impressions
in order to give meaning to their
environment
.”
environment
.”
“Perception includes all those processes by which an
individual receives information about the environment seeing, feeling, tasting and smelling
. Perceptual process
shows functioning by three class like
objects or event
perceived,
environment
in which perception occurs and
individual
doingtheperceiving.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 5
Stimuli
:
n
Stimuliplayavitalroleinperception.
n
Theword‘stimuli’isthepluralformofstimulus.
STIMULUS
-Makemoreactive,interestedorexcited.
-Raiselevelofnervousactivityinthebody.
(E.g.)smellofthefood.
Stimulus
Means
-
anything
that
Stimulus
Means
-
anything
that
excitesorarousesaperson. SensationandPerception: *
Sensation
istheresponseofa
physicalsensoryorgan
Eye–See Ears–Hear
Hands–Touch Nose–Smell
Tongue
–
Taste
6
:
n
Stimuliplayavitalroleinperception.
n
Theword‘stimuli’isthepluralformofstimulus.
STIMULUS
-Makemoreactive,interestedorexcited.
-Raiselevelofnervousactivityinthebody.
(E.g.)smellofthefood.
Stimulus
Means
-
anything
that
Stimulus
Means
-
anything
that
excitesorarousesaperson. SensationandPerception: *
Sensation
istheresponseofa
physicalsensoryorgan
Eye–See Ears–Hear
Hands–Touch Nose–Smell
Tongue
–
Taste
6
i
Peopleusuallymean
sensationandperception
thesame.
Butthereisaclearcutdistinctionbetweenthetwo.
i
In simple words
sensation
may be described as the
response of a
physical sensory organ
to some stimuli
(ourphysicalsensoryorganoftenreactstothesestimuli).
i
Thereactionofoureyesto
colour,earstosound
,andso
on
are
examples
of
our
every
day
sensations
.
on
are
examples
of
our
every
day
sensations
.
i
Perception
ismuchmorethansensation.
i
Perception depends upon the sensory
raw data
, yet it
involvesaprocessthatincludes
filtering,modifying
(or)
even changing these raw data to make sense out of
them.
i
Resultfromsensationiscalledperception.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 7
Peopleusuallymean
sensationandperception
thesame.
Butthereisaclearcutdistinctionbetweenthetwo.
i
In simple words
sensation
may be described as the
response of a
physical sensory organ
to some stimuli
(ourphysicalsensoryorganoftenreactstothesestimuli).
i
Thereactionofoureyesto
colour,earstosound
,andso
on
are
examples
of
our
every
day
sensations
.
on
are
examples
of
our
every
day
sensations
.
i
Perception
ismuchmorethansensation.
i
Perception depends upon the sensory
raw data
, yet it
involvesaprocessthatincludes
filtering,modifying
(or)
even changing these raw data to make sense out of
them.
i
Resultfromsensationiscalledperception.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 7
NEED OF PERCEPTION NEED OF PERCEPTION
NeedofthePerception: i) Perception is very important in understanding the human
behaviour, because every person perceives the world and
approachesthelifeproblemsdifferently.
ii)Itcanpredicttheirbehaviourinthechangedcircumstances
by
understanding
their
present
perception
of
the
by
understanding
their
present
perception
of
the
environment.
iii) With the help of perception, the needs of various people
can be determined, because people’s perception is
influencedbytheirneeds.
iv)Perceptionisveryimportantforthemanagerwhowantsto
avoid making errorswhen dealing with people and events
intheworksetting.
8
NeedofthePerception: i) Perception is very important in understanding the human
behaviour, because every person perceives the world and
approachesthelifeproblemsdifferently.
ii)Itcanpredicttheirbehaviourinthechangedcircumstances
by
understanding
their
present
perception
of
the
by
understanding
their
present
perception
of
the
environment.
iii) With the help of perception, the needs of various people
can be determined, because people’s perception is
influencedbytheirneeds.
iv)Perceptionisveryimportantforthemanagerwhowantsto
avoid making errorswhen dealing with people and events
intheworksetting.
8
DeterminantsofPerception:
ThevariousdeterminantsofPerceptionareasfollows–
1.QualitiesofthePerceiver(Employees): Itincludes–PersonalityandExperience.
-
Needs
(Monetary
benefits)
DETERMINANTS OF DETERMINANTS OF
PERCEPTION PERCEPTION
-
Needs
(Monetary
benefits)
-Attitude(positiveattitude)
-Valuesystem(Asystemdoestheperceiverhaveinfluence
hisperception).
2. Qualities of the Perceived (fellow man, supervisor,
employer):
a)Physicalstamina
-Apersonwithgoodphysicalstamina,he
isdeemedtobefitforanykindofphysicalwork.
9
ThevariousdeterminantsofPerceptionareasfollows–
1.QualitiesofthePerceiver(Employees): Itincludes–PersonalityandExperience.
-
Needs
(Monetary
benefits)
DETERMINANTS OF DETERMINANTS OF
PERCEPTION PERCEPTION
-
Needs
(Monetary
benefits)
-Attitude(positiveattitude)
-Valuesystem(Asystemdoestheperceiverhaveinfluence
hisperception).
2. Qualities of the Perceived (fellow man, supervisor,
employer):
a)Physicalstamina
-Apersonwithgoodphysicalstamina,he
isdeemedtobefitforanykindofphysicalwork.
9
b) Mental Qualities
– A person withgood level of IQis
perceivedtobefittosolveanyorganizationalproblembyhis
intellectualcapacity.
c)Levelofcommitment-
Ifanemployeeishighlyirregularfor
work, andquarrelswith supervisors and fellow workmen he
willbeperceivedtobeindiscipline.
3.EnvironmentalCondition: a)
Physical
environment
-
If
the
work
place
is
not
neat
and
tidy
a)
Physical
environment
-
If
the
work
place
is
not
neat
and
tidy
and lacks even basic facilities likelighting, ventilation,
drinking,water,toiletetc.Theemployerwillbeperceivedto
have no regards for thephysical and mental beingof his
employee.
b) Social environment
- If there is alwaysmisunderstanding
among employees and also between the employees and the
employer, the perception will be that theinterpersonal
relationship
in
the
organization
is
very
poor
.
10
– A person withgood level of IQis
perceivedtobefittosolveanyorganizationalproblembyhis
intellectualcapacity.
c)Levelofcommitment-
Ifanemployeeishighlyirregularfor
work, andquarrelswith supervisors and fellow workmen he
willbeperceivedtobeindiscipline.
3.EnvironmentalCondition: a)
Physical
environment
-
If
the
work
place
is
not
neat
and
tidy
a)
Physical
environment
-
If
the
work
place
is
not
neat
and
tidy
and lacks even basic facilities likelighting, ventilation,
drinking,water,toiletetc.Theemployerwillbeperceivedto
have no regards for thephysical and mental beingof his
employee.
b) Social environment
- If there is alwaysmisunderstanding
among employees and also between the employees and the
employer, the perception will be that theinterpersonal
relationship
in
the
organization
is
very
poor
.
10
Theprocessofperceptioninvolvessixstages– 1.Receivingstimuli:
- the perception process starts with the
reception of
stimuli
.
-
the
stimuli
are
received
from
the
various
sources
.
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
-
the
stimuli
are
received
from
the
various
sources
.
- we receive stimuli through our sense organs -
eyes,
ears,hands,noseandtongue.
- stimuli may be in the form of
objects, events
or
people.
- when a person interacts with stimuli,
sensation
(feeling from something)takes place and that is the beginning
process
of
perception
.
11
- the perception process starts with the
reception of
stimuli
.
-
the
stimuli
are
received
from
the
various
sources
.
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
-
the
stimuli
are
received
from
the
various
sources
.
- we receive stimuli through our sense organs -
eyes,
ears,hands,noseandtongue.
- stimuli may be in the form of
objects, events
or
people.
- when a person interacts with stimuli,
sensation
(feeling from something)takes place and that is the beginning
process
of
perception
.
11
2.Selectingstimuli:
- among various stimuli an individual may come across,
onlywhensomeare
importantandrelevant
.
- the election of stimuli is not made at random, but
dependingonthetwotypeoffactorsnamely-
a) Externalfactors:
- influencing the selection of stimuli are
nature of the
stimulus,
location,
size,
colour
and
shape
familiarity,
stimulus,
location,
size,
colour
and
shape
familiarity,
contrastandreputation.
i)Nature
–bynaturewhethertheobjectis
visualorauditory
anditinvolvespictures,peopleoranimals.
-
pictures
attractattentionthanwordsand
rhymingauditory
passageattractsmoreattentionthannarrativepassage.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 12
- among various stimuli an individual may come across,
onlywhensomeare
importantandrelevant
.
- the election of stimuli is not made at random, but
dependingonthetwotypeoffactorsnamely-
a) Externalfactors:
- influencing the selection of stimuli are
nature of the
stimulus,
location,
size,
colour
and
shape
familiarity,
stimulus,
location,
size,
colour
and
shape
familiarity,
contrastandreputation.
i)Nature
–bynaturewhethertheobjectis
visualorauditory
anditinvolvespictures,peopleoranimals.
-
pictures
attractattentionthanwordsand
rhymingauditory
passageattractsmoreattentionthannarrativepassage.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 12
ii) Location
– the best location of a
visual stimulus
for
attractingattentionisdirectlyinfrontofeyes.
(E.g.) location of
message or picture in newspaper
in upper
portionismore
favourable
thaninlowerportion.
iii)Colour
–amodicumof
colourcatchestheeye
inmassof
blackandwhite.
- it used to emphasize
attractive features
of product or
create
sustainable
atmosphere
.
create
sustainable
atmosphere
.
- some products like
cars
comes in
variety of colours
, but
otherslike
toothpaste
areinlimited
rangeofcolours
.
- it is used to enhance the
lighting effects
, for creating
pleasantsurroundings.
- it is
psychological impact
on an individual and act as
stimulantandothersasdepressant.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 13
– the best location of a
visual stimulus
for
attractingattentionisdirectlyinfrontofeyes.
(E.g.) location of
message or picture in newspaper
in upper
portionismore
favourable
thaninlowerportion.
iii)Colour
–amodicumof
colourcatchestheeye
inmassof
blackandwhite.
- it used to emphasize
attractive features
of product or
create
sustainable
atmosphere
.
create
sustainable
atmosphere
.
- some products like
cars
comes in
variety of colours
, but
otherslike
toothpaste
areinlimited
rangeofcolours
.
- it is used to enhance the
lighting effects
, for creating
pleasantsurroundings.
- it is
psychological impact
on an individual and act as
stimulantandothersasdepressant.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 13
EffectsofColour:
Colour Psychological Effect
Violet Aggressive and tiring
Blue Restful
Brown Exciting
Green Very restful
Yellow Exciting
Orange
Exciting
iv) Size
– objects of
larger size attract
more attention than
smallerones.
(E.g.)
Engineering staff
pay more attention to
big machine
thansmallone.
Orange
Exciting
Red Very Stimulating
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 14
Colour Psychological Effect
Violet Aggressive and tiring
Blue Restful
Brown Exciting
Green Very restful
Yellow Exciting
Orange
Exciting
iv) Size
– objects of
larger size attract
more attention than
smallerones.
(E.g.)
Engineering staff
pay more attention to
big machine
thansmallone.
Orange
Exciting
Red Very Stimulating
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 14
v)Contrast
–itstatesthatexternalstimuliwhichstandagainst
background
,willreceivetheirattention.
(E.g.)
Parking
or
No parking
sign boardsareblock letteron
yellowbackground
orredletteringon
whitebackground
to
getattentionfromdrivers.
-managersutilizethisfactorinorganizinginworkplacesto
create
contrastatmosphere
.
vi)
Movement
–
the
principle
of
motion
states
that
moving
vi)
Movement
–
the
principle
of
motion
states
that
moving
objectreceives
moreattention
thanobjectthatisstationary.
- in work environment the
attention of workman
will be
focusedmoreonconveyorbeltthanonpaintingsonwallsor
illumination.
- advertisers capitalize on this principle by
creating signs
whichincorporatemovingparts.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 15
–itstatesthatexternalstimuliwhichstandagainst
background
,willreceivetheirattention.
(E.g.)
Parking
or
No parking
sign boardsareblock letteron
yellowbackground
orredletteringon
whitebackground
to
getattentionfromdrivers.
-managersutilizethisfactorinorganizinginworkplacesto
create
contrastatmosphere
.
vi)
Movement
–
the
principle
of
motion
states
that
moving
vi)
Movement
–
the
principle
of
motion
states
that
moving
objectreceives
moreattention
thanobjectthatisstationary.
- in work environment the
attention of workman
will be
focusedmoreonconveyorbeltthanonpaintingsonwallsor
illumination.
- advertisers capitalize on this principle by
creating signs
whichincorporatemovingparts.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 15
vii)Repetition
–itstatesthata
repeatedexternalstimulus
is
moreattentionthannon–repetitiveone.
-
sameadvertisement
ofproductflasheddailyontelevision
isbasedon
principleofrepetition
.
-thesupervisorhavetogive
directionstoworkers
overand
overagain
forevensimpletasks.
viii)NoveltyandFamiliarity
–itstatesthateithera
novelor
familiar
external
situation
can
serve
more
attention
.
familiar
external
situation
can
serve
more
attention
.
- new jobs in familiar settings or familiar objects in new
settingsdrawtheattentionofperceiver.
(E.g.)
Jobrotation
–
changingworkersjobs
fromtimetotime
willtendtoincreaseattentiontheygiventotask.
- novel attracts attention fast like
humour, animation
,
graphics.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 16
–itstatesthata
repeatedexternalstimulus
is
moreattentionthannon–repetitiveone.
-
sameadvertisement
ofproductflasheddailyontelevision
isbasedon
principleofrepetition
.
-thesupervisorhavetogive
directionstoworkers
overand
overagain
forevensimpletasks.
viii)NoveltyandFamiliarity
–itstatesthateithera
novelor
familiar
external
situation
can
serve
more
attention
.
familiar
external
situation
can
serve
more
attention
.
- new jobs in familiar settings or familiar objects in new
settingsdrawtheattentionofperceiver.
(E.g.)
Jobrotation
–
changingworkersjobs
fromtimetotime
willtendtoincreaseattentiontheygiventotask.
- novel attracts attention fast like
humour, animation
,
graphics.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 16
b) Internalfactors:
- influencing the selection of stimuli are
personality, age
difference
,unfulfilledneedsandspecialinterest.
- people selectively perceive objects, or things which are
interested to them and avoid those for which they are not
interested.
i) Learning
–itisa
cognitivefactor
,considerableinfluence
on
perception
and
creates
expectancy
in
people
.
on
perception
and
creates
expectancy
in
people
.
-peopletendtoperceivewhattheywanttoperceive.
(E.g.)Onepersonreadthesentenceintriangle,it
takes
fewsecondstorealize
thereisextra
‘the’
in
sentence.Thiscreates
expectancyinlearning
.
Anotherwordismachinerywhichindicates
indifferentpattern.
17
Bird in Bird in Bird in Bird in
the the the the thethethe the
hand handhand hand
MMMM----AAAA----CCCC----HHHH----IIII----NNNN----EEEE----RRRR----YYYY
- influencing the selection of stimuli are
personality, age
difference
,unfulfilledneedsandspecialinterest.
- people selectively perceive objects, or things which are
interested to them and avoid those for which they are not
interested.
i) Learning
–itisa
cognitivefactor
,considerableinfluence
on
perception
and
creates
expectancy
in
people
.
on
perception
and
creates
expectancy
in
people
.
-peopletendtoperceivewhattheywanttoperceive.
(E.g.)Onepersonreadthesentenceintriangle,it
takes
fewsecondstorealize
thereisextra
‘the’
in
sentence.Thiscreates
expectancyinlearning
.
Anotherwordismachinerywhichindicates
indifferentpattern.
17
Bird in Bird in Bird in Bird in
the the the the thethethe the
hand handhand hand
MMMM----AAAA----CCCC----HHHH----IIII----NNNN----EEEE----RRRR----YYYY
ii) Psychological needs
– it plays significant role in
perceptualselectivity.
(E.g.) A
thirsty person
in desert gets the
illusion of water
whenseeingsandfromdistance.
-everyperson’spsychicenergiesareexpandedintryingto
satisfy basic
psychological needs
for love, esteem and
adequacy.
-
it
can
interact
with
those
sector’s
another
personality
-
it
can
interact
with
those
sector’s
another
personality
throughwhichcangratifytheseneeds.
iii) Age difference
–
senior executives
complain about the
inability of new, young ones to take
tough decisions
terminatingpeopleorpayingattentiontodetails.
-
differentperceptions
ofoldandyoungexecutivesaredue
totheir
agedifferences
.
18 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
– it plays significant role in
perceptualselectivity.
(E.g.) A
thirsty person
in desert gets the
illusion of water
whenseeingsandfromdistance.
-everyperson’spsychicenergiesareexpandedintryingto
satisfy basic
psychological needs
for love, esteem and
adequacy.
-
it
can
interact
with
those
sector’s
another
personality
-
it
can
interact
with
those
sector’s
another
personality
throughwhichcangratifytheseneeds.
iii) Age difference
–
senior executives
complain about the
inability of new, young ones to take
tough decisions
terminatingpeopleorpayingattentiontodetails.
-
differentperceptions
ofoldandyoungexecutivesaredue
totheir
agedifferences
.
18 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
iv)Interest
–perceptionisinfluencedby
interestsofperceive
.
-
interestcan’tbedistinguished
fromneeds.
- person with a particular interest has a need to involve himself in
activities.
- if a person with
special interest
, his perception is likely to be
selectiveatanytime.
v)Ambivalence
–itisalsoa
mixedfeelings
aboutasituation.
(E
.g
.
)
Young
man
may
be
ambivalent
about
his
fiancée's
virtues,
(E
.
g
.
)
Young
man
may
be
ambivalent
about
his
fiancée's
virtues,
attractive,charmingandhewantstoremainsuccessinhiscircleby
having beautiful fiancee, represses the awareness of
her negative
qualities
and
selectivelyperceive
thatarefavourable.
vi)Paranoid(afraidorsuspiciousofotherpeople)Perception
–itis
characteristic of
emotionally disturbed
person that his perceptual
fielddiffersfromthatofrealityand
personalizedinterpretation
.
-his
selfconceptispoor
&very
insecure
,asaresulthebehavein
inflexiblemanner.
19
–perceptionisinfluencedby
interestsofperceive
.
-
interestcan’tbedistinguished
fromneeds.
- person with a particular interest has a need to involve himself in
activities.
- if a person with
special interest
, his perception is likely to be
selectiveatanytime.
v)Ambivalence
–itisalsoa
mixedfeelings
aboutasituation.
(E
.g
.
)
Young
man
may
be
ambivalent
about
his
fiancée's
virtues,
(E
.
g
.
)
Young
man
may
be
ambivalent
about
his
fiancée's
virtues,
attractive,charmingandhewantstoremainsuccessinhiscircleby
having beautiful fiancee, represses the awareness of
her negative
qualities
and
selectivelyperceive
thatarefavourable.
vi)Paranoid(afraidorsuspiciousofotherpeople)Perception
–itis
characteristic of
emotionally disturbed
person that his perceptual
fielddiffersfromthatofrealityand
personalizedinterpretation
.
-his
selfconceptispoor
&very
insecure
,asaresulthebehavein
inflexiblemanner.
19
3.Organizingstimuli:
- it is the process by which people group
stimuli into
recognizablepatterns.
(E.g.)peoplehaveamentalpictureofan
objectmadeofwood
andhavingfourlegs,seat,back
,animageof
chair
.
- people actually see an object having these characteristic s
and able to organizeinformation into
meaningful way
and
recognize
an
object
as
chair
.
recognize
an
object
as
chair
.
a)Ambiguousfigure–itbecomesa
difficulttask
whenthere
are
confusing and discouraged
stimuli in the external
environment.
(E.g.)seeingthat
pictures
,itcould
Representeithera
duckorrabbit
,
whichfluctuatestwoimages.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 20
- it is the process by which people group
stimuli into
recognizablepatterns.
(E.g.)peoplehaveamentalpictureofan
objectmadeofwood
andhavingfourlegs,seat,back
,animageof
chair
.
- people actually see an object having these characteristic s
and able to organizeinformation into
meaningful way
and
recognize
an
object
as
chair
.
recognize
an
object
as
chair
.
a)Ambiguousfigure–itbecomesa
difficulttask
whenthere
are
confusing and discouraged
stimuli in the external
environment.
(E.g.)seeingthat
pictures
,itcould
Representeithera
duckorrabbit
,
whichfluctuatestwoimages.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 20
b)Figurebackground–itisconsideredtobethemostbasic
formof
perceptualorganization
.
- the relationship of a target to its
background influences
perception.
- perceived objects
stand out separable
from their general
background.
-inorganizationsmanagersfacearesimilarexperiences.
c)
Perceptual
Grouping
-
the
tendency
to
group
stimuli
in
c)
Perceptual
Grouping
-
the
tendency
to
group
stimuli
in
certain ways has been a common means of organizing
perception.
- it include
similarity, proximity, closure
, continuity and
area.
(E.g.) all workers having similarity in certain aspects hav e
perceived
similarabouttheirboss
.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 21
formof
perceptualorganization
.
- the relationship of a target to its
background influences
perception.
- perceived objects
stand out separable
from their general
background.
-inorganizationsmanagersfacearesimilarexperiences.
c)
Perceptual
Grouping
-
the
tendency
to
group
stimuli
in
c)
Perceptual
Grouping
-
the
tendency
to
group
stimuli
in
certain ways has been a common means of organizing
perception.
- it include
similarity, proximity, closure
, continuity and
area.
(E.g.) all workers having similarity in certain aspects hav e
perceived
similarabouttheirboss
.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 21
* Principle of similarity
– it is exemplified when objects of
similarshape,size,colourtendtobegroupedtogether.
(E.g.)allemployeeswhowearwhitecollarsmaybeperceivedas
a common group, in reality, each worker is a unique
individual.
*Principleofproximity
–itunderlinesthetendencytoperceive
stimuliwhichnearoneanotherasbelongingtogether.
(E
.g
.)
several
employees
in
organization
may
be
identified
as
a
(E
.g
.)
several
employees
in
organization
may
be
identified
as
a
singlegroupbecauseofphysicalproximity.
*PrincipleofClosure
–itstatesthatapersonhasatendencyto
perceiveawholewhennoneexists.
-theperson’sperceptualprocesswillclosethegapswhichare
unfilledfromsensoryinputs.
- it demonstrates the perceiver’s ability to perceive a whol e
objecteventhoughonlypartofobjectisevident.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 22
– it is exemplified when objects of
similarshape,size,colourtendtobegroupedtogether.
(E.g.)allemployeeswhowearwhitecollarsmaybeperceivedas
a common group, in reality, each worker is a unique
individual.
*Principleofproximity
–itunderlinesthetendencytoperceive
stimuliwhichnearoneanotherasbelongingtogether.
(E
.g
.)
several
employees
in
organization
may
be
identified
as
a
(E
.g
.)
several
employees
in
organization
may
be
identified
as
a
singlegroupbecauseofphysicalproximity.
*PrincipleofClosure
–itstatesthatapersonhasatendencyto
perceiveawholewhennoneexists.
-theperson’sperceptualprocesswillclosethegapswhichare
unfilledfromsensoryinputs.
- it demonstrates the perceiver’s ability to perceive a whol e
objecteventhoughonlypartofobjectisevident.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 22
* Continuity
– it is the
tendency to perceive objects
as
continuingpatterns.
- it is an useful
organizing principle
, but it may also
havenegativeaspects.
(E.g.)
tendency
toperceivecontinuouspatternsmayresult
in an
inability
to perceive uniqueness and detect
change.
-in
businessforecasting
,acommon
continuityerror
is
to assume that the future will simply reflect current
eventsandtrends.
*Area
–onepartofarea
depictinganambiguousfigure
issmallerinsizethantheremainder.
-itislikelythat
smallerarea
willbeseenandrestof
area
is
background
.
23
– it is the
tendency to perceive objects
as
continuingpatterns.
- it is an useful
organizing principle
, but it may also
havenegativeaspects.
(E.g.)
tendency
toperceivecontinuouspatternsmayresult
in an
inability
to perceive uniqueness and detect
change.
-in
businessforecasting
,acommon
continuityerror
is
to assume that the future will simply reflect current
eventsandtrends.
*Area
–onepartofarea
depictinganambiguousfigure
issmallerinsizethantheremainder.
-itislikelythat
smallerarea
willbeseenandrestof
area
is
background
.
23
d) Perceptual Constancy– a more
subtle part of perceptual
organization is constancy, our ability to perceive certain
characteristics of an object as remaining
constant
, despite
variations in the stimuli that provide us with conflicting
information.
* Shape constancy
– a object appears to maintain its
shape
despitemarked
changesinretinalimage
.
(E
.g
.)
we
see
the
top
of
a
glass
bottle
as
‘
circular’
whether
we
(E
.g
.)
we
see
the
top
of
a
glass
bottle
as
‘
circular’
whether
we
viewitfromsideorfromtop.
* Size constancy
– it refers to the fact that as an object is
moved
farther away
we tend to see it as more or less
invariant
insize.
(E.g.) Football players on opposite side of field don’t look
appreciably
smaller than those closer
to us on field even
thoughtheirimagesonretainsaremuchsmaller.
24
subtle part of perceptual
organization is constancy, our ability to perceive certain
characteristics of an object as remaining
constant
, despite
variations in the stimuli that provide us with conflicting
information.
* Shape constancy
– a object appears to maintain its
shape
despitemarked
changesinretinalimage
.
(E
.g
.)
we
see
the
top
of
a
glass
bottle
as
‘
circular’
whether
we
(E
.g
.)
we
see
the
top
of
a
glass
bottle
as
‘
circular’
whether
we
viewitfromsideorfromtop.
* Size constancy
– it refers to the fact that as an object is
moved
farther away
we tend to see it as more or less
invariant
insize.
(E.g.) Football players on opposite side of field don’t look
appreciably
smaller than those closer
to us on field even
thoughtheirimagesonretainsaremuchsmaller.
24
* Colour constancy
– it implies that
familiar objects
are
perceivedtobeofthesamecolourunder
variedconditions
.
(E.g.)ownerof
bluecar
seesitas bluewhetherlooking atit
bright
sunlight
,
dim
illumination or under
yellow street
light.
-constancygivesapersona
senseofstability
inachanging
world.
-
without
perceptual
constancy,
sizes
&
colour
of
objects
-
without
perceptual
constancy,
sizes
&
colour
of
objects
wouldchangeasworkermovedaboutandmake
jobalmost
impossible.
4.ProcessofInterpretingstimuli:(understandingmeaning)
-
interpretationinthe
processofassigningmeaning
tothe
stimulireceivedandorganized.
-
data collected and organized
do not make any sense
without
interpretation
.
25
– it implies that
familiar objects
are
perceivedtobeofthesamecolourunder
variedconditions
.
(E.g.)ownerof
bluecar
seesitas bluewhetherlooking atit
bright
sunlight
,
dim
illumination or under
yellow street
light.
-constancygivesapersona
senseofstability
inachanging
world.
-
without
perceptual
constancy,
sizes
&
colour
of
objects
-
without
perceptual
constancy,
sizes
&
colour
of
objects
wouldchangeasworkermovedaboutandmake
jobalmost
impossible.
4.ProcessofInterpretingstimuli:(understandingmeaning)
-
interpretationinthe
processofassigningmeaning
tothe
stimulireceivedandorganized.
-
data collected and organized
do not make any sense
without
interpretation
.
25
There are several factors contribute towards interpretati on and
importantamongthemare–
a) Perceptual Set (Mind Set)- the
opinion or belief
that one has
developedaboutsomeoneorsomethingorobjects.
(E.g.)Ifasupervisorthinksthataparticularemployeeis
insincere
& uncooperative
, the tendency will be to
interpret
(explain the
meaning)
behavior
accordingtoone’smind.
b)
Attribution
–
it
refers
to
the
process
by
which
the
individual
b)
Attribution
–
it
refers
to
the
process
by
which
the
individual
assignscauses
tothebehaviourthatheconceives.
- people are not interested only in observing behaviour in
organizations,butin
determiningcauses
also.
-itexplainshumanbehaviourintermsof
causeandeffects
.
(E.g.)
Latecoming
shouldbeviewedasanactinworkplace.Late
coming by workers may be perceived to be an
offence
& they
mayevenbepunished.Latecomingbymanagersisignored.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 26
importantamongthemare–
a) Perceptual Set (Mind Set)- the
opinion or belief
that one has
developedaboutsomeoneorsomethingorobjects.
(E.g.)Ifasupervisorthinksthataparticularemployeeis
insincere
& uncooperative
, the tendency will be to
interpret
(explain the
meaning)
behavior
accordingtoone’smind.
b)
Attribution
–
it
refers
to
the
process
by
which
the
individual
b)
Attribution
–
it
refers
to
the
process
by
which
the
individual
assignscauses
tothebehaviourthatheconceives.
- people are not interested only in observing behaviour in
organizations,butin
determiningcauses
also.
-itexplainshumanbehaviourintermsof
causeandeffects
.
(E.g.)
Latecoming
shouldbeviewedasanactinworkplace.Late
coming by workers may be perceived to be an
offence
& they
mayevenbepunished.Latecomingbymanagersisignored.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 26
c) Stereotyping– it is the tendency to
assign attributes
to
someone solely on basis of a
category of people
to which
thatpersonbelongs.
- a person is perceived based on the
characteristics of the
group
to which he belongs rather than his individual
characteristics.
(E.g.)
women,doctors
,professors,artists,etcandatabroader
level
there
are
Americans,
Indians
and
Africans
.
level
there
are
Americans,
Indians
and
Africans
.
-stereotypingis
notprejudice
andprejudiceisstereotyping
that refers to change when
presented with information
indicatingthatthestereotypeisinaccurate..
-itisusefulprocessthatgreatly
increasesone’sefficiency
inmakingsenseoutofhisorherenvironment.
-itleadsto
inaccuracies
and
negative
consequences.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 27
assign attributes
to
someone solely on basis of a
category of people
to which
thatpersonbelongs.
- a person is perceived based on the
characteristics of the
group
to which he belongs rather than his individual
characteristics.
(E.g.)
women,doctors
,professors,artists,etcandatabroader
level
there
are
Americans,
Indians
and
Africans
.
level
there
are
Americans,
Indians
and
Africans
.
-stereotypingis
notprejudice
andprejudiceisstereotyping
that refers to change when
presented with information
indicatingthatthestereotypeisinaccurate..
-itisusefulprocessthatgreatly
increasesone’sefficiency
inmakingsenseoutofhisorherenvironment.
-itleadsto
inaccuracies
and
negative
consequences.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 27
Stereotypingisfourstepprocess–
i) It begins by
categorizing people
into groups according to
variouscriterialikeage,gender,occupation,etc.
ii)Itinferthatallpeoplewithina
particularcategory
possess
the
sametraits
.
iii)Itform
expectationsofothers
andinterprettheirbehaviour
accordingtoourstereotypes.
Stereotypes
are
maintained
by
–
Stereotypes
are
maintained
by
–
i) Overestimating the
frequency of stereotypic
behaviours
exhibitedbyothers.
ii) Incorrectly explaining
expected and unexpected
behaviours.
iii)Differentiating
minorityindividuals
fromoneself.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 28
i) It begins by
categorizing people
into groups according to
variouscriterialikeage,gender,occupation,etc.
ii)Itinferthatallpeoplewithina
particularcategory
possess
the
sametraits
.
iii)Itform
expectationsofothers
andinterprettheirbehaviour
accordingtoourstereotypes.
Stereotypes
are
maintained
by
–
Stereotypes
are
maintained
by
–
i) Overestimating the
frequency of stereotypic
behaviours
exhibitedbyothers.
ii) Incorrectly explaining
expected and unexpected
behaviours.
iii)Differentiating
minorityindividuals
fromoneself.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 28
d) Halo Effect– it refers to the
tendency to perceive
a person,
possessing few
good qualities
, as too good or to perceive
another,witha
fewbadqualities
,astotallybad.
-drawingageneral
impression
aboutanindividualbasedona
single
characteristicsortrait
iscalledhaloeffect.
(E.g.) Teacher awarding
more marks
to well likedstudent.Itis
not much conscious bias on professor, as he like the student
and
wants
him
to
do
well
in
examination,
perception
about
and
wants
him
to
do
well
in
examination,
perception
about
student
areinfluencedbywhathewantstosee.
-itneednotalwaysmean
overratingpositivecharacteristics
.
- a individual may be
down rated
based on
negative
evaluation of his behaviour
and it is called
rusty halo
or
hornseffect.
(E.g.) it occurs in organizations when
superiors rate
subordinates
inaformalappraisaloncertaindimensions.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 29
tendency to perceive
a person,
possessing few
good qualities
, as too good or to perceive
another,witha
fewbadqualities
,astotallybad.
-drawingageneral
impression
aboutanindividualbasedona
single
characteristicsortrait
iscalledhaloeffect.
(E.g.) Teacher awarding
more marks
to well likedstudent.Itis
not much conscious bias on professor, as he like the student
and
wants
him
to
do
well
in
examination,
perception
about
and
wants
him
to
do
well
in
examination,
perception
about
student
areinfluencedbywhathewantstosee.
-itneednotalwaysmean
overratingpositivecharacteristics
.
- a individual may be
down rated
based on
negative
evaluation of his behaviour
and it is called
rusty halo
or
hornseffect.
(E.g.) it occurs in organizations when
superiors rate
subordinates
inaformalappraisaloncertaindimensions.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 29
* Perceptual Context
– the
context
in which an object is
placedinfluencesperception.
-
thevisualstimuli
bythemselvesaremeaningless.
- organizational
culture and structure
provide the primary
contextinwhichworkersandmanagersdotheirperceiving.
(E.g.) A
memo issued
to an employee, who has shown
negligence, is usually taken
seriously
by him as getting a
memo
from
the
employer
is
normally
perceived
as
a
black
memo
from
the
employer
is
normally
perceived
as
a
black
markinone’scareer.
* Perceptual Defence
– an individual is likely to put up a
defencewhenconfrontedwith
conflicting,unacceptable
or
threatening
stimuli.
- perceiver may assume four forms:
outright denial
,
modification
of data received,
change in perception
but
refusal
to
change
and
change
in
perception
itself
.
30
– the
context
in which an object is
placedinfluencesperception.
-
thevisualstimuli
bythemselvesaremeaningless.
- organizational
culture and structure
provide the primary
contextinwhichworkersandmanagersdotheirperceiving.
(E.g.) A
memo issued
to an employee, who has shown
negligence, is usually taken
seriously
by him as getting a
memo
from
the
employer
is
normally
perceived
as
a
black
memo
from
the
employer
is
normally
perceived
as
a
black
markinone’scareer.
* Perceptual Defence
– an individual is likely to put up a
defencewhenconfrontedwith
conflicting,unacceptable
or
threatening
stimuli.
- perceiver may assume four forms:
outright denial
,
modification
of data received,
change in perception
but
refusal
to
change
and
change
in
perception
itself
.
30
* Implicit Personality theory
– an individual’s
perceptions are influenced by
belief
that certain
human traits
are associated with one another
makinginferences.
(E.g.)Traithonesty
isassociatedwith
hardworking
.
*Projection
–peopletendtoseein
anotherperson
traits
that
they
themselves
process
.
traits
that
they
themselves
process
.
- their
feelings, tendencies or motives
into their
judgementofothers.
(E.g.) individual who is himself
not very energetic
mayseeothersas
lazy
ormayexplaintheirlackof
achievement,unwillingnesstoworkhard.
31 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
– an individual’s
perceptions are influenced by
belief
that certain
human traits
are associated with one another
makinginferences.
(E.g.)Traithonesty
isassociatedwith
hardworking
.
*Projection
–peopletendtoseein
anotherperson
traits
that
they
themselves
process
.
traits
that
they
themselves
process
.
- their
feelings, tendencies or motives
into their
judgementofothers.
(E.g.) individual who is himself
not very energetic
mayseeothersas
lazy
ormayexplaintheirlackof
achievement,unwillingnesstoworkhard.
31 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
5.ProcessofCheckingstimuli:
-itistheprocessofperception isthatthe
perceiver
hasto
check whether the
interpretation
made by him in
right or
wrong.
- one way of checking is that the perceiver should ask
himself certain questions and the answers to the question
whether his perception about
someone
or
something
is
correct
.
correct
.
6.Reactingtostimuli:
-atthelaststepstheperceiver
hastoreact
towhathehas
perceivedabout
someoneorsomething
.
-thereactionwillbe
positive
iftheperceptionis
favorable
anditwillbe
negative
iftheperceptionis
unfavorable.
32 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
-itistheprocessofperception isthatthe
perceiver
hasto
check whether the
interpretation
made by him in
right or
wrong.
- one way of checking is that the perceiver should ask
himself certain questions and the answers to the question
whether his perception about
someone
or
something
is
correct
.
correct
.
6.Reactingtostimuli:
-atthelaststepstheperceiver
hastoreact
towhathehas
perceivedabout
someoneorsomething
.
-thereactionwillbe
positive
iftheperceptionis
favorable
anditwillbe
negative
iftheperceptionis
unfavorable.
32 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
FactorsInfluencingPerception:
FACTORS INFLUENCING FACTORS INFLUENCING
PERCEPTION PERCEPTION
Situational factors
•Physical setting
•Social setting
•Organizational
setting
33
Perceiver’s
characteristics
•Needs
•Experience
•Values
•Attitudes
•Personality
Characteristics
of perceived
•Nature
•Size
•Appearance
•Location, etc.
Individual’s
Perception
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
FACTORS INFLUENCING FACTORS INFLUENCING
PERCEPTION PERCEPTION
Situational factors
•Physical setting
•Social setting
•Organizational
setting
33
Perceiver’s
characteristics
•Needs
•Experience
•Values
•Attitudes
•Personality
Characteristics
of perceived
•Nature
•Size
•Appearance
•Location, etc.
Individual’s
Perception
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Factors that influences the selection of stimuli are of two
types-
a)Internalfactors: 1.Needsanddesire:
-
unfulfilled needs
of a person influence the selection of
stimuli.
-apersonwhoseneedfor
food,clothingandshelter
isnot
fulfilled
will
perceive
anything
as
unimportant
.
fulfilled
will
perceive
anything
as
unimportant
.
2.Personality:
-personwitha
positiveoutlook
alwaysthinkofthepositive
aspects.
-whilethosewitha
negativeoutlook
perceiveanydecision
tobedetrimental(harmordamage).
34 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
types-
a)Internalfactors: 1.Needsanddesire:
-
unfulfilled needs
of a person influence the selection of
stimuli.
-apersonwhoseneedfor
food,clothingandshelter
isnot
fulfilled
will
perceive
anything
as
unimportant
.
fulfilled
will
perceive
anything
as
unimportant
.
2.Personality:
-personwitha
positiveoutlook
alwaysthinkofthepositive
aspects.
-whilethosewitha
negativeoutlook
perceiveanydecision
tobedetrimental(harmordamage).
34 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
3.Experience:
-
experience and knowledge
serve as basis for
perception.
- successful experience also helps perceive understand
stimuliwithmoreaccuracy.
4.Agedifference:
-
age
differences
play
an
important
role
in
the
process
-
age
differences
play
an
important
role
in
the
process
ofperception.(e.g.)Son,father
5.Specialinterest:
- a person who has special interest in
anything on
anyone
mayperceiveanythingaslessimportant.
(E.g.) for a musician nothing is more important than
music.
35 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
-
experience and knowledge
serve as basis for
perception.
- successful experience also helps perceive understand
stimuliwithmoreaccuracy.
4.Agedifference:
-
age
differences
play
an
important
role
in
the
process
-
age
differences
play
an
important
role
in
the
process
ofperception.(e.g.)Son,father
5.Specialinterest:
- a person who has special interest in
anything on
anyone
mayperceiveanythingaslessimportant.
(E.g.) for a musician nothing is more important than
music.
35 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
b)Externalfactors: 1.Natureofstimuli:
- if it is
picture type
, better impact is created. Picture has
greater
attention
thanwords.
2.Location:
-where,inanewspaperanadvertisementfor(e.g.)isgoing
to be
placed is important
(i.e.) whether in the
front page,
center
page,
last
page
,
sports
page
etc
.
center
page,
last
page
,
sports
page
etc
.
3.Sizeandshape:
-size
attractstheattention
oftheindividuals
-larger
objects
attractattentionmorethanthesmallerones.
- it is this reason that some advertisers advertise in a full
pageinanewspaperonamagazine.
36 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
- if it is
picture type
, better impact is created. Picture has
greater
attention
thanwords.
2.Location:
-where,inanewspaperanadvertisementfor(e.g.)isgoing
to be
placed is important
(i.e.) whether in the
front page,
center
page,
last
page
,
sports
page
etc
.
center
page,
last
page
,
sports
page
etc
.
3.Sizeandshape:
-size
attractstheattention
oftheindividuals
-larger
objects
attractattentionmorethanthesmallerones.
- it is this reason that some advertisers advertise in a full
pageinanewspaperonamagazine.
36 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
4.Intensity(quality):
-intensityiscloselyrelatedto
size
.
(E.g.) Bright light, loud sound, strong fragrance etc, can c reate
betterimpactthandimlightandmildfragrance.
- the intensity
principle of attention
states that the more
intensethestimuli,themorelikelyitistobeperceived.
5.Contrast:
-
if
the
object
stands
out
against
the
background
,
it
receives
-
if
the
object
stands
out
against
the
background
,
it
receives
betterattention.
(E.g.)
Safetysigns
withblackletteringonayellowbackground
(or) white lettering on a red background are more attention
attracting.
6.Movement/Motion:
- it says that
moving objects
receive better attention than
objects
that
stand
still
.
37
-intensityiscloselyrelatedto
size
.
(E.g.) Bright light, loud sound, strong fragrance etc, can c reate
betterimpactthandimlightandmildfragrance.
- the intensity
principle of attention
states that the more
intensethestimuli,themorelikelyitistobeperceived.
5.Contrast:
-
if
the
object
stands
out
against
the
background
,
it
receives
-
if
the
object
stands
out
against
the
background
,
it
receives
betterattention.
(E.g.)
Safetysigns
withblackletteringonayellowbackground
(or) white lettering on a red background are more attention
attracting.
6.Movement/Motion:
- it says that
moving objects
receive better attention than
objects
that
stand
still
.
37
7.Rejection:
- a
repeated stimulus
has greater impact than the one
thatoccursonlyonce.
- it is for this reason that most advertisement are
repeatedly shownin the media
to gain the customer’s
attentionthisproduct.
8
.
Status
:
8
.
Status
:
- it held by an individual also
influences his/her
perception
aboutthingsorevents.
-researcherssuggestthatpeoplewith
highstatus
often
exert(applyaforce)moreinfluence ontheperception
of an individual as compared to those holding low
status.
38 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
- a
repeated stimulus
has greater impact than the one
thatoccursonlyonce.
- it is for this reason that most advertisement are
repeatedly shownin the media
to gain the customer’s
attentionthisproduct.
8
.
Status
:
8
.
Status
:
- it held by an individual also
influences his/her
perception
aboutthingsorevents.
-researcherssuggestthatpeoplewith
highstatus
often
exert(applyaforce)moreinfluence ontheperception
of an individual as compared to those holding low
status.
38 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
U
Perceptionisthe
startingpoint
ofhumanbehaviour.
U
Individual
selects,organizesandinterprets
informationand
formsbasisforbehaviour.
U
If stereotype people in
negative ways
, it may not take
interestonthem.
U
If
we
see
things
in
frame
of
reference
,
we
may
be
in
WHEN PERCEPTION FAILS WHEN PERCEPTION FAILS
U
If
we
see
things
in
frame
of
reference
,
we
may
be
in
constant
conflict
withothers.
U
Ifweseeandhearwhatwe
expects
,wemayturnpeopleoff.
U
Selective exposure
cause people to
get angry
for not
listeningtothem.
U
People don’t like to make
projective statements
about
others.
39 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Perceptionisthe
startingpoint
ofhumanbehaviour.
U
Individual
selects,organizesandinterprets
informationand
formsbasisforbehaviour.
U
If stereotype people in
negative ways
, it may not take
interestonthem.
U
If
we
see
things
in
frame
of
reference
,
we
may
be
in
WHEN PERCEPTION FAILS WHEN PERCEPTION FAILS
U
If
we
see
things
in
frame
of
reference
,
we
may
be
in
constant
conflict
withothers.
U
Ifweseeandhearwhatwe
expects
,wemayturnpeopleoff.
U
Selective exposure
cause people to
get angry
for not
listeningtothem.
U
People don’t like to make
projective statements
about
others.
39 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Systematicerrorsorbiasesthataffectsperceptionare– a) Fundamental attribution errors
– it refers to tendency to
underestimate the importance of external factors
and
overestimateinternalfactors
aboutbehaviourofothers.
b)Self–fulfillingprophecy
–thepeople’s
expectationsorbeliefs
determine their
behaviour and performance
, serving to make
theirexpectationscometrue.
-
it
occurs
when
our
perceptions
about
another
person
cause
-
it
occurs
when
our
perceptions
about
another
person
cause
thatpersontoactinawaythatisconsistent.
c) Illusions
– it provides
false interpretation
of sensory
information, a term used by
psychologists
to refer to incorrect
perceptions.
* Physical process– individual perceives object which are
non
existent.
(E.g.)waterfromdryarea.
* Cognitive process– it is due to
shape illusions
and results in
unsettlingconsequences.
40
– it refers to tendency to
underestimate the importance of external factors
and
overestimateinternalfactors
aboutbehaviourofothers.
b)Self–fulfillingprophecy
–thepeople’s
expectationsorbeliefs
determine their
behaviour and performance
, serving to make
theirexpectationscometrue.
-
it
occurs
when
our
perceptions
about
another
person
cause
-
it
occurs
when
our
perceptions
about
another
person
cause
thatpersontoactinawaythatisconsistent.
c) Illusions
– it provides
false interpretation
of sensory
information, a term used by
psychologists
to refer to incorrect
perceptions.
* Physical process– individual perceives object which are
non
existent.
(E.g.)waterfromdryarea.
* Cognitive process– it is due to
shape illusions
and results in
unsettlingconsequences.
40
ManagingthePerceptionProcess: 1.Haveahighlevelof
self–awareness
.
2. Seek information from various sources to confirm or
disconfirm
personalimpressions
ofadecisionssituation.
3. Be
empathetic
that is, be able to see a situation as it is
perceivedbyotherpeople.
4. Influence perceptions of other people when they are
drawing
incorrect
or
incomplete
impressions
of
events
in
drawing
incorrect
or
incomplete
impressions
of
events
in
theworksetting.
5.Avoidcommon
perceptualdistortions
thatbiasourviewsof
peopleandsituations.
6.Avoid
inappropriateattributions
.
7.
Diversity
managementprogrammes.
8.
Knowyourself
.
41
self–awareness
.
2. Seek information from various sources to confirm or
disconfirm
personalimpressions
ofadecisionssituation.
3. Be
empathetic
that is, be able to see a situation as it is
perceivedbyotherpeople.
4. Influence perceptions of other people when they are
drawing
incorrect
or
incomplete
impressions
of
events
in
drawing
incorrect
or
incomplete
impressions
of
events
in
theworksetting.
5.Avoidcommon
perceptualdistortions
thatbiasourviewsof
peopleandsituations.
6.Avoid
inappropriateattributions
.
7.
Diversity
managementprogrammes.
8.
Knowyourself
.
41
MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION Definition:
“Motivation”isaLatinword,meaning
‘tomove”.
“Motivation is the process of
inducing people
inner
drivesandactionstowardscertaingoalsandcommittinghis
energiestoachievethesegoals”.
“Motivation
is
a
general
term
applying
to
the
entire
“Motivation
is
a
general
term
applying
to
the
entire
classofdrives,
desires,needswishes
andsimilarforcesthat
induceanindividualoragroupofpeopletowork”.
-Koontz&O’Donnell
“Motivation means a
process of stimulating people
to
actiontoaccomplishdesiredgoals”.
-Scott
42 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
“Motivation”isaLatinword,meaning
‘tomove”.
“Motivation is the process of
inducing people
inner
drivesandactionstowardscertaingoalsandcommittinghis
energiestoachievethesegoals”.
“Motivation
is
a
general
term
applying
to
the
entire
“Motivation
is
a
general
term
applying
to
the
entire
classofdrives,
desires,needswishes
andsimilarforcesthat
induceanindividualoragroupofpeopletowork”.
-Koontz&O’Donnell
“Motivation means a
process of stimulating people
to
actiontoaccomplishdesiredgoals”.
-Scott
42 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Nature(Characteristics)ofmotivation:
-itisan
unendingprocess
becausehumanneedsareunlimited.
-itisan
psychologicalconcept
.(inducementoffeeling)
-itis
behaviouralconcept
thatdirectshumanbehaviour.
- person can’t be
partially motivated
, frustrated man can’t be
motivated.
-itcanbeeitherpositive(
incentive,bonus,rewards
)&negative
(
demotion,
penalties
)
.
(
demotion,
penalties
)
.
-itisacomplexprocess&systemoriented.
-itdependson3factors–
i)influences
individual
ii)influences
organization
and iii)
externalenvironment
.
- it is different from satisfaction. (i.e.) Motivation is dr ive &
effort to satisfy and Satisfaction is experienced, feels wh en
personissatisfied.
43 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
-itisan
unendingprocess
becausehumanneedsareunlimited.
-itisan
psychologicalconcept
.(inducementoffeeling)
-itis
behaviouralconcept
thatdirectshumanbehaviour.
- person can’t be
partially motivated
, frustrated man can’t be
motivated.
-itcanbeeitherpositive(
incentive,bonus,rewards
)&negative
(
demotion,
penalties
)
.
(
demotion,
penalties
)
.
-itisacomplexprocess&systemoriented.
-itdependson3factors–
i)influences
individual
ii)influences
organization
and iii)
externalenvironment
.
- it is different from satisfaction. (i.e.) Motivation is dr ive &
effort to satisfy and Satisfaction is experienced, feels wh en
personissatisfied.
43 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
ImportanceofMotivation:
- proper
utilization of human resources
, efficiency of
operation.
-willingnesson
partofworkers
,jobsatisfaction.
-solvelabourproblems&maintains
goodrelations
.
-itbrings
co-operation
togetbestoutput.
-
it
reduces
resistance
to
change
.
-
it
reduces
resistance
to
change
.
-allmemberstrytobeefficientaspossibletoimprovetheir skillandknowledge
.
-
financial&non-financialincentives
retainandattractthe
employees.
- motivation scheme promotes clear
relationship
between
organizationandworkers.
-guidestheworker’sactionin
desireddirection
.
44
- proper
utilization of human resources
, efficiency of
operation.
-willingnesson
partofworkers
,jobsatisfaction.
-solvelabourproblems&maintains
goodrelations
.
-itbrings
co-operation
togetbestoutput.
-
it
reduces
resistance
to
change
.
-
it
reduces
resistance
to
change
.
-allmemberstrytobeefficientaspossibletoimprovetheir skillandknowledge
.
-
financial&non-financialincentives
retainandattractthe
employees.
- motivation scheme promotes clear
relationship
between
organizationandworkers.
-guidestheworker’sactionin
desireddirection
.
44
MotivationProcess:
-M.A.Juciushasdevelopedmotivationprocessin3steps:
Step1:
AnalysisofSituation:
- motivational inducement must be created
based on the
situation
which give appropriate recognition ofdifferences
inindividualneeds.
Step 2:
Preparing, Selecting and Applying a set of
appropriate
motivation
tools
:
appropriate
motivation
tools
:
- list of all devices are drawn and it is selected based on typesofpeople
underdifferentsituations.
Step3:
Follow–up:
- desired motivation are provided by
evaluating the
feedback.
45 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
-M.A.Juciushasdevelopedmotivationprocessin3steps:
Step1:
AnalysisofSituation:
- motivational inducement must be created
based on the
situation
which give appropriate recognition ofdifferences
inindividualneeds.
Step 2:
Preparing, Selecting and Applying a set of
appropriate
motivation
tools
:
appropriate
motivation
tools
:
- list of all devices are drawn and it is selected based on typesofpeople
underdifferentsituations.
Step3:
Follow–up:
- desired motivation are provided by
evaluating the
feedback.
45 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
TypesofMotivation(Techniques):
1.Positivemotivation:
- proper recognition of
employee’s efforts
and appreciation of
employeecontributiontowardsgoalachievement.
(E.g.)pride,authority,responsibility,economicbenefi ts.
2.Negativemotivation:
-thisisbasedon
force,fear&threats
.
(E
.g
.)
fail
to
complete
the
work,
demotion,
dismissed,
pay
cut
.
(E
.g
.)
fail
to
complete
the
work,
demotion,
dismissed,
pay
cut
.
3.Extrinsicmotivation:
-thisisinducedby
externalfactors
.
(E.g.) higher pay, rest periods, holidays, profit share, he alth
insurance.
4.Intrinsicmotivation:
-thisisavailableatthe
timeofperformance
ofwork.
(E
.g
.)
Praise,
recognition,
power,
status,
participation
.
46
1.Positivemotivation:
- proper recognition of
employee’s efforts
and appreciation of
employeecontributiontowardsgoalachievement.
(E.g.)pride,authority,responsibility,economicbenefi ts.
2.Negativemotivation:
-thisisbasedon
force,fear&threats
.
(E
.g
.)
fail
to
complete
the
work,
demotion,
dismissed,
pay
cut
.
(E
.g
.)
fail
to
complete
the
work,
demotion,
dismissed,
pay
cut
.
3.Extrinsicmotivation:
-thisisinducedby
externalfactors
.
(E.g.) higher pay, rest periods, holidays, profit share, he alth
insurance.
4.Intrinsicmotivation:
-thisisavailableatthe
timeofperformance
ofwork.
(E
.g
.)
Praise,
recognition,
power,
status,
participation
.
46
MotivationTheories:
Some of the motivation theories are discussed
below:
1.Maslow’sNeedHierarchyTheory.
2. Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene Approach
theory(or)Two–factortheoryofMotivation.
3
.
McGregor’s
Theory
X
and
Theory
Y
.
3
.
McGregor’s
Theory
X
and
Theory
Y
.
4.Vroom’sExpectancytheory.
5.McClelland’sNeedstheory.
6.ClaytonAlderfer’sERGTheory.
47 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Some of the motivation theories are discussed
below:
1.Maslow’sNeedHierarchyTheory.
2. Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene Approach
theory(or)Two–factortheoryofMotivation.
3
.
McGregor’s
Theory
X
and
Theory
Y
.
3
.
McGregor’s
Theory
X
and
Theory
Y
.
4.Vroom’sExpectancytheory.
5.McClelland’sNeedstheory.
6.ClaytonAlderfer’sERGTheory.
47 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
1.Maslow’sNeedHierarchyTheory:
- this was developed by eminent American Psychologist Dr.Abraham H.Maslow
inproperclassificationofhumanneeds.
*Features:
-humanwantsare
innumerable
and
neverending
.
-adultmotivatesare
complex
,
- human needs form a hierarchy &
higher order needs
required
satisfaction
.
satisfaction
.
- satisfiedwantsdon’t motivate workers,only
unsatisfied wants
inducemantoworkhard.
-
higher level needs
can be satisfied in many ways than lower
levels.
-fulfillneedsisthe
primefactor
inmotivationofpeopleatwork.
-peopleseekthe
satisfactionofhigherorderneeds
.
48 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
- this was developed by eminent American Psychologist Dr.Abraham H.Maslow
inproperclassificationofhumanneeds.
*Features:
-humanwantsare
innumerable
and
neverending
.
-adultmotivatesare
complex
,
- human needs form a hierarchy &
higher order needs
required
satisfaction
.
satisfaction
.
- satisfiedwantsdon’t motivate workers,only
unsatisfied wants
inducemantoworkhard.
-
higher level needs
can be satisfied in many ways than lower
levels.
-fulfillneedsisthe
primefactor
inmotivationofpeopleatwork.
-peopleseekthe
satisfactionofhigherorderneeds
.
48 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Maslow’sNeedHierarchylevel: 1.Physiologicalneeds:
-
biologicalneeds
requiredtopreservehumanlife.
-itinclude
food,clothandshelter
,thisispartlyhigherlevelneeds.
2.Safetyneeds:
-thisneedsbecomepredominant.
- it include i) Protection from
psychological dangers
(fire, accident),
ii)
Economic security
(benefits, health, insurance), iii) Desire for an
orderly,
predictable
environment
and
iv)
acceptable
behaviour
.
49
-
biologicalneeds
requiredtopreservehumanlife.
-itinclude
food,clothandshelter
,thisispartlyhigherlevelneeds.
2.Safetyneeds:
-thisneedsbecomepredominant.
- it include i) Protection from
psychological dangers
(fire, accident),
ii)
Economic security
(benefits, health, insurance), iii) Desire for an
orderly,
predictable
environment
and
iv)
acceptable
behaviour
.
49
3.Socialneeds:
- sense of
belonging and acceptance
becomes predominant in
motivatingbehaviour.
- these needs are for
love, friendship, exchange of feelings
,
recognition,belongingness.
- this is stronger for some people than for others and stronger in
certainsituations.
4.Esteemneeds:
-
it
has
two
types
of
esteem
needs
:
i)
Self
–
esteem
(self
–
confidence,
-
it
has
two
types
of
esteem
needs
:
i)
Self
–
esteem
(self
–
confidence,
achievement,competence,self–respect,knowledgeandfreedom)and ii)Esteemofothers
(needsforstatus,forrecognition,forappreciation
anddeservedrespectofone’sfellows).
5.Self–actualizationneeds:(Or)Self–realizationneeds:
-thisisdesiretobecomeeverythingthatoneis
capableofbecoming
.
(E.g.)doctorthingsthatheiscapableofsavingthelifeofpatient.
-thisisa‘growthneed’.
50 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
- sense of
belonging and acceptance
becomes predominant in
motivatingbehaviour.
- these needs are for
love, friendship, exchange of feelings
,
recognition,belongingness.
- this is stronger for some people than for others and stronger in
certainsituations.
4.Esteemneeds:
-
it
has
two
types
of
esteem
needs
:
i)
Self
–
esteem
(self
–
confidence,
-
it
has
two
types
of
esteem
needs
:
i)
Self
–
esteem
(self
–
confidence,
achievement,competence,self–respect,knowledgeandfreedom)and ii)Esteemofothers
(needsforstatus,forrecognition,forappreciation
anddeservedrespectofone’sfellows).
5.Self–actualizationneeds:(Or)Self–realizationneeds:
-thisisdesiretobecomeeverythingthatoneis
capableofbecoming
.
(E.g.)doctorthingsthatheiscapableofsavingthelifeofpatient.
-thisisa‘growthneed’.
50 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Critical
Appraisal
of
Maslow’s
theory
:
- this helps the management to
understand the behaviour
of workers
andmotivatethem.
-thisisvery
simple,directandpractical
&thiscanbechangedfrom
onepersontoanotherperson.
Someofthe
problems
notadequatelysolvedbythistheory–
-thistheorymay
notapplyatalltime
,inallplaces.
-somepeople
don’trequiresocialneeds
becausetheymighthavelost
during
childhood
.
during
childhood
.
- need
recognition and fulfillment
don’ t always follow specific
sequence.
-
behaviourofman
isnotaresultofhisneedsonly.
-singleneed
can’tmotivate
anyindividual.
- people
differ in their expectation
significantly & it may not lead to
sameresponseinallindividuals.
-
no practical evidence
that once need is satisfied and it looses its
motivating
force
.
51
Appraisal
of
Maslow’s
theory
:
- this helps the management to
understand the behaviour
of workers
andmotivatethem.
-thisisvery
simple,directandpractical
&thiscanbechangedfrom
onepersontoanotherperson.
Someofthe
problems
notadequatelysolvedbythistheory–
-thistheorymay
notapplyatalltime
,inallplaces.
-somepeople
don’trequiresocialneeds
becausetheymighthavelost
during
childhood
.
during
childhood
.
- need
recognition and fulfillment
don’ t always follow specific
sequence.
-
behaviourofman
isnotaresultofhisneedsonly.
-singleneed
can’tmotivate
anyindividual.
- people
differ in their expectation
significantly & it may not lead to
sameresponseinallindividuals.
-
no practical evidence
that once need is satisfied and it looses its
motivating
force
.
51
2. Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene Approach theory Or Two factor
theoryofmotivation:
- this theory was established in late 1950’s by
Frederick Herzberg
andhisassociate.
- this indicates effects towards
effective utilization
of human
resources.
-thistheorybasedontwofactors:
i) Motivational factors:- creation
satisfaction to the workers
at the
time
of
presence
but
their
absence
doesn’t
cause
dissatisfaction
.
time
of
presence
but
their
absence
doesn’t
cause
dissatisfaction
.
- motivational factors like
achievement, recognition, advancement
,
opportunityforgrowth,responsibility,workitself.
ii)Hygieneormaintenancefactors:-tomaintain
reasonablelevel
of
satisfactionamongemployees.
- hygiene factors like company policy & administration,
technical
supervision,interpersonalrelations
,salary,jobsecurity,personallife,
workingconditions,status.
52 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
theoryofmotivation:
- this theory was established in late 1950’s by
Frederick Herzberg
andhisassociate.
- this indicates effects towards
effective utilization
of human
resources.
-thistheorybasedontwofactors:
i) Motivational factors:- creation
satisfaction to the workers
at the
time
of
presence
but
their
absence
doesn’t
cause
dissatisfaction
.
time
of
presence
but
their
absence
doesn’t
cause
dissatisfaction
.
- motivational factors like
achievement, recognition, advancement
,
opportunityforgrowth,responsibility,workitself.
ii)Hygieneormaintenancefactors:-tomaintain
reasonablelevel
of
satisfactionamongemployees.
- hygiene factors like company policy & administration,
technical
supervision,interpersonalrelations
,salary,jobsecurity,personallife,
workingconditions,status.
52 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
CriticalAppraisalofHerzbergtheory:
-thistheoryisbasedon
smallsample
whichisnot
representativeofworkforceandthereforeithasno
universalapplication.
-itisbasedontwofactorstheoryofmotivation&it
suggest
job satisfiers
and dissatisfies as two
different
qualitative
factors
.
different
qualitative
factors
.
- itisa
‘methodbound’
andno.ofothersusedfor
similarstudytoshowdifferentresults.
- the distinction between
motivational and
maintenance
factorsisnotfixed.
- this focuses
too much attention
on satisfaction
rather
than
on
performance
level
.
53
-thistheoryisbasedon
smallsample
whichisnot
representativeofworkforceandthereforeithasno
universalapplication.
-itisbasedontwofactorstheoryofmotivation&it
suggest
job satisfiers
and dissatisfies as two
different
qualitative
factors
.
different
qualitative
factors
.
- itisa
‘methodbound’
andno.ofothersusedfor
similarstudytoshowdifferentresults.
- the distinction between
motivational and
maintenance
factorsisnotfixed.
- this focuses
too much attention
on satisfaction
rather
than
on
performance
level
.
53
3.McGregor’sTheoryXandTheoryY:
- people inside the organization can be managed in two ways, first is
basically
negative
, which falls under the
category X
and the other is
basically
positive
,whichfallsunderthe
categoryY
.
- the nature of human beings is based on a certain
grouping of
assumptions
and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior
towardssubordinatesaccordingtotheseassumptions.
AssumptionsoftheoryX:
-
employees
inherently
do
not
like
work
and
whenever
possible,
will
-
employees
inherently
do
not
like
work
and
whenever
possible,
will
attempttoavoidit.
- employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or
threatenedwithpunishment
toachievegoals.
- employees
avoid responsibilities
and do not work fill formal
directionsareissued.
- most workers place a greater importance on security over all other
factorsanddisplaylittleambition.
54 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
- people inside the organization can be managed in two ways, first is
basically
negative
, which falls under the
category X
and the other is
basically
positive
,whichfallsunderthe
categoryY
.
- the nature of human beings is based on a certain
grouping of
assumptions
and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior
towardssubordinatesaccordingtotheseassumptions.
AssumptionsoftheoryX:
-
employees
inherently
do
not
like
work
and
whenever
possible,
will
-
employees
inherently
do
not
like
work
and
whenever
possible,
will
attempttoavoidit.
- employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or
threatenedwithpunishment
toachievegoals.
- employees
avoid responsibilities
and do not work fill formal
directionsareissued.
- most workers place a greater importance on security over all other
factorsanddisplaylittleambition.
54 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Assumptionsof TheoryY:
-
physicalandmentaleffort
atworkisasnaturalasrestor
play.
- people do exercise
self-control
and self-direction and if
theyarecommittedtothosegoals.
- average human beings are willing to take
responsibility
and exercise imagination
, ingenuity and creativity in
solving
the
problems
of
the
organization
.
solving
the
problems
of
the
organization
.
-thatthewaythethingsareorganized,theaveragehuman
being’sbrainpowerisonlypartlyused.
* Theory X assumes that
lower order needs
dominate
individuals.
* Theory Y assumes that
higher order needs
dominate
individuals.
55 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
-
physicalandmentaleffort
atworkisasnaturalasrestor
play.
- people do exercise
self-control
and self-direction and if
theyarecommittedtothosegoals.
- average human beings are willing to take
responsibility
and exercise imagination
, ingenuity and creativity in
solving
the
problems
of
the
organization
.
solving
the
problems
of
the
organization
.
-thatthewaythethingsareorganized,theaveragehuman
being’sbrainpowerisonlypartlyused.
* Theory X assumes that
lower order needs
dominate
individuals.
* Theory Y assumes that
higher order needs
dominate
individuals.
55 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
4
.
Vroom’s
Expectancy
Theory
:
- this theory was developed by
Victor Vroom
& it is based on self –
interesttomaximizeexpectedsatisfaction.
- this is strongly determined by an
individual’s perception
based on
certaintypeofbehaviourwillleadtocertaintypeofoutcome.
Elements: a)Valance:
-peoplehave
preferences
(valances)forvariousoutcomeorincentive.
-
it
refers
to
importance
or
personal
value
that
individuals
places
on
-
it
refers
to
importance
or
personal
value
that
individuals
places
on
rewards.
b)Expectancy:
-personbelievesthat
hiseffort
willledto
highperformance
.
- person have certain expectations about their work, whether it will be
successfulornot.
c)Instrumentality:
-relationshipbetween
performanceandreward
.(i.e.)willIberewarded
if
I
perform
the
job
well?
56
.
Vroom’s
Expectancy
Theory
:
- this theory was developed by
Victor Vroom
& it is based on self –
interesttomaximizeexpectedsatisfaction.
- this is strongly determined by an
individual’s perception
based on
certaintypeofbehaviourwillleadtocertaintypeofoutcome.
Elements: a)Valance:
-peoplehave
preferences
(valances)forvariousoutcomeorincentive.
-
it
refers
to
importance
or
personal
value
that
individuals
places
on
-
it
refers
to
importance
or
personal
value
that
individuals
places
on
rewards.
b)Expectancy:
-personbelievesthat
hiseffort
willledto
highperformance
.
- person have certain expectations about their work, whether it will be
successfulornot.
c)Instrumentality:
-relationshipbetween
performanceandreward
.(i.e.)willIberewarded
if
I
perform
the
job
well?
56
- it implies the degree to which a first level outcome leading to a
desiredsecondleveloutcome.
Motivationalforce=ValanceXExpectancyXInstrumentality.
CriticalappraisalofVroom’stheory:
-itemphasizes
expectedbehaviours
alongwithexpectation.
-itisa
predictive&cognitivemodel
anditisbasedonselfinterest.
*Implications:
-itemphasizes
payoffs.
(i.e.)whattheythinktheywillget.
-rewardsshouldbetiedto
performance
&equitable.
-itemphasizesexpectedbehaviours.
*Limitations:
-ithasnotfullytested
empirically
&itiscomplex.
-itisrationalasitisbased
onrationaleconomic
viewofpeople.
-predictiveaccuracyofthetheoryis
doubtful
&amountofeffortput
onjobisinfluencedbymanyfactors.
-thisis
difficulttoresearch
andapplyinpractice.
57
desiredsecondleveloutcome.
Motivationalforce=ValanceXExpectancyXInstrumentality.
CriticalappraisalofVroom’stheory:
-itemphasizes
expectedbehaviours
alongwithexpectation.
-itisa
predictive&cognitivemodel
anditisbasedonselfinterest.
*Implications:
-itemphasizes
payoffs.
(i.e.)whattheythinktheywillget.
-rewardsshouldbetiedto
performance
&equitable.
-itemphasizesexpectedbehaviours.
*Limitations:
-ithasnotfullytested
empirically
&itiscomplex.
-itisrationalasitisbased
onrationaleconomic
viewofpeople.
-predictiveaccuracyofthetheoryis
doubtful
&amountofeffortput
onjobisinfluencedbymanyfactors.
-thisis
difficulttoresearch
andapplyinpractice.
57
5.McClelland’sNeedsTheory:
-thisisdevelopedby
DavidC.McClelland
andhisassociates.
-thisoffersanopportunitytosatisfyatlestthreeneedsnamely:
a)NeedforPower(nPWR):
-thisisneedto
dominate,influence
orcontrolpeople.
-itdealswithabilityto
control
theactivitiesofothers.
-setgoals,make
decisions
anddirectactivities.
b)
Need
for
Affiliation
(n
Aff)
:
b)
Need
for
Affiliation
(n
Aff)
:
-itissocialneedfor
supportanddeveloprelationship
withpeople.
-peoplearemotivatedbyjobsthat
demandfrequentinteraction
with
co-workers.
c)NeedforAchievement(nAch):
- this is need for
challenge
, personal accomplishment and success in
competitivesituations.
-itcanbedevelopedatan
earlyage
andalsoatlaterstage.
58 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
-thisisdevelopedby
DavidC.McClelland
andhisassociates.
-thisoffersanopportunitytosatisfyatlestthreeneedsnamely:
a)NeedforPower(nPWR):
-thisisneedto
dominate,influence
orcontrolpeople.
-itdealswithabilityto
control
theactivitiesofothers.
-setgoals,make
decisions
anddirectactivities.
b)
Need
for
Affiliation
(n
Aff)
:
b)
Need
for
Affiliation
(n
Aff)
:
-itissocialneedfor
supportanddeveloprelationship
withpeople.
-peoplearemotivatedbyjobsthat
demandfrequentinteraction
with
co-workers.
c)NeedforAchievement(nAch):
- this is need for
challenge
, personal accomplishment and success in
competitivesituations.
-itcanbedevelopedatan
earlyage
andalsoatlaterstage.
58 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
*Characteristics:
-take
personalresponsibility
forfindingsolutiontoproblems.
-
highachievement
seekertotallypreoccupiedwiththetask.
-take
calculatedrisks
andsetmoralegoals.
-toriskyapproachgreatly
reducethechances
ofgoalachievement.
- concrete feedback on their
performance & high achievers
like to
knowhowwelltheyaredoing.
- high achievers are not motivated by money but keep methods of
scoringtheirachievements.
*Achievementdevelopmentcoursecontains-
-individualshouldstrivetoattain
concreteandfrequentfeedback
..
- individual should seek
models of achievement
(i.e.) watch those
whohaveperformedwell.
- individual should imagine himself as one who needs
success and
challenge
andcarefullyplanned.
-individualmust
controldaydreaming
bythinkingandtalking.
59
-take
personalresponsibility
forfindingsolutiontoproblems.
-
highachievement
seekertotallypreoccupiedwiththetask.
-take
calculatedrisks
andsetmoralegoals.
-toriskyapproachgreatly
reducethechances
ofgoalachievement.
- concrete feedback on their
performance & high achievers
like to
knowhowwelltheyaredoing.
- high achievers are not motivated by money but keep methods of
scoringtheirachievements.
*Achievementdevelopmentcoursecontains-
-individualshouldstrivetoattain
concreteandfrequentfeedback
..
- individual should seek
models of achievement
(i.e.) watch those
whohaveperformedwell.
- individual should imagine himself as one who needs
success and
challenge
andcarefullyplanned.
-individualmust
controldaydreaming
bythinkingandtalking.
59
*Limitations:
-useof
projectivetechnique
isobjectionable.
-thistheoryis
fragmentaryanddoubtful
.
- this motivation can’t be thought because
acquisitionofmotives
occursinchildhood.
-
persons
high
need
for
achievement
expect
similar
-
persons
high
need
for
achievement
expect
similar
resultsfromothers.
-thisis
timeconsuming
andexpensive.
-thistheorydoesn’taddressthe
questionofprocess
ofmotivation
andhowitreallycomesabout.
60 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
-useof
projectivetechnique
isobjectionable.
-thistheoryis
fragmentaryanddoubtful
.
- this motivation can’t be thought because
acquisitionofmotives
occursinchildhood.
-
persons
high
need
for
achievement
expect
similar
-
persons
high
need
for
achievement
expect
similar
resultsfromothers.
-thisis
timeconsuming
andexpensive.
-thistheorydoesn’taddressthe
questionofprocess
ofmotivation
andhowitreallycomesabout.
60 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
6.ClaytonAlderfer’sERGTheory:
- this is based on another hierarchy model ERG (i.e.)
Existence –
Relatedness–Growth.
*Existence–basicmaterial
existence
.
*Relatedness–
maintaininterpersonalrelationship
withmembers.
*Growth–intrinsicdesireto
growanddevelop
personally.
•5. Self -actualization •
4. Self
-
esteem
ERG Theory Hierarchy of needs theory
Growth
•
4. Self
-
esteem
Relatedness
•3. Social needs (Belongingness)
•2. Interpersonal security
Existence
•Physical activity
•1. Physiological needs
61 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
- this is based on another hierarchy model ERG (i.e.)
Existence –
Relatedness–Growth.
*Existence–basicmaterial
existence
.
*Relatedness–
maintaininterpersonalrelationship
withmembers.
*Growth–intrinsicdesireto
growanddevelop
personally.
•5. Self -actualization •
4. Self
-
esteem
ERG Theory Hierarchy of needs theory
Growth
•
4. Self
-
esteem
Relatedness
•3. Social needs (Belongingness)
•2. Interpersonal security
Existence
•Physical activity
•1. Physiological needs
61 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Meaning: U
A study on OB will remain
incomplete
without studying
learning.
U
If a manager wants to explain &
predict human behavior
,
he/sheneedstounderstandhowlearningoccurs&howpeople
learn
.
LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING
learn
.
U
Learning is a
powerful incentive
for many employees to
sticktocertainorganizations.
U
Learninghassignificantimpacton
individualbehaviour
as
itinfluences
abilities,roleperceptions
andmotivation.
U
Insimplewords,learningisa
changeinbehavior
asaresult
ofexperience.
62 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
A study on OB will remain
incomplete
without studying
learning.
U
If a manager wants to explain &
predict human behavior
,
he/sheneedstounderstandhowlearningoccurs&howpeople
learn
.
LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING
learn
.
U
Learning is a
powerful incentive
for many employees to
sticktocertainorganizations.
U
Learninghassignificantimpacton
individualbehaviour
as
itinfluences
abilities,roleperceptions
andmotivation.
U
Insimplewords,learningisa
changeinbehavior
asaresult
ofexperience.
62 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Definition:
“Learningisthe
processbywhich
new
behavior
areacquired.
Learninginvolves
changesin
behavior
,practicingnewbehavior&establishinginthe
change
.”
change
.”
“Learning defined as
relatively permanent
change in
behavior on potential behavior as a result of direct on
indirectexperience
”.
“Learning can be defined as
relatively permanent
change in behaviour potentially that results from reinforcedpracticeorexperience
”.
63 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
“Learningisthe
processbywhich
new
behavior
areacquired.
Learninginvolves
changesin
behavior
,practicingnewbehavior&establishinginthe
change
.”
change
.”
“Learning defined as
relatively permanent
change in
behavior on potential behavior as a result of direct on
indirectexperience
”.
“Learning can be defined as
relatively permanent
change in behaviour potentially that results from reinforcedpracticeorexperience
”.
63 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Characteristicsoflearning: n
Learningresultsin
changeinbehavior
.
n
Thechangemustbe
relativelypermanent
.
n
Learninghastosupportthe
behavior.
n
Learninghasto
strengthen
the
behavior
.
n
behavior
.
n
Learningisa
continuous
process.
n
Learningshouldhelpto
achieve
.
n
Learningarisesoutof
trainingorpractice
.
n
Learningisnotcausedby
biologicalchanges
.
64 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Learningresultsin
changeinbehavior
.
n
Thechangemustbe
relativelypermanent
.
n
Learninghastosupportthe
behavior.
n
Learninghasto
strengthen
the
behavior
.
n
behavior
.
n
Learningisa
continuous
process.
n
Learningshouldhelpto
achieve
.
n
Learningarisesoutof
trainingorpractice
.
n
Learningisnotcausedby
biologicalchanges
.
64 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Componentsoflearning: 1.Learninginvolveschange:
-changemaybefor
goodorbad
fromanorganization’s
pointofview.
-changemaynotbeevidentuntila
situationarises
in
whichnewbehaviouroccur.
2
.
Not
all
changes
reflect
learning
:
2
.
Not
all
changes
reflect
learning
:
-changeshouldbe
relativelypermanent
.
-temporarychangesmaybeonly
reflective
andfailto
representanylearning.
- rules out behaviour changes caused by
fatigue or
drugs.
65 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
-changemaybefor
goodorbad
fromanorganization’s
pointofview.
-changemaynotbeevidentuntila
situationarises
in
whichnewbehaviouroccur.
2
.
Not
all
changes
reflect
learning
:
2
.
Not
all
changes
reflect
learning
:
-changeshouldbe
relativelypermanent
.
-temporarychangesmaybeonly
reflective
andfailto
representanylearning.
- rules out behaviour changes caused by
fatigue or
drugs.
65 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
3.Learningisreflectedinbehaviour:
-changeinindividual’sthought
processorattitudes
notaccompaniedbybehaviourisnotlearning.
- learning needs to result in
behaviour potentially
andnotnecessarilyinthebehaviouritself.
- individual may learn but owing
to lack of
motivation
,
may
not
exhibit
any
changed
behaviour
.
motivation
,
may
not
exhibit
any
changed
behaviour
.
4.Changeinbehaviourshouldoccursasaresultof
experience,practiceortraining:
- it implies that behaviour caused from
maturity,
disease or physical damages
does not constitute
learning.
66 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
-changeinindividual’sthought
processorattitudes
notaccompaniedbybehaviourisnotlearning.
- learning needs to result in
behaviour potentially
andnotnecessarilyinthebehaviouritself.
- individual may learn but owing
to lack of
motivation
,
may
not
exhibit
any
changed
behaviour
.
motivation
,
may
not
exhibit
any
changed
behaviour
.
4.Changeinbehaviourshouldoccursasaresultof
experience,practiceortraining:
- it implies that behaviour caused from
maturity,
disease or physical damages
does not constitute
learning.
66 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
5.Practiceorexperiencemustbereinforcedinorder
forlearningtooccur:
-reinforcementdoesnotaccompanythepracticeor
experience,thebehaviourwilleventuallydisappear.
6.Throughnotimpliedinanystandarddefinitionof
learning:
-
it
contrary
to
popular
belief,
learning
is
not
-
it
contrary
to
popular
belief,
learning
is
not
confinedtoone’sschooling.
-learningoccursthroughoutone’slife.
67 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
forlearningtooccur:
-reinforcementdoesnotaccompanythepracticeor
experience,thebehaviourwilleventuallydisappear.
6.Throughnotimpliedinanystandarddefinitionof
learning:
-
it
contrary
to
popular
belief,
learning
is
not
-
it
contrary
to
popular
belief,
learning
is
not
confinedtoone’sschooling.
-learningoccursthroughoutone’slife.
67 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Learning–ExplicitandTacitKnowledge: * Explicit Knowledge
– it is
organized
and can be
communicated
fromonepersontoanother.
-itcanbe
writtendown
andgiventoothers.
-itisonlya
smallportion
ofthetotalknowledge.
(E.g.)
student receives information
in a class room is mainly
explicitknowledgebecause
professortransfers
ittostudents.
*
Tacit
Knowledge
(implied
knowledge)
–
it
is
the
idea
that
one
*
Tacit
Knowledge
(implied
knowledge)
–
it
is
the
idea
that
one
knowsmorethanwhathecantell.
-itisembeddedinour
actionsandwaysofthinking
.
-itisacquiredthrough
observationanddirectexperience
.
(E.g.)
Driver
does not learn how to
operate vehicle
through
lectures,hehasnecessaryskillsby
experiencingorwatching
subtledetailsandperformthetasks.
68 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
– it is
organized
and can be
communicated
fromonepersontoanother.
-itcanbe
writtendown
andgiventoothers.
-itisonlya
smallportion
ofthetotalknowledge.
(E.g.)
student receives information
in a class room is mainly
explicitknowledgebecause
professortransfers
ittostudents.
*
Tacit
Knowledge
(implied
knowledge)
–
it
is
the
idea
that
one
*
Tacit
Knowledge
(implied
knowledge)
–
it
is
the
idea
that
one
knowsmorethanwhathecantell.
-itisembeddedinour
actionsandwaysofthinking
.
-itisacquiredthrough
observationanddirectexperience
.
(E.g.)
Driver
does not learn how to
operate vehicle
through
lectures,hehasnecessaryskillsby
experiencingorwatching
subtledetailsandperformthetasks.
68 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Factorsdetermininglearning(or)typesoflearners(or)
Factors affectinglearning:
1.Motivation(nothingoccurswithoutmotivation).
2. Qualities of the trainee & the learner: An efficient trainee
canmake
difficulttaskeasy
forthelearner.
3. Environment(if among a group of lesson, majority is
disinteresteditwill
affectafew
whoarekeentolearn.)
4
.
Practice
(practice
make
man
perfect)
Without
practice
it
does
4
.
Practice
(practice
make
man
perfect)
Without
practice
it
does
nothelpmuch.(e.g.)Basicknowledgeofcomputer.
5.Feedback/response:Itisimportantthatthelearnergetsthe
feedbackinformation
ofhisperformanceatregularintervals.
This enables him to know how far he stands in relation to
requirements.
6.Meaning fullness of the subject:Learning is meaningful if
the
subjectmatter
ismeaningful.
69
Factors affectinglearning:
1.Motivation(nothingoccurswithoutmotivation).
2. Qualities of the trainee & the learner: An efficient trainee
canmake
difficulttaskeasy
forthelearner.
3. Environment(if among a group of lesson, majority is
disinteresteditwill
affectafew
whoarekeentolearn.)
4
.
Practice
(practice
make
man
perfect)
Without
practice
it
does
4
.
Practice
(practice
make
man
perfect)
Without
practice
it
does
nothelpmuch.(e.g.)Basicknowledgeofcomputer.
5.Feedback/response:Itisimportantthatthelearnergetsthe
feedbackinformation
ofhisperformanceatregularintervals.
This enables him to know how far he stands in relation to
requirements.
6.Meaning fullness of the subject:Learning is meaningful if
the
subjectmatter
ismeaningful.
69
7. Time schedule:If the time given is
too short
, it will not
helpthelearner.
8. Retention(holdorkeep):(Retentionmeans
remembrance
of learnt behavior
).Learning which is forgotten is called
extinction(lossofmemory).
9. Reinforcement:Reinforcement is anything done to
strengthenorsupport
behaviour.
a)
Positive
-
an
employee
who
is
very
good
in
his
words
is
a)
Positive
-
an
employee
who
is
very
good
in
his
words
is
usually given a reward, the reason being that hewill
excel
everytime
.(E.g.)Reward.
b) Negative- to
restrain
(prevent)a person. (E.g.) an
employeecominglatealways& maybeimposedapenalty.
The reason is to
discourage
the occurrence of such
behavior.(E.g.)Payfinetochangeisbehavior.
10
.
Nature
of
learning
materials
.
70
too short
, it will not
helpthelearner.
8. Retention(holdorkeep):(Retentionmeans
remembrance
of learnt behavior
).Learning which is forgotten is called
extinction(lossofmemory).
9. Reinforcement:Reinforcement is anything done to
strengthenorsupport
behaviour.
a)
Positive
-
an
employee
who
is
very
good
in
his
words
is
a)
Positive
-
an
employee
who
is
very
good
in
his
words
is
usually given a reward, the reason being that hewill
excel
everytime
.(E.g.)Reward.
b) Negative- to
restrain
(prevent)a person. (E.g.) an
employeecominglatealways& maybeimposedapenalty.
The reason is to
discourage
the occurrence of such
behavior.(E.g.)Payfinetochangeisbehavior.
10
.
Nature
of
learning
materials
.
70
Learning&OrganizationalBehaviour: i
Learning is therefore considered for
understanding human behavior
atworkinorganization.
i
Learninghelpsthemanagerto
changebehavior
indifferentsituation.
1. Reducingabsenteeism:
- learning can help managers evolve programmes to
reduce
absenteeism.
2. Improvingemployeediscipline:
-
latearrival
forwork&comingforworkin
drunkencondition
-
thefts
inworkplace
-frequent
quarrelling
(argument)withsuperior&workmen.
3. Developingtrainingprogram:
4.Substitutingwellpayforsickpay:
-to prevent
misuse of the sick leave
facility, the employee can
introduceasystemofrewardingemployee
withregularattendance
in
theformofbenefits.
71 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Learning is therefore considered for
understanding human behavior
atworkinorganization.
i
Learninghelpsthemanagerto
changebehavior
indifferentsituation.
1. Reducingabsenteeism:
- learning can help managers evolve programmes to
reduce
absenteeism.
2. Improvingemployeediscipline:
-
latearrival
forwork&comingforworkin
drunkencondition
-
thefts
inworkplace
-frequent
quarrelling
(argument)withsuperior&workmen.
3. Developingtrainingprogram:
4.Substitutingwellpayforsickpay:
-to prevent
misuse of the sick leave
facility, the employee can
introduceasystemofrewardingemployee
withregularattendance
in
theformofbenefits.
71 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
SomeofthePrinciplesoflearningare: 1.Motivation:
-withoutmotivation
learningdoesnottakeplace
oratleastis
notdiscernible.
- motivation seen at different
levels of complexity
of a
situation
.
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
situation
.
2.Reinforcement,PunishmentandExtinction: a) Reinforcement
– it is used to
enhance desirable behaviour
,
punishment and extinction are employed to minimize
undesirablebehaviour.
-itistheattemptto
developorstrengthen
desirablebehaviour.
i) Positive reinforcement– it strengthens and enhances
behaviourbythe presentationof
positivereinforces
.
72
-withoutmotivation
learningdoesnottakeplace
oratleastis
notdiscernible.
- motivation seen at different
levels of complexity
of a
situation
.
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
situation
.
2.Reinforcement,PunishmentandExtinction: a) Reinforcement
– it is used to
enhance desirable behaviour
,
punishment and extinction are employed to minimize
undesirablebehaviour.
-itistheattemptto
developorstrengthen
desirablebehaviour.
i) Positive reinforcement– it strengthens and enhances
behaviourbythe presentationof
positivereinforces
.
72
*Primaryreinforces
–satisfy
biologicalneeds
andincludefood,
waterandsexualpleasure.
* Secondary reinforces
– it includes benefits as
money, status,
grades
,trophiesandpraisefromothers.
* Conditioned reinforces
– due to
association
with the primary
reinforces.
Principlesofreinforces: t
Principle
of
contingent
reinforcement
–
states
that
reinforcer
t
Principle
of
contingent
reinforcement
–
states
that
reinforcer
must
beadministered
onlyifdesiredbehaviouroccurred.
t
Principle of immediate reinforcement– states that the
reinforcer will be
most effective
if administered immediately
afterdesiredbehaviourhasoccurred.
t
Principle of reinforcement size– states that the larger the amountofreinforcement
deliveredafterthedesiredbehaviour,
moreeffectthereinforceronfrequencyofdesiredbehaviour.
73 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
–satisfy
biologicalneeds
andincludefood,
waterandsexualpleasure.
* Secondary reinforces
– it includes benefits as
money, status,
grades
,trophiesandpraisefromothers.
* Conditioned reinforces
– due to
association
with the primary
reinforces.
Principlesofreinforces: t
Principle
of
contingent
reinforcement
–
states
that
reinforcer
t
Principle
of
contingent
reinforcement
–
states
that
reinforcer
must
beadministered
onlyifdesiredbehaviouroccurred.
t
Principle of immediate reinforcement– states that the
reinforcer will be
most effective
if administered immediately
afterdesiredbehaviourhasoccurred.
t
Principle of reinforcement size– states that the larger the amountofreinforcement
deliveredafterthedesiredbehaviour,
moreeffectthereinforceronfrequencyofdesiredbehaviour.
73 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
t
Principlesofreinforcementdeprivation–statesthatmorea
person is deprived of reinforcer,
greater effect
it will have
onfutureoccurrenceofdesiredbehaviour.
ii)Negativereinforcement:
-
unpleasant event
that preceded a behaviour is removed
whenthedesiredbehaviouroccurs.
- it increases the likelihood that the desired behaviour wil l
occur
.
occur
.
- it stimuli that
strengthen responses
that permit an
organismtoavoidorescapefromtheirpresence.
-
supervisors
apply negative reinforcement when they stop
criticizing employees whose
poor performance
has
improved.
- it is sometimes confused with punishment, because both
use
unpleasant
stimuli
to
influence
behaviour
.
74
Principlesofreinforcementdeprivation–statesthatmorea
person is deprived of reinforcer,
greater effect
it will have
onfutureoccurrenceofdesiredbehaviour.
ii)Negativereinforcement:
-
unpleasant event
that preceded a behaviour is removed
whenthedesiredbehaviouroccurs.
- it increases the likelihood that the desired behaviour wil l
occur
.
occur
.
- it stimuli that
strengthen responses
that permit an
organismtoavoidorescapefromtheirpresence.
-
supervisors
apply negative reinforcement when they stop
criticizing employees whose
poor performance
has
improved.
- it is sometimes confused with punishment, because both
use
unpleasant
stimuli
to
influence
behaviour
.
74
ScheduleofReinforcement:
-itdeterminewhen
reinforcesareapplied
.
- psychologists have identified
several different schedules
ofreinforcement.
-reinforcementis
administereduninterruptedly
,itiscalled
continuousreinforcement
.
Organization reinforces are administered by various partial
reinforcement
–
reinforcement
–
i) Fixed interval schedule
– provide reinforcement on a
predetermined,constantschedule
.
-thedesiredbehaviourtooccur
afterinterval
haselapsedis
reinforced.
-ittendstoleadto
averageandirregularperformance
.
-itresultin
fastextinction
ofbehaviourtoo.
75 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
-itdeterminewhen
reinforcesareapplied
.
- psychologists have identified
several different schedules
ofreinforcement.
-reinforcementis
administereduninterruptedly
,itiscalled
continuousreinforcement
.
Organization reinforces are administered by various partial
reinforcement
–
reinforcement
–
i) Fixed interval schedule
– provide reinforcement on a
predetermined,constantschedule
.
-thedesiredbehaviourtooccur
afterinterval
haselapsedis
reinforced.
-ittendstoleadto
averageandirregularperformance
.
-itresultin
fastextinction
ofbehaviourtoo.
75 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
ii) Variable interval schedule
– it also uses
time
as the basis
for applying reinforcement, but it
varies intervals
between
reinforcement.
-thereisextinctionofbehaviourbuttheprocessisslow.
iii) Fixed Ratio Schedule
– reinforcement is administered
afterthedesiredbehaviours
occura
specifiedno.oftimes
.
-thereismoderatelyfastextinctionofbehaviourtoo.
iv)
Variable
Ratio
Schedule
–
certain
no
.
of
desired
behaviour
iv)
Variable
Ratio
Schedule
–
certain
no
.
of
desired
behaviour
must occur
before the reinforcer
is delivered, but no. of
behavioursvaries
.
- it provokes most
interest
and is preferred by employees
forsometasks.
- it tends to be more powerful of all reinforcement
schedules.
76 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
– it also uses
time
as the basis
for applying reinforcement, but it
varies intervals
between
reinforcement.
-thereisextinctionofbehaviourbuttheprocessisslow.
iii) Fixed Ratio Schedule
– reinforcement is administered
afterthedesiredbehaviours
occura
specifiedno.oftimes
.
-thereismoderatelyfastextinctionofbehaviourtoo.
iv)
Variable
Ratio
Schedule
–
certain
no
.
of
desired
behaviour
iv)
Variable
Ratio
Schedule
–
certain
no
.
of
desired
behaviour
must occur
before the reinforcer
is delivered, but no. of
behavioursvaries
.
- it provokes most
interest
and is preferred by employees
forsometasks.
- it tends to be more powerful of all reinforcement
schedules.
76 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
b)Punishment:
- it is the attempt to
eliminate or weaken
undesirable
behaviour.
Itisusedintwoways–
i) One way to punish a person is to apply a
negative
consequences
called punishers – following an undesirable
behaviour.
ii)
Other
way
to
punish
a
person
is
to
withhold
a
positive
ii)
Other
way
to
punish
a
person
is
to
withhold
a
positive
consequences
followinganundesirablebehaviour.
c)Extinction:
-itisanalternateto
punishingundesirablebehaviour
.
-itisthe
weaknessofabehaviour
byignoringitormaking
sureitisnotreinforced.
-extinctionneeds
timeandpatience
tobeeffective.
77 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
- it is the attempt to
eliminate or weaken
undesirable
behaviour.
Itisusedintwoways–
i) One way to punish a person is to apply a
negative
consequences
called punishers – following an undesirable
behaviour.
ii)
Other
way
to
punish
a
person
is
to
withhold
a
positive
ii)
Other
way
to
punish
a
person
is
to
withhold
a
positive
consequences
followinganundesirablebehaviour.
c)Extinction:
-itisanalternateto
punishingundesirablebehaviour
.
-itisthe
weaknessofabehaviour
byignoringitormaking
sureitisnotreinforced.
-extinctionneeds
timeandpatience
tobeeffective.
77 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
3.WholeVsPartLearning:
- a great deal of work has been done in
psychology of
learning
todecidewhetherlearninga
wholejob
issuperior
tobreakingthejobintopartsandlearningtheparts.
- in part learning, individual is not only required to learn
each individual part but must be able to
combine separate
parts
sothatwholeperformancecanbeaccomplished.
4
.
Learning
Curves
:
4
.
Learning
Curves
:
- it is valid for wide
range of situation
and highly useful
concept.
- it is diagrammatic presentation of
amount learned in
relationtotime.
-rateoflearning
increasesordecreases
withpractice.
78 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
- a great deal of work has been done in
psychology of
learning
todecidewhetherlearninga
wholejob
issuperior
tobreakingthejobintopartsandlearningtheparts.
- in part learning, individual is not only required to learn
each individual part but must be able to
combine separate
parts
sothatwholeperformancecanbeaccomplished.
4
.
Learning
Curves
:
4
.
Learning
Curves
:
- it is valid for wide
range of situation
and highly useful
concept.
- it is diagrammatic presentation of
amount learned in
relationtotime.
-rateoflearning
increasesordecreases
withpractice.
78 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Ithascertaincharacteristicsfeatures– a) Spurt
–
rate of learning
exhibits a spurt at beginning,
whichindicates
maximumperformance
hasbeenachieved.
- subject is
highly motivated
and seems to exhibit
significancesurgeofeffort.
-
experiencedtrainers
exploitthisinitialspurtbyselecting
most
important items
to be communicated and presenting
them
at
beginning
of
training
.
them
at
beginning
of
training
.
b) Learning plateau
– there is
flattening off
in terms of
improvement.
- the process of learning is marked by discontinuities and
involves
escalating
from oneplateautoanother.
- most learnersaware of experience
of finding themselves
onaplateau,whichmanifestsitselfinfeeling.
79 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
–
rate of learning
exhibits a spurt at beginning,
whichindicates
maximumperformance
hasbeenachieved.
- subject is
highly motivated
and seems to exhibit
significancesurgeofeffort.
-
experiencedtrainers
exploitthisinitialspurtbyselecting
most
important items
to be communicated and presenting
them
at
beginning
of
training
.
them
at
beginning
of
training
.
b) Learning plateau
– there is
flattening off
in terms of
improvement.
- the process of learning is marked by discontinuities and
involves
escalating
from oneplateautoanother.
- most learnersaware of experience
of finding themselves
onaplateau,whichmanifestsitselfinfeeling.
79 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
c) Organization of learning
– jumping from
one plateau to
another
iscalledorganizationoflearning.
- it is achieved when learner
discovers a new and more
effectivemethod
ofperformanceparticulartasks.
d) Disorganization of learning
– it is an
actual fall
off in
performance.
- it arises when the subject has to choose between
alternative
methods
of
tackling
a
task
.
alternative
methods
of
tackling
a
task
.
e)Endspurt
–itis
precededbyfatigue
whichislikelytoset
inwiththepassageoftime.
-whenthetrainingsessiondrawsnearertoanend,itoccurs
resurgence of interest and effort
to learn more and this is
calledendspurt.
80 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
– jumping from
one plateau to
another
iscalledorganizationoflearning.
- it is achieved when learner
discovers a new and more
effectivemethod
ofperformanceparticulartasks.
d) Disorganization of learning
– it is an
actual fall
off in
performance.
- it arises when the subject has to choose between
alternative
methods
of
tackling
a
task
.
alternative
methods
of
tackling
a
task
.
e)Endspurt
–itis
precededbyfatigue
whichislikelytoset
inwiththepassageoftime.
-whenthetrainingsessiondrawsnearertoanend,itoccurs
resurgence of interest and effort
to learn more and this is
calledendspurt.
80 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
5.Meaningfulnessofmaterial:
- a definite relationship established between
learning and
meaningfulnessofsubjectlearnt
.
- more meaningful the
material
, better does learning
proceed.
- each task, trainers have certain techniques that
increase
meaningforthetrainees
.
-
organizing
meaningfulness
unit,
creating
association
and
-
organizing
meaningfulness
unit,
creating
association
and
providing conceptual basis of logical reason
for material
aresomeofthepracticalpossibilities.
6.LearningStyles:
-itreferstothe
abilityofanindividual
tolearn.
- manager’s long term success depends on ability to learn
thanon
specificskillsortechnicalknowledge
.
81 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
- a definite relationship established between
learning and
meaningfulnessofsubjectlearnt
.
- more meaningful the
material
, better does learning
proceed.
- each task, trainers have certain techniques that
increase
meaningforthetrainees
.
-
organizing
meaningfulness
unit,
creating
association
and
-
organizing
meaningfulness
unit,
creating
association
and
providing conceptual basis of logical reason
for material
aresomeofthepracticalpossibilities.
6.LearningStyles:
-itreferstothe
abilityofanindividual
tolearn.
- manager’s long term success depends on ability to learn
thanon
specificskillsortechnicalknowledge
.
81 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Learningstylesare– a)Accommodator
–learnsby
doingandfeeling
.
-ittendstolearnprimarilyfrom
handsonexperience
and
actonfeelingratherthanlogicalanalysis.
- it rely more on
people for information
while making
decisions.
b)Diverger
–learnsby
observingandfeeling
.
- diverger has ability to view
concrete situations
from
differentangles.
-ittakes
timeandanalysis
withmanyalternatives.
- he is
imaginative and sensitive
to the needs of other
people.
-heseekcareersin
entertainment,arts
andservicesector.
82 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
–learnsby
doingandfeeling
.
-ittendstolearnprimarilyfrom
handsonexperience
and
actonfeelingratherthanlogicalanalysis.
- it rely more on
people for information
while making
decisions.
b)Diverger
–learnsby
observingandfeeling
.
- diverger has ability to view
concrete situations
from
differentangles.
-ittakes
timeandanalysis
withmanyalternatives.
- he is
imaginative and sensitive
to the needs of other
people.
-heseekcareersin
entertainment,arts
andservicesector.
82 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
c)Converger
–learnsby
doingandthinking
.
-heseeks
practicaluse
forinformation.
-convergertendto
focusonsolutions
whendealingwithproblems
andmakingdecisions.
- he prefer to dealing with
technical tasks
rather than social and
interpersonalissues.
-itseekstechnicalcareerin
scientificfields,engineering,IT
,etc.
d)
Assimilator
–
learns
by
observing
and
thinking
.
d)
Assimilator
–
learns
by
observing
and
thinking
.
- he is effective at understanding
wide range of information
and
puttingintoconciseandlogicalform.
- it is more important that an
idea or theory
is logical than
practical.
- he tends to be more concerned with
abstract ideas and concept
thanwithpeople.
-heseekscareersin
education,informationandscience
.
83 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
–learnsby
doingandthinking
.
-heseeks
practicaluse
forinformation.
-convergertendto
focusonsolutions
whendealingwithproblems
andmakingdecisions.
- he prefer to dealing with
technical tasks
rather than social and
interpersonalissues.
-itseekstechnicalcareerin
scientificfields,engineering,IT
,etc.
d)
Assimilator
–
learns
by
observing
and
thinking
.
d)
Assimilator
–
learns
by
observing
and
thinking
.
- he is effective at understanding
wide range of information
and
puttingintoconciseandlogicalform.
- it is more important that an
idea or theory
is logical than
practical.
- he tends to be more concerned with
abstract ideas and concept
thanwithpeople.
-heseekscareersin
education,informationandscience
.
83 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Thefollowingaretheimportancetheoriesoflearning– 1. Classical conditioning theory or Stimulus - Response
associationtheory:
- the classical conditioning theory is given by
IVAN
PAVLOV,aRussianpsychologist.
-
his
theory
is
based
on
to
teach
dog
to
salivate
(a
watery
THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING -
his
theory
is
based
on
to
teach
dog
to
salivate
(a
watery
liquidproducedinthemouth)inresponsetotheringingofa
bell.
- Pavlov offered the dog meat &
noticed
that the dog was
salivating.
- afterwards without offering meat, be merely rang a bell.
Thedoghadnosalivation.
84 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
associationtheory:
- the classical conditioning theory is given by
IVAN
PAVLOV,aRussianpsychologist.
-
his
theory
is
based
on
to
teach
dog
to
salivate
(a
watery
THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES OF LEARNING -
his
theory
is
based
on
to
teach
dog
to
salivate
(a
watery
liquidproducedinthemouth)inresponsetotheringingofa
bell.
- Pavlov offered the dog meat &
noticed
that the dog was
salivating.
- afterwards without offering meat, be merely rang a bell.
Thedoghadnosalivation.
84 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
-asthenextstepherangthebell
beforegivingthedogmeat
.
Thiswentonforsometime.Thereafter,PAVLOVmerelyrang
the bell without offering meat & noticed that the dog was
salivating.
-thedogthus
learnttorespond
.(i.e.)tosalivatetothebell.
- the classical conditioning theory has some
relevance in
understandinghumanbehaviour
inworkplace.
(E
.g
.)
They
expect
a
hike
in
their
pay
when
they
know
that
the
(E
.g
.)
They
expect
a
hike
in
their
pay
when
they
know
that
the
financialposition
oftheorganizationisverysound.
Limitation:
- human being are
more complex
(hard to understand)than
dogsbutlessamenable(cooperative).
-the
behaviouralenvironment
inorganizationisalsocomplex.
-thehuman
decisionmakingprocess
beingcomplexinnature
makesitpossibletooverride(overrule).
85
beforegivingthedogmeat
.
Thiswentonforsometime.Thereafter,PAVLOVmerelyrang
the bell without offering meat & noticed that the dog was
salivating.
-thedogthus
learnttorespond
.(i.e.)tosalivatetothebell.
- the classical conditioning theory has some
relevance in
understandinghumanbehaviour
inworkplace.
(E
.g
.)
They
expect
a
hike
in
their
pay
when
they
know
that
the
(E
.g
.)
They
expect
a
hike
in
their
pay
when
they
know
that
the
financialposition
oftheorganizationisverysound.
Limitation:
- human being are
more complex
(hard to understand)than
dogsbutlessamenable(cooperative).
-the
behaviouralenvironment
inorganizationisalsocomplex.
-thehuman
decisionmakingprocess
beingcomplexinnature
makesitpossibletooverride(overrule).
85
2.Operantconditioningtheory:
-
B.F SKKINNER a psychologist
is given the credit for his
contributiontooperationalconditioning.
- it focuses on the relationship between
behaviour & its
consequences
(importances).
- he says a particular behaviour is likely to be
repeated
if its
consequences(importance)andfavourable.
(E
.g
.)
When
an
employee,
who
has
performed
his
task
well,
in
(E
.g
.)
When
an
employee,
who
has
performed
his
task
well,
in
rewarded,heislikelyto
repeathisperformance
infuturetoo.
- behaviour of the employee may be
positive or negative
consequence
i
Repeatbehaviour
-positiveconsequences.
i
No repeat or less likely repeat behaviour –
negative
consequences.
86 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
-
B.F SKKINNER a psychologist
is given the credit for his
contributiontooperationalconditioning.
- it focuses on the relationship between
behaviour & its
consequences
(importances).
- he says a particular behaviour is likely to be
repeated
if its
consequences(importance)andfavourable.
(E
.g
.)
When
an
employee,
who
has
performed
his
task
well,
in
(E
.g
.)
When
an
employee,
who
has
performed
his
task
well,
in
rewarded,heislikelyto
repeathisperformance
infuturetoo.
- behaviour of the employee may be
positive or negative
consequence
i
Repeatbehaviour
-positiveconsequences.
i
No repeat or less likely repeat behaviour –
negative
consequences.
86 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
Distinction between Classical conditioning & Operant
conditioning:
Classical conditioning
theory
Operant conditioning
theory
1. Behaviour is the result of
stimulus .(i.e.) dog meat
2. Response to the stimulus
1. Behaviouris not the
result of stimulus. It occurs
spontaneously.
2. Response to the stimulus is fixed.
3. The stimulus is presented
every time for response to
occur
2. Responses may vary
3. The stimulus is presented
only if thedesires response
occurs.
87 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
conditioning:
Classical conditioning
theory
Operant conditioning
theory
1. Behaviour is the result of
stimulus .(i.e.) dog meat
2. Response to the stimulus
1. Behaviouris not the
result of stimulus. It occurs
spontaneously.
2. Response to the stimulus is fixed.
3. The stimulus is presented
every time for response to
occur
2. Responses may vary
3. The stimulus is presented
only if thedesires response
occurs.
87 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
3.Cognitivetheory:
(gainingofknowledgethroughthought&
senses
-cognitionisthe
actofknowledge
.
- cognition refers to an individual’s
thoughts, knowledge,
understandings or views
about oneself, his/her
environment.
(E.g.)Kohlerpresentedtwostickstoamonkeyinacage.Both
sticks
were
too
short
to
reach
a
banana
lying
outside
cage
.
sticks
were
too
short
to
reach
a
banana
lying
outside
cage
.
What monkey did without any prior exposure joined both
stickstogether&pulledthebananainsidethecage.
- learningtook placeinside the
mind ofmonkey
. Thus the
learning process involved in this case. (Monkey is thought
already).
- this type of learning is very important in
organizational
behavior
for
changing
attitudes
by
the
individuals
.
88
(gainingofknowledgethroughthought&
senses
-cognitionisthe
actofknowledge
.
- cognition refers to an individual’s
thoughts, knowledge,
understandings or views
about oneself, his/her
environment.
(E.g.)Kohlerpresentedtwostickstoamonkeyinacage.Both
sticks
were
too
short
to
reach
a
banana
lying
outside
cage
.
sticks
were
too
short
to
reach
a
banana
lying
outside
cage
.
What monkey did without any prior exposure joined both
stickstogether&pulledthebananainsidethecage.
- learningtook placeinside the
mind ofmonkey
. Thus the
learning process involved in this case. (Monkey is thought
already).
- this type of learning is very important in
organizational
behavior
for
changing
attitudes
by
the
individuals
.
88
- knowledge of the cognitive theory is also useful in understandingtheconcept
ofmotivationbetter.
-theabovetwotheoriesareexplainedthroughthe
stimulus
& response.
But this theory did not emphasize on the
process of receiving,
memorizing & reacting to stimuli
,
whichisvitalinlearning.
4.SocialLearningtheory:
-
individuals
also
learn
by
observing
their
models
whom
-
individuals
also
learn
by
observing
their
models
whom
theyadmire.
- social learning theory is based on the view that a person
learn by
observing others
- parents teachers, friends, film
artists,superiors&fellow–workmen.
-itoccursduetothe influenceoftherolemodel.
-learningthroughboth
observation&directexperience
has
been
called
Social
–
learning
theory
.
89
ofmotivationbetter.
-theabovetwotheoriesareexplainedthroughthe
stimulus
& response.
But this theory did not emphasize on the
process of receiving,
memorizing & reacting to stimuli
,
whichisvitalinlearning.
4.SocialLearningtheory:
-
individuals
also
learn
by
observing
their
models
whom
-
individuals
also
learn
by
observing
their
models
whom
theyadmire.
- social learning theory is based on the view that a person
learn by
observing others
- parents teachers, friends, film
artists,superiors&fellow–workmen.
-itoccursduetothe influenceoftherolemodel.
-learningthroughboth
observation&directexperience
has
been
called
Social
–
learning
theory
.
89
Thefollowingprocessesdeterminetheinfluencethatamodel
willhaveonanindividual.
a) Attention process
- a person
learns from a model
that has
impressedhimthemost.
- the models that are
attractive, repeatedly available
(or)
importantinfluenceusthemost.
b) Retentionprocess
- it depends on how well the
individual
can
remember
in
memory
the
behaviour/action
individual
can
remember
in
memory
the
behaviour/action
displayedbyhim/her
whenthemodelisnolongeravailable
c) Reproduction process
- the individual needs to
convert the
model’s action
into his /her action. This process shows how
wellanindividualcanperformthemodeledaction.
d) Reinforcement process
- individuals will be
motivated to
display the actions of the model
if incentives & rewards are
providedtothem.
90 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
willhaveonanindividual.
a) Attention process
- a person
learns from a model
that has
impressedhimthemost.
- the models that are
attractive, repeatedly available
(or)
importantinfluenceusthemost.
b) Retentionprocess
- it depends on how well the
individual
can
remember
in
memory
the
behaviour/action
individual
can
remember
in
memory
the
behaviour/action
displayedbyhim/her
whenthemodelisnolongeravailable
c) Reproduction process
- the individual needs to
convert the
model’s action
into his /her action. This process shows how
wellanindividualcanperformthemodeledaction.
d) Reinforcement process
- individuals will be
motivated to
display the actions of the model
if incentives & rewards are
providedtothem.
90 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
91 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
92 Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II
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