Participatory Rural Appraisal.ppt

PRA

1. PARTICIATORY RURAL APPRAISAL
DR. Gouri Manik manas

2. Some Images about PRA
Source: Google images

3. Content
PRA
Brief Introduction to PRA
PRA Techniques
PRA Tools and Maps

4. Brief Introduction to PRA
PRAoriginallystoodforParticipatoryRuralAppraisal,butits
applicationsareinmany,manycontextsbesidesrural,andgood
practiceisfarmorethanjustappraisal.
PLAstandsforParticipatoryLearningandAction.Asatermitis
oftenusedinterchangeablywithPRA.
Appraisal–Thefindingoutofinformationaboutproblems,
needs,andpotentialinavillageorinanysettlement.Itisthefirst
stageinanyproject.

5. Cont…
•Participatory–Meansthatpeopleareinvolvedin
theprocess–a“bottom-up”approachthatrequires
goodcommunicationskillsandattitudeofproject
staff.
•Rural–Thetechniquescanbeusedinanysituation,
urbanorrural,withbothliterateandIlliteratepeople

6. Cont…
•Thisapproachwasdevelopedinearly1990swith
considerableshiftinparadigmfromtop-downto
bottom-upapproach,andfromblueprinttothe
learningprocess.
•Infact,itisashiftfromextractivesurvey
questionnairestoexperiencesharingbylocal
people.

7. Cont…
•PRAisintendedtoenablelocalcommunitiestoconducttheir
ownanalysisandtoplanandtakeaction.PRAinvolvesproject
stafflearningtogetherwithvillagersaboutthevillage.
•TheaimofPRAistohelpstrengthenthecapacityofvillagersto
plan,makedecisions,andtotakeactiontowardsimprovingtheir
ownsituation.
•ParticipatoryRuralAppraisal(PRA)isconsideredoneofthe
popularandeffectiveapproachestogatherinformationinrural
areas.

8. Cont…
PRAisagrowingfamilyofapproaches,methods,attitudesand
behaviorstoenableandempowerpeopletoshare,analyzeand
enhancetheirknowledgeoflifeandconditions,andtoplan,act,
monitor,evaluateandreflect".
•PRAisamethodologyoflearningrurallifeandtheir
environmentfromtheruralpeople.
•Itrequiresresearchers/fieldworkerstoactasfacilitatorstohelp
localpeopleconducttheirownanalysis,planandtakeaction
accordingly.

9. Cont…
•Itisbasedontheprinciplethatlocalpeoplearecreativeand
capableandcandotheirowninvestigations,analysis,and
planning.
•ThebasicconceptofPRAistolearnfromruralpeople.
•Chambers(1992)hasdefinedPRAasanapproachand
methodsforlearningaboutrurallifeandconditionsfrom,with
andbyruralpeople.
•HefurtherstatedthatPRAextendsintoanalysis,planningand
action.

10. Cont…
•Thereareawiderangeofparticipatorytoolsandtechniques
available.
•Peoplecanusethesetoolsandtechniquesaccordingtotheir
situationorneeds.
•Generally,theapplicationofdifferenttoolsmayvaryfromone
situationtoanother.
•However,theprocessforconductingRRA/PRAremainsthe
same.

11. Objectives
•Therearefivekeyprinciplesthatformthebasisofany
PRAactivitynomatterwhattheobjectivesorsetting.
1.PARTICIPATION-PRAreliesheavilyonparticipation
bythecommunities,asthemethodisdesignedtoenable
localpeopletobeinvolved.
•Notonlyassourcesofinformation,butaspartnerswith
thePRAteamingatheringandanalyzingtheinformation.

12. Cont…
2.FLEXIBILITY-Thecombinationoftechniquesthatisappropriate
inaparticulardevelopmentcontextwillbedeterminedbysuch
variablesasthesizeandskillmixofthePRAteam,thetimeand
resourcesavailable,andthetopicandlocationofthework.
3.TEAMWORK -Generally,aPRAisbestconductedbyalocal
team(speakingthelocallanguages)withafewoutsiderspresent,a
significantrepresentationofwomen,andamixofsectorspecialists
andsocialscientists,accordingtothetopic.
4.OPTIMALIGNORANCE -Tobeefficientintermsofbothtime
andmoney,PRAworkintendstogatherjustenoughinformationto
makethenecessaryrecommendationsanddecisions.

13. Cont…
•SYSTEMATIC-AsPRA-generateddataisseldomconduciveto
statisticalanalysis(givenitslargelyqualitativenatureand
relativelysmallsamplesize),alternativewayshavebeen
developedtoensurethevalidityandreliabilityofthefindings.
•Theseincludesamplingbasedonapproximatestratificationof
thecommunitybygeographiclocationorrelativewealth,and
cross-checking,
•theisusinganumberoftechniquestoinvestigateviewsona
singletopic(includingthroughafinalcommunitymeetingto
discussthefindingsandcorrectinconsistencies).

14. Rapid Rural Appraisal
•RRAisasocialscienceapproachthatemergedinthelate1970s.
ThebasicideaofRRAistoratherquicklycollect,analyzeand
evaluateinformationonruralconditionsandlocalknowledge.
•Thisinformationisgeneratedincloseco-operationwiththelocal
populationinruralareas.
•Therefore,theresearchmethodshadtobeadjustedtolocal
conditions,i.e.theyhadtomeetthecommunicationneedsof
illiteratepeopleorpeoplewhoarenotusedtocommunicatingin
scientificterms.

15. Cont…
•Toolslikemapping,diagrammingandrankingwere
developedorimprovedinordertogatherinformation
fordecision-makersindevelopmentagencies.
•OneofthekeyprinciplesofRRAisthevisualizationof
questionsandresultsbyusinglocallycomprehensible
symbols.

16. Cont…
•AmainreasonfordevelopingRRAwastofindshortcutsinthesearch
forrelevantinformationonruraldevelopmentissuesinordertoavoid
costlyandtimeconsumingresearchprocedures.
•InmostofthecasesRRAiscarriedoutbyasmallteamofresearchers
ortrainedprofessionalinonetothreedaysinakindofworkshop.
•TheroleofthelocalpopulationinRRAistoproviderelevantlocal
knowledgeforresearchpurposesanddevelopmentplanning.
•The RRA team manages the process and maintains the power to decide
on how to utilize this information on rural development issues.

17. Cont…
•Inordertoavoidcostlyandtime-consumingresearchprocedures.
•InmostofthecasesRRAiscarriedoutbyasmallteamof
researchersortrainedprofessionalinonetothreedaysinakindof
workshop.
•TheroleofthelocalpopulationinRRAistoproviderelevantlocal
knowledgeforresearchpurposesanddevelopmentplanning.
TheRRAteammanagestheprocessandmaintainsthepowerto
decideonhowtoutilizethisinformation.

18. Cont…
RapidRuralAppraisal(RRA)
Learningrapidlyanddirectlyfromvillagers,Project
staffslearnandobtaininformation,takeitaway,and
analyzeit.Itisextractive(informationisgatheredand
usedaccordingtotheneedsoftheprojectstaff).
ParticipatoryRuralAppraisal(PRA)
LearningwithvillagersFacilitatelocalcapacityto
analyze,plan,makedecisions,takeaction,resolve
conflicts,monitor,andevaluateaccordingtotheneedsof
thevillagers.

19. Participatory Rural/Relaxed
Appraisal
•Duringthe1980s,PRAwasfirstlydevelopedinIndiaandKenya,
mainlysupportedbyNGOsoperatingatgrass-rootslevel.
•UntiltodayPRAevolvedsofastintermsofthemethodology,the
creationofnewtoolsandspecificallyinthedifferentwaysitis
applied.
•ComparedtoRRAwhichmainlyaimsatextractinginformation,
PRAplacesemphasisonempoweringlocalpeopletoassumean
activeroleinanalyzing.
•Andtheirownlivingconditions,problemsandpotentialsinorder
toseekforachangeoftheirsituation.

20. Cont…
•Thischangesaresupposedtobeachievedbycollective
actionandthelocalcommunitiesareinvitedtoassume
responsibilitiesforimplementingrespectiveactivities.
•ThemembersofthePRAteamactasfacilitators.
•Hereitisnolongertheexternalexpertsbutratherthe
localpeoplethemselveswho“own”theresultsofa
PRAWorkshop.

21. Cont…
•ConsequentlyanimportantprincipleofPRAistosharethe
resultsoftheanalysisbetweenthePRAteam.
•Thecommunitymembersbyvisualization,publicpresentations
anddiscussionsduringmeetings.
•MostPRAworkshopslastfrom3to5daysandtheplanningof
theworkshopandthefacilitationoftoolsisdoneina
multidisciplinaryteamofinsidersandoutsiderswhichis
genderbalanced.

22. Principles of PRA and RRA
•Offsettingbiasesthroughdifferent:perspectives,methodsandtools,
sourcesofinformation,peoplefromdifferentbackgroundandplaces,
backgroundofteammembers(spatial,person,gender,agegroups,
interestgroups,keyinformants,wealthgroups,seasonal,professionals,
disciplines).
•RapidandProgressiveLearning:(flexible,interactive):BeGender
sensitiveatalltimes.
•Reversalofroles(Learningfrom,withandbylocalpeople,eliciting
andusingtheirsymbols,criteria,categoriesandindicators;andfinding,
understandingandappreciatinglocalpeople'sknowledge).

23. Cont…
•FocusedLearning:(notfindingoutmorethatisneededandnot
measuringwhencomparingisenough.Weareoftentrainedtomake
absolutemeasurementsandtogiveexactnumbers,butoftenrelative
proportions,trends,scoresorrankingareallthatisneededfordecision
makingandplanningofactivities).
•Seekingfordiversityanddifferences:Peopleoftenhavedifferent
perceptionsofthesamesituation.
•Attitude:InordertomakethePRAorRRAworkshopsansuccessitis
mostimportantbuildapositiverelationshipwithlocalwomenandmen.
Outsidersmusthaveanattitudeofrespect,humilityandpatience,anda
willingnesstolearnfromthelocalpeople.

24. PRA techniques
•Direct observation --Observations are related to questions:
What? When? Where?
•Who? Why? How?
•Doityourself--Villagersareencouragedtoteachthe
researcherhowtodovariousactivities.Theresearcherwill
learnhowmuchskillandstrengtharerequiredtododaytoday
ruralactivities,gaininganinsider'sperspectiveonasituation.
•Rolesarereversed:villagersarethe"experts"andattitudesare
challenged.

25. Cont…
Participatorymappingandmodeling--Usinglocalmaterials,
villagersdrawormodelcurrentorhistoricalconditions…
•Theresearchertheninterviewsthevillagerby"interviewing
themap."
•Thistechniquecanbeusedtoshow
•Watersheds
•Forests
•Farms
•Homegardens
•Residentialareas
•Soils

26. Cont…
•Water sources
•Wealth rankings
•Household assets
•Land-use patterns
•Changes in farming practices
•Constraints, trends
•Health and welfare conditions
•and the distribution of various resources

27. Cont…
•Transectwalksandguidedfieldwalks--Theresearcher
andkeyinformantsconductawalkingtourthroughareasof
interest
•Toobserve
•Tolisten
•Toidentifydifferentzonesorconditions
•Toaskquestionstoidentifyproblemsandpossiblesolutions
•Withthismethod,theoutsidercanquicklylearnabout
topography,soils,landuse,forests,watersheds,and
communityassets.

28. Cont…
•Seasonalcalendars--Variablessuchas…
•Rainfall
•Laborincome
•Expenditures
•Debt
•Animalfodderorpests
•Harvestingperiodscanbedrawn(orcreatedwithstones,
seeds,andsticks).toshowmonth-to-monthvariationsand
seasonalconstraints.
•Tohighlightopportunitiesforaction.An18-monthcalendar
canbetterillustratevariationsthana12-monthcalendar.

29. Cont…
•Daily-activityprofiles--Researcherscanexploreandcomparethe
daily-activitypatternsof…..
–Men
–Women
–Youth,andeldersbychartingtheamountoftimetakento
completetasks.
•Semistructuredinterviewing--Asemistructuredinterviewing
andlisteningtechniqueusessomepredeterminedquestionsand
topicsbutallowsnewtopicstobepursuedastheinterview
develops.
–Theinterviewsareinformalandconversationalbutcarefully
controlled.

30. Cont…
•Types,sequencing,andchaininterviews--
Individual,pair,andgroupinterviewsarecombined
inasequencetotakeadvantageofkeyinformantsand
specialistgroups.
•Permanent-groupinterviews--Establishedgroups,
farmers'groups,orpeopleusingthesamewater
sourcecanbeinterviewedtogether.
•Thistechniquecanhelpidentifycollectiveproblemsor
solutions.

31. Cont…
•Timelines--Majorhistoricalcommunityeventsand
changesaredatedandlisted.
•Understandingthecyclesofchangecanhelpcommunities
focusonfutureactionsandinformationrequirements.
•Localhistories--Localhistoriesaresimilartotimelines
butgiveamoredetailedaccountofhowthingshave
changedorarechanging.
•Forexample,historiescanbedevelopedforcrops,
populationchanges,communityhealthtrendsand
epidemics,educationchanges,roaddevelopments,andtrees
andforests.

32. Cont…
•Localresearchersandvillageanalysts--Withsometraining,localpeople
canconducttheresearchprocess(forexample,collect,analyze,use,and
presentdata;conducttransects;interviewothervillagers;drawmaps;make
observations).
•Participatorydiagramming--Peopleareencouragedtodisplay
theirknowledgeonpieandbarchartsandflowdiagrams.
•Wealthandwell-beingrankings--Peopleareaskedtosortcards
(orslipsofpaper)representingindividualsorhouseholdsfromrich
topoororfromsicktohealthy.
•Thistechniquecanbeusedforcrosscheckinginformationandfor
initiatingdiscussionsonaspecifictopic(forexample,poverty).

33. Cont…
•Thetechniquecanalsobeusedtoproduceabenchmark
againstwhichfuturedevelopmentinterventionscanbe
measuredorevaluated.
•Direct-matrixpair-wiserankingandscoring--Direct-
matrixpair-wiserankingandscoringisatoolusedtodiscover
localattitudesonvarioustopics.
•Peoplerankandcompareindividualitems,usingtheirown
categoriesandcriteria,byraisinghandsorplacing
representativeobjectsonaboard.

34. Cont…
•Forexample,sixdifferentshrubscanberankedfrombestto
worstfortheirfuel,fodder,anderosion-controlattributes.
•Otherresourcescanberankedintermsoftasteor
marketability.
•Wealthrankingcanbeusedtoidentifywealthcriteriaand
establishtherelativepositionofhouseholds.

35. Cont…
Matrices--Matricescanbeusedtogatherinformationandtofacilitateor
focusanalysesanddiscussions.
•Forexample,aproblemopportunitymatrixcouldhavecolumnswiththe
followinglabels:
•Soiltype
•Landuse
•Croppingpatterns
•andavailableresources
Rowswiththefollowinglabels
•Problems
•Constraints
•Localsolutions
•andinitiativesalreadytried

36. •Traditionalmanagementsystemsandlocal-resourcecollections--Local
peoplecollectsamples(forexample,ofsoils,plants).
•Thiscanbeanefficientwaytolearnaboutthelocalbiodiversity,
managementsystems,andtaxonomies.
•Portraits,profiles,casestudies,andstories--Householdhistoriesor
storiesofhowacertainconflictwasresolvedarerecorded.
•Thiscanprovideshortbutinsightfuldescriptionsofcharacteristicproblems
andhowtheyaredealtwith.

37. •Keyprobes--Aquestionaddressingakeyissueisaskedofdifferent
informants,andtheanswersarecompared.
•Thequestionmightbesomethinglike"Ifmygoatentersyourfieldandeats
yourcrops,whatdoyouandIdo?“
•Folklore, songs, poetry, and dance --Local folklore, songs, dance, and
poetry are analyzed to provide insight into values, history, practices, and
beliefs.
•Futures possible --People are asked how they would like things to be in 1
year and to predict what will happen if nothing is done or if something is
done. People's desires, wishes, and expectations are revealed.

38. Cont…
•Diagramsexhibition--Diagrams,maps,charts,andphotosoftheresearch
activityaredisplayedinapublicplacetoshareinformation,facilitate
discussions,andprovideanadditionalcrosscheckingdevice.
•Theexhibitioncaninspireothervillagerstotakepartinresearchactivities.
•Sharedpresentationsandanalysis--Participantsareencouragedto
presenttheirfindingstoothervillagersandtooutsiders,providinganother
opportunityforcrosschecking,feedback,comment,andcriticism.
•Nighthalts--Theresearchersliveinthevillageduringtheresearch
process.

39. Cont…
•Thisfacilitatesallinteractionsbetweentheoutsidersandthevillagers,
inviteschangeintheoutsiders'attitudes,andallowsforearly-morningand
eveningdiscussions,whenVillagerstendtohavemoreleisuretime.
•Shortquestionnaires--Shortandissue-specificquestionnairescanbe
usefulifconductedlateintheresearchprocess.
•Fieldreportwriting--Keyfindingsarerecordedbefore"leaving"the
village.(Thisassumesthatthecommunityhasconsentedtohavingthe
researchdataleavethevillage.)
•Briefsummariesaremadeofeachdiagram,model,andmap,aswellasof
theprocessinvolvedincreatingthem.

40. Cont…
•Surveyofvillagers'attitudestowardPRA--ToimprovethePRA
processandtechniquesandmaintainrealisticexpectations.
•Theresearcherasksthevillagerswhattheyexpectedandwhattheylearned
fromthePRAresearchprocess.
•Intriguingpracticesandbeliefs--Indigenouspracticesandbeliefsare
noted,eveniftheyarebasedonmythorsuperstition.
•Evenpracticesthatareunusualordon'tfitinwithconventionalscientific
thinkingareworthexploringbecausetheyaremeaningfultolocalpeople.

41. Organization of PRA
Selection of
PRA team
members
Objectives
Formation of
sub-topics
Selection of
methods,
designs and
respondents
Interview
Sub-team
meeting
Whole
team
meeting
Report
writing

42. Cont…
•Agroupofpeopleasaninterdisciplinaryteamisrequiredtoperform
anexercisebeforeandduringfieldworkwhileusingPRAtoolsand
techniques.
•Theteammembersmustidentifytopics,sub-topicsorchecklistson
whichtobuildquestionsbeforegoingtothefields.
•Itisrecommendedthattheteammembersstaytogetheruntiltheend
oftheprocesstomakeworkinobjectivesachievable.
•ThereareguidelinesonhowtoproceedinconductingPRAandin
usingspecifictoolsandtechniquesbeforeandduringthefield
works.

43. Cont…
•There are some rules of PRA, which should be followed by the
team in order to get precise and reliable information.
•It is important to understand the rules while conducting PRA.
•Do not interrupt -do not interrupt when someone is
talking in his/her turn at interviewing or probing for
information.
•And also do not interrupt the respondent.

44. Cont…
b.Donotassume-donotassumeeitherthatyouknowthe
answerorthataninformationiswrongaboutsomething.
c.Donotleadorgiveclues-donotleadorgivecluestothe
respondentwithyourpreconceivedideas.
•Stayneutralwhileaskingquestionssothatyoudonotleadthe
respondent.
•Iftherulesarenotfollowedbyeachoftheteammembers,it
maymisleadheinformation.
•Therefore,theteammustbecarefulwiththeabove-mentioned
ruleswhileapplyingdifferenttoolsandtechniquesofPRA.

45. Cont…
Beforefieldwork
•Therearesomestepswitchneedstobefollowedbytheteam
membersinordertocollectreliableandpreciseinformation.
•Thestepsforbeforefieldworkare:
Useofsecondaryinformation
•Secondarydataareimportantforbackgroundinformationand
basicassumptionsoffactthattheruralpeopleprovide.
•Therefore,acarefulreviewandassessmentofthesecondarydata
arenecessaryfromsecondarysourcesbeforefieldwork.
•Itmaybehelpfulindevelopingtopics,sub-topicsorcheckliststo
beusedinacquiringinformation.
•Theteammustknowwhytheyareinavillage.

46. Selection of interdisciplinary team
•Developing sub-topics:
•Generally, a brainstorming session is organized for developing topics or
sub-topics.
•A number of experienced people, not necessarily team members are invited
in the session to generate specific issues on a particular area.
•The raised issues in the session are listed in flip chart or board, depending
on the availability.
•The issues are repeatedly discussed in the session relating to the practical
situation and are finalized as guidelines for collecting required information.

47. Cont…
•Theteammembersshouldalsodiscusshowtocarryoutfieldworks,
especiallytoolstobeappliedforcollectingtherequiredinformation.
•Generally,thechoiceoftoolsdependsontopicsandexpectedoutput.
•Theteamshouldconsiderthesituationandselectthetoolswhichfitbetter
forcollectingreliableandpreciseinformation.
•Therefore,itistheteamthatdecideswhichtoolsandtechniquesfitbetter
foraparticulararea.
•Thispreparationmaybeassignedtoasingleteammember,probably
someonewhoisfamiliarwiththelocality.

48. During fieldwork
•Thefieldworkispeople-oriented.Itseeksinformationonindigenous
knowledge,localcustomsandpractices.
•Therefore,theteamshouldbeginanalyzingandevaluatingdataatthevery
startoftheworkandcontinueonthroughoutthefieldwork.
•Rapportbuilding
•Rapportbuildingisanimportanttaskfortheteamforcollectingreliable
information.
•Itisusuallydonetodevelopcommunicationsandtoestablishworking
relationshipswiththelocalpeople.
•Generally, rapport building is initiated immediately as the team enters a
village.

49. Cont…
•Thismayhelptheteamtobringclosertothevillagepeople.Theteamshould
followthefollowingstepsforconducingPRAinruralareas:
•Starttalkingtotheruralpeoplesaying“localHello”wheneveryoumeetthem,
forexample,onthetrail,agriculturalfields,teashops,homesetc.Treatand
respectruralpeopleaspertheirlocalcustom.
•Asktheknowledgeablepeopleaboutasubjectorareainavillage.
•Trytomeetwithlocalleadersandofficialsbeforestartingworkinavillage.
•ClearlyexplainreasonsforcomingtotheareaShowgenuineinterestinthe
localissues.
•Choosetimeandvenuethatareconvenientforthelocalpeople.

50. Cont…
•MaintainingprotocolsintheteamisthebasicruleinPRAmethods.
Protocolsaredefinedasasetofrulesgoverninghowpeopleactinagiven
situation,acodeofconduct.
•TheyfurtherelaboratedthatPRAprotocolsarerulesofinterpersonal
behaviourbywhichanPRAteamagreestooperate.
•ThefollowingsaretheprotocolssuggestedforconductingPRAintherural
communities:
•Afacilitator(fromtheteam)controlstheinterviewprocessbysingling
start,fillinggapsEtc.;

51. Cont…
•Eachteammemberpursuesasub-topic,followingone’sownlineof
questioningandreasoning.
•Theorderofinterviewingsequence(whostarts,whofollows,who
finishes)predetermined,memberstakenotesduringeachother’sturn.
•Unanticipatedquestionsthatariseoutofturnareheldforlater
•Unwantedpersons(e.g.drunks,troublemakersetc.)arepolitely
divertedbyateammember(apre-chosengatekeeper);and
•Aftereachday’ssessions,themembersdebriefasagroup,discuss
findingstoverifyandalsoincompleteinformationarenoteddownfor
recollection

52. Cont…
•Datacollectionbyapplyingtoolsandtechniques
•Startcollectinginformationbyapplyingappropriatetoolsand
techniquesoncetherapportisdevelopedinavillage.
•Also,applyprobinganditeratingtechniquesforcollectingmorein
depthandreliableinformation.Sometechniquesforcollecting
informationare:
•Semi-StructuredInterviewing(SSI)
•Semi-structuredinterviewingistheprincipalmethodusedinRRA.
•Itisconductedusingthesub-topicstoguidethespecificquestionsthought
upbytheresearchersduringtheinterview.
•SSIisconductedwithkeyinformants,whohavegoodknowledge

53. Cont…
•aboutthehistoryofthevillageanditsresources,andothersusingpre-
selectedsubtopicsasguidelines.
•Inthismethod,actualquestionsarecreatedduringtheinterview.
•Questionsshouldbepreciseandeasytounderstand.Leadingquestions
shouldnotbeusedwhileconductinginterviews.
•Iteration
•IterationisoneofthetechniquesforcollectinginformationinPRAmethods.
•Inthistechnique,thesamequestionisrepeatedlyaskedindifferentsituationfor
conformingthegiveninformation.
•Averyhighpay-offfromflexibilityofthemethodologythroughiterationoccursin
theabilitytoreformquestionsandformulatenewquestions,especiallywithinthe
interviewitself

54. Cont…
•Probing
•Themainfunctionofaprobeistoencouragetherespondenttoanswermore
fullyandaccurately.
•Furthermore,italsohelpstostructuretherespondent’sanswerandmakesure
thatalltopicsofinterestarecovered.
•Alwaysstartquestionswithwho,what,why,when,whoandhow(the‘six
helpers’)forhelpingtoestablishthebasicsituation.
•Observation
•Thisisalsousedasatechniqueespeciallyinthesocialsciencessincealong
time.Inthistechnique,relatedindicatorsareusedinthefieldtoverifythe
collectedinformationortogeneratequestions.
•Forexample,ifthedungisusedforcookingpurposes,itmeansthatthereisa
scarcityoffirewoodinthearea.

55. Cont…
•Observation
•Thisisalsousedasatechniqueespeciallyinthesocialsciencessincealong
time.
•Inthistechnique,relatedindicatorsareusedinthefieldtoverifythecollected
informationortogeneratequestions.
•Forexample,ifthedungisusedforcookingpurposes,itmeansthatthereisa
scarcityoffirewoodinthearea.
•Similarly,thereareawiderangeofparticipatorytoolsavailablewhichcanbe
usedaccordingtothesituationorneeds.ThemostcommonPRAtoolsand
techniquesare:
•Debriefingsession
•Debriefingsessionsanddiscussionsareimportantduringthefieldwork.

56. Cont…
•Theteammembersreviewtheirfieldnotesaftertheirfieldworksince,
delaycausessignificantlossofmemoryandmayseriouslyaffectthe
results.
Afterfieldwork
•Adiscussionshouldbecarriedoutbytheteamaboutthecollected
informationandgoingbackformoreshouldbearrangedifitisnecessary.
•Eachteammemberisassignedtasksandresultsaremeldbygroup
membersconsensus.
•Thefindingsarealsopresentedinworkshopsorseminarsforthe
comments.
•Thecomments/suggestionsaretakencareofandareincorporatedinthe
finalreports.

57. PRA Tools
•PRAoffersa"basketoftechniques"fromwhichthosemost
appropriatefortheprojectcontextcanbeselected.
•ThecentralpartofanyPRAissemi-structuredinterviewing.While
sensitivetopicsareoftenbetteraddressedininterviewswithindividuals,
othertopicsofmoregeneralconcernareamenabletofocusgroup
discussionsandcommunitymeetings.
•Duringtheseinterviewsanddiscussions,severaldiagrammatictechniques
arefrequentlyusedtostimulatedebateandrecordtheresults.
•Manyofthesevisualsarenotdrawnonpaperbutonthegroundwithsticks,
stones,seeds,andotherlocalmaterials,andthentransferredtopaperfora
permanentrecord.

58. Semi-Structured Interview (SSI)
•Purpose:Togaininformationfromanindividualorsmallgrouponan
issue.
•Description:Semi-structuredinterviewsareguidedconversationswhere
broadquestionsareasked,whichdonotconstraintheconversation,and
newquestionsareallowedtoariseasaresultofthediscussion.
•Thisisdifferentfromquestionnairesandsurveyswheretherearevery
structuredquestionsthatarenotdeviatedfrom.
•Asemistructuredinterviewisthereforearelativelyinformal,relaxed
discussionbasedaroundapredeterminedtopic.

59. Cont…
•Asemi-structuredinterviewisaPRAmethodthatengagesvillagersina
conversationthroughaseriesofguidequestions(notstructured
questionnaire)relevanttothevillagers.
•Talkingwithvillagersabouttopicsthatinterestthemgeneratesimportant
information.SSIcanbeusedwithindividuals,keyinformants,interest
groupsorothersmallgroupsofvillagers(i.e.women’sgroups).
•SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS involvethepreparationofan
interviewguidethatlistsapre-determinedsetofquestionsorissuesthatare
tobeexploredduringaninterview.
•Thisguideservesasachecklistduringtheinterviewandensuresthat
basicallythesameinformationisobtainedfromanumberofpeople.Yet,
thereisagreatdealofflexibility.

60. Procedures in using a semi-structure interview (SSI)
Prepareachecklistoftopicsandguidequestionsfor
discussionandrecordtheseinanotebook.
Selectindividuals,keyinformants,interestgroups,orother
smallgroupsofvillagerstointerview.
Getagoodrepresentationofthevillagers-spatial,gender,
wealthclass,etc.
Observeproperinterviewingtechniques.
Usethechecklistoftopicsandguidequestions(seesample)
butallowflexibilityintheconversationsothatissuescanbe
exploredastheyarise.

61. Cont…
Probe(userelevantfollowupquestionsasneeded).
Askquestionsthatarerelevanttothevillagersbeing
interviewed(individualorgroup).
Useopen-endedquestions(notanswerablebyyesorno).
Recordtheimportantpointsineachinterviewina
notebook.
Modifythechecklistoftopicsandguidequestionsasnew
issuesariseduringtheconversation.

62. MAPS
•Participatorymappingisoneofthemostversatiletoolsandispowerfulin
generatingpicturesonanyaspectofthephysicalreality.
•Thesemapscannotbecomparedwiththegeographicalmaps,exactlyreduced
representationsofgeophysicalstructures.
•Mapscanbeproducedforbigregions(movementofanimalherdsof
pastoralists).
•Villagesandfarmsorevenofasingleplot,dependingonquestionspeopleare
interestedin.
•Theproductsofparticipatorymappingsaredocumentationofmental.
•Mapsandcanbedifferentfordifferentgroupsofpeopleofthesamevillage
(e.g.men,women,children).

63. Cont…
Usually mapping is used to depict infrastructures, natural resources, land
ownership, settlement pattern, soil types, cropping pattern etc.
1.Social Mapping
2.Resource Mapping
3.Timeline & Trend Change (Historical Mapping)
4.Seasonal Calendar
5.Wealth Ranking
6.Transact Walk
7.Venn Diagram

64. Social mapping
•SocialmappingisaPRAmethodthatinvolvesthe
sketching/drawingofhousesandothersocialfacilitiesand
infrastructure(i.e.temple,stores,school,streetlights,
communityhalls,roads,waterpumps,irrigationandrecreation
facilities)inavillage.
•Thesefeatureshaveusuallynotbeenwellspecifiedinthe
villagevisionsettingandvillageland-usemaps.
•Ithelpstovisualizeandsituatethelocationofhouseholdsand
othersocialfacilities/infrastructureinavillage.

65. Objectives of Social mapping
•To learn about the social structures in the village and the differences among
the households by caste, religion and wealth.
•TolearnintraandinterhouseholddifferencesonacommunitymapSocial
indicatorsmappingincludeseducationalanliteracystatus,schoolgoing
children,health,wealth,sizeoflandholding,Householdingassets,access
toresourcesetc.
•Tolearnaboutwhoislivingwhere.Tolearnaboutthesocialinstitutions
andthedifferentviewslocalpeoplemighthaveregardingthose
institutions.
•Itservesasabaselineforplanning,implementation,monitoring,and
evaluationofvillagedevelopmentactivities(includingselectionofvillage
organizingstrategy).

66. Resource Map
Description:The(Village)ResourceMapisatoolthathelps
ustolearnaboutacommunityanditsresourcebase.
•Theprimaryconcernisnottodevelopanaccuratemapbutto
getusefulinformationaboutlocalperceptionsofresources.
•Theparticipantsshoulddevelopthecontentofthemap
accordingtowhatisimportanttothem.
Objectives:
To learn the villagers' perception of what natural resources are
found in The community and how they are used.
To establish a dialogue with groups of local people.

67. Cont…
•Toconstructapictureoflocalperceptionsofthelocal
environment.
•To document access and control arrangements over resources.
•To create a baseline reference for use in later discussions or
work.
•To empower groups to analyze and better understand their own
conditions.
•To begin the process of dialogue, as maps are usually non-
sensitive and relatively easy facilitate.

68. Timeline & Trend Change (Historical
Mapping)
•Thefacilitatorsmeetsmallgroupsofvillagersanddiscusswiththem
themostimportanteventsinthecommunity’spastandpreparewith
theinformationhistoricaltimelinewhichservesasthebasefor
furtherwork.
•Itisimportanttoinvolvedifferentgroupsofthecommunitiestoget
theirusuallydifferentperspectives.
•Thetimelinewithbasiceventscanbeusedforfocuseddiscussions
onproblems,socialandtechnologicalinnovationsoron
communitieshistoryofcooperationsandactivitieswhichhelped
themtosolveinpastproblemssuccessfully.
Objectives
•To show quantitative changes in one or more variables over time

69. SEASONAL CALENDAR
•AseasonalcalendarisaPRAmethodthatdeterminespatternsand
trendsthroughouttheyearinacertainvillage.
•Itcanbeusedforpurposessuchasrainfalldistribution,food
availability,agriculturalproduction,incomeandexpenditures,
healthproblems,andothers.
•Theseasonalcalendarcanalsobeusedtocollectinformationon
howvillagersallocatetheirtimeaswellastheirlabourinvarious
activitieswithinthevillage.
•Atimechartorseasonalcalendarispreparedbydrawingatwo-
dimensionalmatrixandwritingthetimeperiod(i.e.month,year)on
anaxisandthedifferentvillageactivitiesontheotheraxis.

70. Cont…
•Villagersareencouragedtofillinthematrixofthechart/calendarby
markingthegridorbyplacingstonesorotherobjectsonthematrix.
Typeofgroup:mixedgroupforwomenandmen.
Objectives:
•Tolearnaboutchangesinlivelihoodsovertheyearandtoshowthe
seasonalityofagriculturalandnonagriculturalworkload,foodavailability,
humandiseases,gender-specificincomeandexpenditure,water,forage,
creditandholidays.
•Toidentifyseasonallyvaryinginformationinavisualform.
•Toidentifymainactivities,problemsandopportunitiesthroughtheannual
cycleandkeylinkagesbetweencomponents.
•Toidentifymonthsofgreatestdifficultyandvulnerability

71. Wealth Ranking
•Wealthrankingisusedtounderstandthepeople’sperceptionsof
wealthandwelfareintheirownvillage.
•MostresearchagenciesuseSocialMapofthevillageasabasisfor
sampleselection,butinthevillageswherewehavetheadvantageof
havingthecensusoftheentirevillage,thismakestheprocesstighter
andrandomnessisaccurate.
•Wealth-rankingnotonlyhelpsusidentifytherichandpoorfamilies
ofthevillagebutalsogivesusaninsightintowhatconstitutes
wealthandwhatconstitutespovertyasfarasthepeopleare
concerned.

72. Cont…
•Thepurposeoftheexerciseistolearnthemeaningofwealth,
povertyandvulnerabilityintheviewofthecommunitymembers,
andtogettheirideasonwhatindicators(beyondcashincome)
definethosewhoaremostneedy.
•Wearealsointerestedinlearningabouttheeventsthatcausepeople
toloseassetsorincome,andwhat,ifanything,householdsdoto
resistbecomingimpoverished/vulnerablebytheseevents.
•Moregenerally,wearehopingtolearnwhysomehouseholdsare
abletosucceedinrecoveringfromshocksandsetbacks,whileothers
losegroundandfallintodeeperpoverty.

73. Cont…
Objective
Toinvestigateperceptionsofwealthdifferencesand
inequalitiesinacommunity.
Toidentifyandunderstandlocalindicatorsandcriteriaof
wealthandwell-being.
Tomaptherelativepositionofhouseholdsinacommunity.

74. Transect Walks
•Toolinvolvingsystematicwalkingalongwiththelocalpeopleas
partofunderstandingaspectsoflanduseandecologicalareas
throughdiscussionsacrossanidentifiedlocality.
•Ithelpsinidentifyingandexplainingthecauseandeffect
relationshipsamongtopography,soils,naturalvegetation,
cultivation,andotherproductionactivitiesandhumansettlement
patterns,inadditiontomajorproblemsandpossibilities
perceivedbydifferentgroups.
•Methodwhichfacilitateslearningaboutlocaltechnologyand
practicesasapartofadaptationstrategiesandactsasatoolfor
siteselectionforfutureorfurtherresearch

75. Cont…
Objective
•Tofindoutthenaturalresources,presentlanduse,vegetation,
changesinthephysicalfeaturesandcroppingsystems,andso
oninvillagesduetopossibleeffectsofclimatechange.
•Usedasamethodoftriangulatingdatacollectedthroughother
datasourcesespeciallywherepublicresources,landuse,social
differentiationandmobilityincommunitiesareconcerned.

76. Venn Diagrams
•Avisualmethodofidentifyingandrepresentingperceptionsofkey
institutions(formalandinformal)andindividualsinsideandoutside
acommunity,theirrelationships,andimportanceassociatedwiththe
same.
•Italsoisaninstrumentwhichhelpsidentifypotentialentrypoints
forstrengtheningorimprovingrelationshipsbetweenkeysocial
actors.
•Ithelpsunderstandhowdifferentcommunitymembersperceive
institutionsbothintermsofparticipation,decisionmaking,
accessibilitytoanddeliveryofserviceswithinandoutsidethe
community

77. Cont…
•Ithelpsinfindingouttheperceivedimportance,accessibility,
andimpactofdifferentinstitutionstolocalpeopleofdifferent
socialgroupsespeciallywhereadaptationstrategiesare
concernedandwhotheywouldapproachincaseofrelieforaid
intheeventualityofaclimaticshock.
•Providesaninsightintotheexistinginstitutionsina
communityandtheirrelationtoeachotherandtoexternal
agenciesinvolvedinthedeliveryofservicesandthe
administrationofprograms

78. References
•TrainingManual,SocialAnalysisusingQualitativetools,InternationalCrops
ResearchInstitutefortheSemi-AridTropicsPatancheru502324,AndhraPradesh,
India,2009.
•PRA-ParticipatoryRuralAppraisal,Concepts,MethodologiesandTechniques,S.
Rengasamy,MaduraiInstituteofSocialSciences.
•Dr.RobertChambers,Dr.JulesPretty,Dr.LuigiCovestroandliterature
publishedbyIDS,IIED.
•GoogleImages.