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1. (Chapter 5 - Periodie Classification of Elements
Introduction

niall siii al eased elements it metal and none. However, some elements
possessed properties which could nether he classified as metals sor mon-mels called
metal This clssfction was found to be insulin for scemifie study. Later om a
umber of chemists eme 10 make aration and systeme clasiiatin of the physical
and chemical propenso elements and tbat he ress inthe form ofa abe

Periodic table = The mae giving the args of Ln elements ang o the
proper xo that sila elemente ll within the sme vertical command similar elemente
ar separ

Dobercinr's Triads
Inthe year 1829, Johann Wolfgang oberer, u German scien, was the fist to li
ements io groupe bated on Joka Dakons aseos. He grouped the cemento with similar
‘chemical popes ito chers of the called Tri, The distincte feature of ad was the
atome mass ofthe middle clement, When elements were arranged in onder ofthe increasing
‘tonic mus, the «tomás mass ofthe mil element was approximately th artnet aan of
‘the aber two elements of he wid

example of Doberciners rinde

Element Lithium |Berylium | Potasium _ | Arlhmeie mean
‘Atomic muss [20 EJ 110 vo

Element Lun [tests | Boron ce sean
mens EU En ma EX

Bienen Tim [Seda | Pass | Armee mean
‘Atomic mes E 20 EX] 20

temen Carton — |Nivogen | Oxygen Aries mean
‘amie mes] 120 [140 150 10

lene Guam A |Rarum Arhtmets mean
omic muss [ano rs 137 EN

lement ON LE TO Aries mean
Aonic mess [30 [so 129, ms

Defects of Triad Clasifcation

<A lage number of simil clement soul ot be groupe int Wiad eon, munganc,
‘nickel cobalt, zinc and copper are similar elements but could not be placed in the triads.

2. Defects of Triad Clasieation

‘+A large numberof similar elements cou mot be grouped into wich eg. ron, manganese,
nickel cobalt zinc and copper se similar elements bt cou ot be placed in he rade.

‘+ levas posible that quite dinar elements could be grouped io ids

+ Dobereinercouk only clas 3 ids successfully gi inthe tab)

Since he failed to arange the then known elemen in the form of rias his atempe at

sición was at very successful

Newtande Law af Octaves
‘Newland ranged many ofthe knows elements the increasing order oftheir atomic masses
He started wäh ib eme having the lowest stomse mas (hydrogen) and ended a tora
which was he $6 elemen

He aang many ofthe ke clement ia the increasing oder of ci atomic musics. I was
oie tht the il em was sarin et to he fsck ment, jut ik the eighth
ote in ise Werten an was Inia

Westen
Re

De

Me Boron Aluminio
EN Cabos, Silicon

So [Pa —[Nürogen. Phosphor
Ta] Bx] Oxygen, Soir

ti [Ni [pie Chain
Do ss

{Groups af the 8 elemento
“The ehe clement ater um e som, In many of chemical properties i iia to
liam. Similar, tbe eth elem ae sos spoasium, whose properties are similar o
sodium. The ci ekmeot fiom Meco is core both of whieh are similar in dec
‘ropes, The chat clement fram nkrnge ppm and ath the element re similar
‘nproperes

"Based on vs observation, Newt std his law of octaves hus when elements ae arrange
in increasing order of thei atomic mas, he eighth cleat resembles the fs in physical and
chemical properties jst Uke the cgh not on musical scale sesembls the fist ore AS à
al very ion cooehsion was made tat there some sistema rlaaship betwee
‘he order of atomic masses and the repetition of props of elements This gave ie to a nom
term cll periode which signifies the recuneace of hate ropes of element
range tb, regla ites of period,

Achievements of the Law of Octave
© ne baw of octaves was the fit logical

ptt clsiy elements on the hiss of smc

3. Achlerements ofthe Law of Octave
‘+ The law stas was he fs loa atc 1 lasily elements onthe basis of atomic
weights

+ Penodicky of elements was cogne forthe ft tine

In 1860, tee wana eunfrcae of chemi in Kar Se, Germany. A young Russian chet,
io Merken, ami this conference, war deeply infuncal y e these prete by
Sun Cannzate, which described Camizaros mod of determining some muss of
lement, Mendeley then stared working om hi apt of momie mas and porc. He
later om stated he aw of chemical periodic.

Defects of Law uf Octave

‘Tis nw coll te best apli, only upto the lore am.

+ Newly discovered elemen ool! ot fi atthe ctvesrutre

+ The feature of resemblance ofthe 4° chen when erugd in increasing order of bir
one ss ws not sos fl wih aver elements

Lothar Meyer's Curves: In 1S701he German chemis ploued he tom volumes of the
clement aginst toi atome mass From ths graph he was able 10 produce table shoving
Periode rangementofelemens.

Mendel Periode Table
In 1869, Mende elf he then Ana $6 clement om the hai of thr physical and
chemical propenies im he increasing order of the atomic mass. in Ihe form of a tale
Mesdelee had observed tht properties of the elements orderly recur in a cle fashion. He
Fouad that ho elemen with simile propre recur sopla itevals when the elements are
range in the order ofthe increasing atomic masse. He cuncladed that the physical and
mic propre ofthe cements ae pero funtion o ci tome mses. This eae to
be known asthe of chemical period and sae: the physical and chemical properties
‘of elements re perdi funcion lr omic weighs

Based on this law all the Kaw elements were aang in he form of a be called the
‘Pee Table Elements wth ini est Reed at regul neral an el in cea
groups or fami, Te elements in each group were simil o ash lhe in many presos
“The elements th dismilr proper from one anıher were separated, Mendeleev’ perde
able comia eight vertical chum of element clld groups and seven hais rows called
pero, Each group has two sub groups A and B. The ropes ol elements of a sub group
resemble each cher moe marks han te properties ose betwee te elements of the two
ogro

Achievement of Mendsleers Petodi Table
Mendeleev’ periodic table was one ofthe greatest achievements i chemity with ome of ts
import cosebarions as ous

¡Systematic Study of Elements

4. Acherements of Menddev Peiodic Table
Mmes period tbl wet ome of Us gtc micras ee Sth of 15
partes conri flo:

Systematic Study of Elements
Mendeleev’ Perdi le simpli dhe sty of lemens, As the arengemors of cles
Sowing similar propenics were child ito groups, it was very useful in studying and
‘remembering the proper of ange number of element ina pee vay

Prediction of Now Elements
[Based onthe postions in the period ble, Mendelev coul prdi th properties of some
uedicovered css. He IN ce Banks fr chas tha were net discover tha ine,
He was able 10 pct the popeaics of thse unknown cms re o es acutely. He
sama them eki-boro,eks-aliminium amd eka-licon. He ame them so, as they were ju
below boron aluminum and silicon i the respective sub-groups, Ek run wasser named as
‘candi ek alumni sgl and ca ce as gran. A Comparativo Sty af the
Propeniesof Elements Predicted and ter Discovered

Property Foros

[Atome weigh a

Ode Eno

Specie avy 33

Sula 800;

Property Fa alla ‘Gali

Atomic weight os los

Space gravity EN] Sor

Meking pot Low EE

Forma of oie o Go.

So in 000 ad | Dile mis m both | Disomer SE in Ba
aa id an aba [ai an ak
recto of Atomic Masses

Mendelee's perdi table helped ia conectng the some masses of some of the elements,
‘based on their positions in the period table, For example, atomic mass of beylium was
comte fom 13.5 109.0 Ate nasse of niu, gol and platinum wore abo corte.

Limitations of Mendelev's Classification
Peston af Hydrogen

‘The postion of hydrogen was not conil defined. It was placed in Group I athough its
Properties reseed both the Group Ieee (he al mea) and ie group VI elements
Ge open)

Grouping of Some Elements
a te cues Mendes plc send rg lr ri ot
increasing arde of tei ami mas, while some disimilar element were grouped tope

"Thus, the poson ofthese elements was nor jui Fo example, cobl (at. mass $89) was
RR NR cp

5. ‘Grouping of Some Elements
In some cases Mendel place elemess according tn ei mir in properties and tin
sncressng onder of thei atomic muses, whe some similar elements were groupe gehe
‘Thus, the pskion ofthese elements was ot jus. For example, cobalt (at mass $89) was
Place before nck! ft mas 58.6; copper and mercury ae ima in ther properties bat were
plac separately. Copper was place in group although di ot resemble the elements this
gm.

Anomalous Pair
In cera pales o lement Ike. Ar (40) and K (39); Co (589) and Ni (586); Te (127.6 a 1
(1269) the arrangement was ont justified. Fr example, argon was placed before potassium
whereas lone mas is ove dan potasa.

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms ofthe same elemen having diferent atom mass but se atomic puns.
For eg. there ae tee sotopes of hykogen with atome mass 1, 2, and 3 According o
Meadclee's perdi whe Use shoul be placed at lue sera places. However stop
have ot Bea gives separate places in the period be

Tanthanides and Actiides
Forme elements that follow amsn calls lanthanides and fourteen clement following
cium called actinides were not given proper places in Mendelee' perle able.

{Lang Form ofthe Period Table wr Modern Periodic able

Modern Period Law
‘The modem periodic hw tes that “he physical and chemical properties ofthe elements ae
polie function o hir atomic suber. Thus, when te elements were aznged inthe oder
Of rein atomic numbers, the elements of sinc properties rc regular neva

Cause of Periodicity of Elements
The modern period table is based on the clon configuration of the elements. The

properties ofa element ae determined large by the electrons in its outermost or valence sel,
Valence elctrns interact with aber stom and ake part i al chemical reactions, while inner
sell elects have lite inluesce on te properties of elements. When elements ae placed in
the onder of hir increasing soni number, the elements ing the same number of valence
shel tons i rps in such à way, o as o (al under he sme group Sine, he tn
‘configuration ofthe valence he elects ix me they show similar propre. Member ofthe
same group have similar letoni configuration of the valence shell and hos show same
valen,

Magic Numbers - When the elements are aranged inthe order of increasing atomic number,
1 cbuerved tha the elements wäh smarproeruss ecu ter inteal f eter 2 ae ar Nor
32 elements These um, 1832) ao called magi embers.

6. Magie Numbers ~ When the tents re range in he onder o increasing atomic number,
IS observed tha the cet wäh similar proper ecu ar itrvls cb: 2 oe ur 18 of
32 elements. These aumbers2.,1.32) ae ale magic muses,

“The Modern Perodic Table
Ins based on moder period law.

Structural Features ofthe Modern Perodie Table
‘Thistable consists of horizontal rows calle as Pins ad vertical columns call a ropa

Peris
"There are seven periods inthe periodic table and each period sans wäh a different principal
quantum number.

‘The fr period comesporlig to = 1 coms of only two elements hydrogen adam
"This is seus the Fst energy shell can accommadte only two elon

In the second period compen tw =2, wäh capacity of eight electrons and o consta
ei elements Ti per tans with labios 7 = 3) ers wih neo (7 = 10) where the second
sis compl

In the tic period corresponding 0 = 3, comains cs elements. stas with sium (Z =
AD and ends wi argon (2 = 18) we de Ud ae pay complete

“The fou pid corresponding to 4° = 4, consist of ig clemets inthis period starting
from patio (2 = 19) o krypton (= 36) wher the thi tel es completed

In the fh period tte ae 18 ments Ike the fourth pie. I Blas wit robin (2 = 37)
sand ends with xenon Z = 54).

“Ta sith pio contains 32 coments (2-85 10 86. stats wäh casa and eds With adn
‘The seven pind, though espece lo have 32 clement à incomplete and contains only 19
clement a presen.

‘The int the periods are cll short pers wile the cher thee prin ae called long
pero.

Groups
"Tho vests lan the pera table called group There a LR ge nthe log form
ofthe periodic table amd they are numbered rom 110 1 in he IUPAC system Inde ol stem
‘of naming they are amber a 110 VI seth A and groups, Ths convention followed

“The number elements present in each pri given in ih allowing table

Period | Valence sll | Type of period [No of dements | Atamie No atthe
elements
Shon pad] SET

FI

7. “The number elements present in ach pri sven inthe lloming table,

Period] Valence shell [Typen per] Ne of dements | Atumie No uf the
elemento
Shon peo | omic under 1
and?
Pr [pat Shor ped |S Aromi name 310
10
Fa fes Toppa [8 om manber TT
wot
Pend [524 Long period 8 Atomic momen 19
1036
Pod [a Tang prod [8 DETTE
os
pecas |n-6 Long period [32 ‘omic umber 55
186
Peco incompiere [25 ‘omic number $7
10109

‘The number of elements in these peris fase un the way electro are fill in rs
abel, The maximum numberof electrons tht can be sccommodated in bel depends onthe
Formula 28° heces tbe number ofthe given shel om the cess.

For example,

K Stell 2x

I period = 2 len

EShell-2x (27 8.2" period = 8 cames.

M Shell -23 GP
as any elements
"The postin of an element inthe Peck tbl lls us about chemical ci.

IS. but he outermost sel ean ve only electron, 0 the the period ako

Position of Elements inthe Modern Perodic Table
Types ul Elements

One asi a electronic conignation, the element af the periodica ae elf ino:
+ Noblegases

2 Normalement

+ Transition elements

+ Innern clement

> Ala etal

+ Tes

be Gases
Abe gases at also now as io gases and do ot take pat in chemical rectos. They have
{heir ostrmest sl complet and hus rein stabs, They do ot generally combine wi tt
po ARE SA hear aa dee

8. Noble Gases
Nabe gases are als known as net goes and do ot take pat in chemical reaction. They have
‘hei terms shell compete and ts rein stable They do nor generally combine wi te
substances, nor are they alta by oxising agents o by ceding agents They ae paced in
the IS or VIA group. Since, the outermost shells complete the vale zero, Den VIIA,
group abo refered ts zero grp

Normal Elements
Inthe case ofthese elements, al shells excep the outermos shell are completly ile. Elements
‘belonging to 1 dA). 2 (A), 3 CIA), $ UVA), $ (VA), 6 (VIA) and 7 (VIA) ee noc
elements, Elements ofthe second period are own as pies elements {Li Z = 310 Ne =
LO) because each ements placed In a group whose number matches wi the number of
valen electron. Te element the ID peril are represente elements [Na (7 = 11) Ar
(2. Mascha ihn ca represente of ts gro, Groups 1 (IA) ant 2 (1A) are only
real and ae calle group of ‘aka metals and alkaline ar metal we group 7 VILA)
ae halogens.

Alkali Metals
Flement of group 1 A ofthe perdi she comite Emily of very reactive metal called
kal tals They are him, sodium, potssum, bue, cam and ance. Al of them
have one electron in the valence shell. They are called alkali metal because her hydroxides are
Strong alas. These metals ae so, gt and easly fusible, In fc, sodium and poasium ae
Tier thas wast. At room tomperstu thy realy get onde ia ait and so ate preserved
der Krone in the laboratory

Hagens
“The elements pain group 7 (VITA) af the pes able are called haben o ak pacers
All hese elements form ss alle lies, eg. NaCL Nal, KCL KI ec. Halogen sa ancora
‘Greek word mening producer. Halogen have seven election in tec valence sell and so
sare momen.

nen
mr
i

{ste
sn &

romo is the only id on-metal Tne when Ret umdergox suma

“Transton Elements

9. “Tramston Elements
{All he elements belonging o 3 to 12 pops ae cae tin clement, They rome ch
‘other is several physical and chemical properties They ae sl metal They are cll! wansion
elements because hey are placed between the mos eave metas on the Fell and nos-meas on
the rg. Their compounds ae coloured, They exhibit variable vale

Innertransiion Elements
“The 6 period consis of elements that fave atomic numbers SK do 71, They are called
Lanthanide. The 7 period coms of elemen tht have stomic mumbers 9 o 105. The ae
al Actes. Both of them re calle inner transition elements Lahaie and actes ae
‘sot axouanodated ia the aia body ofthe periodic ale but ac placed i separe ows in fom
‘of wo sere at the bao ofthe modern pesodi ale. Tae 7" pero an iecompl period
as has ony 23 clement

Poston of an Element
Im a period. tb number of valence sel remains besame for ll elemen However, the number
‘of letons nt valence sel incas fom If o right

‘The postin fan clement in the porn tab determined by electron

configuro e. eketoni configuration of sodium 2,8, Lo hast sols and

‘oe lo in he cutres sel Hence, es placed m period rumor 3 nd group number 1
However, nte case af tration element this patter sos flowed

‘Merits of the Long Form ofthe Periodic Table

“+ Ths est based oa the most fundamental propeny af the

Elements - be atomic numbers move sure.

‘+ Wat tie amie mambo as db basis of classification, ib pasion of hope in on
place jsi.

+ The electronic configuration determines the properties of the elements The posta of
kmensgoveroed y ths feature is useful in studying the propi af clement

+The poston of the elements, which were msi om he hai of atomic mas i now justified
con te bass of tome number.

+ The aides and actinides have heen placed separately ue to ther propenis beng
fern rom other goog

+ The wh table is easy to combo and reads i ers of citons configuration and

properties othe elements

Demers ofthe Lang Form ofthe Period Table
[though the fog form ofthe period table has been able 0 hep in systematic studying the
‘lemon 1 re exon us some minor detects

+ Hydrogen resembles both the alla metal ad Hagens But à has been placed with the
alkalis and with he logs.

10. + Hydrogen resembles both the alla metal and Hagens. Bu has bee placed wih the
ai and with he logos

© lands and acidos have mo ben placed in he main body ofthe abe
Periodic Properties

1. Valeney
Valeney i the combining capacity of an elmen. For metals it the number of electors Jos:
during chemical combination "al or nommetals à the number of estrone ze during
‘chemical combination.

Wen mia combine wi hydrogen, they stow a valeney orrespondiag 1 group member, &
Bonmeal show avalene equal o (8 group nue,

Tran, ven ofa element with ep 10 hydrogen neces fom 9 4 rl then fall rom 4
Lo cross period

All element when combing wih oxygen can show a valency comesponding to group suber.
For example, plosparu forms phosphorus pesto (P03), wire the valency of P à 5 &
comespond 1 its group number (Y A). While combining with hydrogen. phospoms forms
phosphine (PHL) where it sows valency of 3 S- group number)

“Tha, vleney of element wth respeto oxygen tenes rom 11 along a pera

2. Atomic Volume

Wis defined as the volume osupi by ne moe tom ofthe leen a its mein pont, in
soi ae

Variation along th Group = increases on moine dounihe group.
Vario song the period ~ decrees along the period eches a minimum in the mide and
then star mersing, Akal metals ave maximum atom volume in a period,

Atom Size and Atomic Radios
Atomic Radius ~The distance hee
‘slate som

comes af

Covalent rd af an clement Pale nernuckar dstnce beten the two atoms ofthe
clement held by à singe covet oad

Métal radis of an clement taf he inercia: distance between the two nerest metal
‘sons ina tale cul.

Atomic ai incre down the group ad nenes aros the ern

4. Jonisatin Energy
‘The miaiqum cry seeded o remove the our election fom te neta atom in the
gaseous tate

increases acts a period in general and decreases down group.

Factors aTetinglonzaion Encres
LS ofthe tom

Magaitudo of Nuclear Charge

11. increases stos perio in general an decreas down he group,

Factors affecting nation Energy
1, Size ofthe tom

2. Magnitude of Nuclear Cargo

3. Serna Etico of he inne lc
4 Eten Configura

Electron Aly
leon af 3 the amount ol ener released when an con 5 added to a inated
gases atom.

lemeat [Eiern aay
orne | 3.626
CIE
‘Bromine [336
Jodie [3260V

Atom + elect ys Amon o + energy
ecu alii is the ability of an tor to hold am addtional econ. I the atom has more
tendency to acept an electron then the energy che will be large and consequent the
ler ag will be high. Electron afines can be postive or mepaie. It taken as
postie when an len is aided to an som. I is exprese a electron Vols pe atom (eV per
atom or kilo joules poe mak

leon afiy depends on:

+ ent of meer charge

+ Stzofthe om

+ lecni configuracion

As à esl of gin in elects, be atom gus one negativ care. In ihe cas o ubogens,
allie elements have a high elect ay, as they need ope election to complete the ete
‘of te temas shell.

Electron Affinity ofthe Halogens
From chlorine to odie, which ini by accepting one elecon hee à a decrease in the
rm af ar the energy rele, The lower els any of ori whom compared o
rine i no fll understood

Wie election aff show, the electron is weakly bound: ithe leon affinity igh tbe
luton s stoagly bonded clon any fine à 3:79 which s high un la of
indie Le, 32 Hens, coin accept he cectrons mor easily tha in.

“+ Elec any increases rm 10 ht aros the pen because of mer In clear
ange and decos in omic sic. This causes the Insamig election 10 expatica a
ret pl ofthe nucleus hs giving a higher coton aay

+ Flecton any decreases down the group because the number of sls creases Le. the
atome size increases andthe fective nuclea charge decreases. This cases the incom
id qu A cx tenia casa

12. + Electron fist increases om fl right across the period becuse ofincese inmuckur
large and decrease in atomic size. This cates the incoming electron to experience a
rer pl fhe nuca hs ping higher elec tiny.

+ Elton affinity deceuses dowa the group because te aber of sells cases Le. the
some size increases and te festive ale charge dotes. This cases the incoming
econ no to experience much action ofthe icles ths giving à lower eet
fi.

Th chien aft of completely il som hoa ero, An atom dns et accept un
électron nt tec hl i ley hs a table configuration Le. a dept or cit, as
inthe case of inet gases,

Electronegativits
Estrongaiiy i tbe eden o a tom to tact locos towards self ia a ace of
‘compound. The vale of elecromepaivay of an element describes he ability of atom to
compet fo ro with ‘bonded. Ekxcvonceatvity fs however ent
the prop y of en ole atom,

EEevomeguay scenes fom kit 0 ig in cach period ending at group 17.

ln the 3" period, ektsonegatviyincesses from sodium to corn Lc. chine can acept
eo mos ily in that period followed back by sulphur, phospons, silicon,
‘lumina, mupnesiom and wm. AU the tom of he shove mentioned element have thre
holt hut chlorine has the smile atomic ad. Monge chlorine experiences mare paire
tar fom the rück than al other toms in tht period. So, if one electron is avilable,
rine can att mos easily.

ter atom ta whl

‘Types Rlectronegatiity
‘When the molecule à formed by taser of eetrns (ionic boning) the taser takes place
From elearopostve atom to ekctrongaive stom In the example below, Na is electopositive
and Clis electronegative,

1 the molecule is formed by sharing of elctons (covalent hand) the Bonted pa of ekcrons
shits towards moe eletanegaive som sing i the formation of paar molecule. Inthe
example bel, chlorine atom i more escroncgaie compare to Hydrogen atom resol
in a coat bond whore th shared pair of coca sis towards te mare eketonsgaive
tom. This rests po molecules