perspectives on the family sociology.pdf

sociology unit 1

1. SOCIOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVES ON THE
FAMILY
CAPE SOCIOLOGY
UNIT 1- MODULE 2
1

2. LESSON OBJECTIVE
►Evaluate the main theoretical
perspectives commonly used for the
analysis of the family.

SECTION (b):
Theoretical perspectives: Functionalist/Consensus,
Interactionist, Marxist/Conflict and Feminist.
2

3. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
►A sociological perspective gives a
theoretical explanation of
society’s existence.
3

4. FOUR MAJOR PERSPECTIVES
FUNCTIONALIST CONFLICT
INTERACTIONISM FEMINISM
4

5. SUMMARY OF EACH THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
5

6. What are Social Institutions?
►A social institution in sociology is one of its most
fundamental concepts because it is through social
institutions that sociology seeks to organise society
for us to study. Social institutions are not tangible
entities, but ideas we all buy into to make sense of
society. For example, ‘the family’ does not refer
just to people who live in different families but to
the ideas, values and beliefs in the society that
influence the family. The same applies to religion
and education.
6

7. SOCIOLOGY OF THE FAMILY
►The social arrangements of society are dependent
heavily on the family structure. The sociology of the
family encompasses a wide range of issues, including
teenage pregnancy, juvenile delinquency, substance
abuse, the experiences of mothering, domestic
violence, child and elder abuse, and divorce.
►The family is a social group characterised by common
residence, economic co-operation, and reproduction.
It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom
maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and
one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually
cohabitating adults. (Murdock, 1949, p.1)
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8. The Importance of the Family
Human beings have always lived in family structures of some kind in which
they cooperate, and work together for the well being of all the members.
The family in most cultures has always been understood as an institution
which unites people and which is responsible for the care and upbringing of
children. The family plays a key role in all societies since it serves to
socialize the young members (primary socialization) into the norms and
values of the society.
In all societies, human beings organize themselves into units such as
families or households based on:
• a biological relationship,
• marriage or
• kinship.
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9. Variety of Marriages and Family Types
The family may vary in organization, and its specific form may be related to social and
cultural factors.
In most societies, families may involve some sort of marriage or union, whether
symbolic or sanctioned by the law. A marriage may be defined as a legally or socially
sanctioned relationship between two individuals, which usually involves economic
cooperation, as well as sexual activity.
Marriage has a variety of purposes, which is ever increasing as society evolves and
changes. The family structure has also become more diverse with new family types
emerging over time. Family types include those that involve polygamous or
monogamous unions.
Polygamous families are those in which the husband or wife has more than one spouse
simultaneously. There are two forms of polygamy:
• Polygyny – where a man has multiple partners or spouses
• Polyandry – where a woman has multiple partners or spouses

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10. Variety of Marriages and Family Types
A monogamous marriage is one in which two partners commit to each other, either
through religious and/or legal means. It is a union in which an individual has only one
spouse during his/her lifetime.
Monogamy, however, is not limited to marriage and also refers to being committed to
one partner during the course of a relationship. Monogamous marriages are often
regarded as the ‘norm’ in modern industrial society; however, polyamorous unions
where there are multiple partners at times living within the same household are
becoming a focus of contemporary research on family types in modern society.

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11. Family Types
11
Nuclear
Family
Extended
Family
Reconstituted
Family
Single-Parent
Households
Sibling
Families
Same-Sex
Marriages

12. WHAT DO SOCIOLOGISTS SAY ABOUT THE
FAMILY?
►Sociologists have presented different perspectives on the
family. Functionalists view the family as performing functions
which are necessary for the survival of society as a whole as
well as its members. Marxist/ Conflict theorists perceive the
family as a n oppressive mechanism for some members of
society, namely the proletariats (working class). Feminism
offers a view of the family in which women hold a
disadvantaged position. Interactionists focus on the
interaction among family members and unlike the
macro-theorists, give deeper insights into the inner workings
of families. There is another perspective to consider and this
is Social Pathology, which is a model that emerged in the
1930s in order to explain features of Caribbean families which
were seen as dysfunctional to the colonial powers.
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13. FUNCTIONALISM
►It is the earliest perspective in sociology, and it likened society to “an
organism in which all parts had to be ‘healthy’ for the whole entity to
function optimally. One of the most popular theorists for this
perspective is Emile Durkheim (he was dubbed as “the father of
functionalism”).
►According to the functionalist, the family is a social institution. They
view the family unit as a construct that fulfills important functions and
keeps society running smoothly.
► Like any other social institution in society, the family has distinct
relationships, rules, responsibilities, functions and set structure.
►Early structural functionalist Herbert Spencer used the analogy of “an
organism” to explain the operation of society. An organism consists of
different parts, each of which contributes to the equilibrium and
well-being of the organism.
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14. Consensus Theory
►The Consensus theory is very similar to the
Functionalist theory.
►They believe that the family like other social
institutions has prescribed functions which are
necessary for the society as a whole to operate
smoothly and with little or no conflict.

14

15. 15

16. Functions of the Family (acc. To Murdock)

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17. The functionalist study of the family
took two very different paths:
►Social Pathology – which views the ‘problems’ of society as being
able to be ‘fixed’ so that there can be a return to ‘normalcy’.
Those holding this view look to the ‘parts’ of social system that is
dysfunctional as functionalists believe that in order for the whole
system to work, all parts have to efficiently perform their
function. Most problems are therefore traced back to the family
because it is seen as the ‘basic building block’ of society. How
can this be fixed? Re-Socialisation of members into norms and
values accepted by society.
►Ethnographic Studies – this involved sociologists and
anthropologists engaging in a participant-observation research in
order to test the functionalists’ views within the Caribbean
society.
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18. SOCIAL PATHOLOGY REPORT
This thesis concluded that the man in the West Indian society was not viewed as the
head of the household. It also identified the woman as the supporter of the home
and claimed that promiscuity and illegitimacy were prevalent. As a result of this
report, a team from the Colonial office was sent to investigate the problem. The
following problems were identified:
1)Family life was seen as loose and unstable with relationships appearing to be
causal.
2)Conjugal ties were occasionally faithful but often were ‘promiscuous’ &
‘transitory’.
3)Father’s contact with children was irregular and poverty resulted in him being
unable to provide financial support.
4)Children were illegitimate, fatherless, unschooled and subject to severe parental
discipline.
5)Crisis in the Caribbean family brought a range of social problems which were
attributed to the weakness of the family. 18

19. SOCIAL PATHOLOGY RESULTS
Solutions:
1)Adopt the nuclear family which would result in legitimate
offspring.
2)Island wide campaign was undertaken to encourage marriage.

Criticisms:
1)This was seen as ethnocentric: the Caribbean family was seen as a
failure since it did not meet Western Christian standards.
2)Data collection, though superficial and biased, nevertheless
provided the basis for a assumed understanding of family forms in
the Caribbean, and thereby misrepresented what was perceived as
shortcomings.
19

20. Arguments against Functionalism
►Parsons believed that within the family, roles were different based on
gender. Men are regarded as the bread winners and the head of the house
while women were considered as home makers or expressive in nature.
Women were regarded as providing the complement to men. This
expressive nature allows women the ability to create an expressive bond
between mother and children. The rise to popularization of alternative
family was never considered. Based on this new family type,
differentiation between genders seemed illogical.
►Some argue that the functionalist views on the family seems prejudicial.
The functionalist whilst justifying sexual division of labour, ignore gender
inequalities inherent in Parson’s “complementary roles” structure. As a
result of this, several modernists have rejected the functionalist’s views
on the family

20

21. INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
►The Interactionists which was structured by Mead, Goffman and Becker,
focuses on the small-scale phenomena that constitutes everyday interactions in
an attempt to understand how individuals experience and understand their
social worlds. Also referred to as symbolic interactionism, they examine how
varied individuals see reality.
►Interactionism is a micro perspective while the Functionalists and Marxists are
considered as macro perspectives. The micro looks at the individuals versus the
general society whereas the functionalists and the Marxists look at the society
as a whole.
►Interactionists therefore view social behaviour of individuals within society and
changes as a result of social interaction of all the persons within the same
social space. They also share the opinion that humans do communicate with
one another by means of symbols and interactions. Every symbol and
interaction has individual meanings. They suggest that family members create
and re-create themselves on an everyday level. Family roles therefore are not
predefined. Roles are not based on tradition or on pre-existing and given
structures.

21

22. Major Interactionists
►Charles Cooley spoke of “the looking glass self” which
was his definition of the self concept. This determines
one’s behaviour.
►George Herbert Mead believed that our thoughts,
self-concept, and the wider community we live in are
created through communication—symbolic interaction.
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23. ►As stated on the previous slide, the interactionist theory
examines the family at a more micro level.
►They believe that to understand society, you must first
understand how people behave.
►They believe that there are TWO major determinants of
human behavior:
- self concept
- the interpretation of the situation
►Both of these help to determine the behaviour of
individuals.
23
Purpose of the Family

24. Human Behaviour Determinants
•Self Concept-
•
•Is defined as your view of
•other’s view of you.

•Interpretation of the Situation-

•States that behaviour can be determined by whatever is happening at a time.
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25. Arguments against Interactionism
►Interactionists have been criticized for being too
micro and they ignore the impact of the agents of
socialization.
►The functionalists suggests that social structures
determine actions, while the interactionist theory
examines the family structure and roles more.
►Symbols can be misinterpreted. The
interactionists state that family roles change with
meanings according to symbols and interactions.


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26. MARXIST PERSPECTIVE/ CONFLICT THEORY
26

27. 27

28. 28
The Marxists are of the view that the family may perpetuate inequality in
society. This may be done by:

29. Conflict Theory
►The Marxist perspective is a specific example of Conflict Theory.
►Conflict theory states that tensions and conflicts arise when resources, status, and
power are unevenly distributed between groups in society and that these conflicts
become the engine for social change.
►Conflict theorists study sources of inequality such as gender and ethnicity and how
they impact families.
►They view all resources as scarce (including power) and unequally shared by different
groups.
►Most theorists tend to agree that discrimination, disadvantage and inequalities are
mostly class based rather than only due to gender or ethnicity. In other words, while
people of certain ethnicities may experience discrimination, it is more likely that
poorer persons of that ethnic group suffer entrenched and persistent forms of
discrimination.
►Conflict theorists state that it is difficult to pinpoint any area of human life that is
without conflict and family life and marriage are often sites of conflict.
Why is this so? The next slide provides an explanation.
29

30. Conflict Theory
Why is this so?
►Human beings operate out of self-interest.
►However, the family do not operate in the same way as
other groups.
►The bonds in a family can be quite intense and whilst
other groups may break up under conditions of
conflict, a family break up results in untold suffering
on family members.
►This could explain domestic abuse within families and
why members take a long time to speak up or seek
help.
30

31. Arguments Against Marxists
31

32. FEMINISM
32
►The feminist theorist shares a divergent
micro perspective on the family.
Throughout several centuries the female
was considered subservient to the male.
Females were considered second in
command in the home, while the head of
the home rest in the path of the male.
With the advent of revolutionary thinking
and the industrialization of major cities
and towns throughout the world, came the
feminist perspective on the roles of
women in the home.
►Women today are now improving their
educational and employment
opportunities. With this change in female
assertiveness and the move towards
independence, women have assumed the
responsibilities of the home.
►Feminist theory sees the family as
contributing to the exploitation of women
in society.
There are THREE major types of
feminists:
- Liberal
- Marxist
- Radical

33. Liberal Feminists
►They focus on equalising opportunities for women in all areas of
society.
►This can be achieved by removing barriers so there is full participation
in education, business, industry, politics, the family and other areas.
►They even get men involved in their campaign to equalise the
experiences of each gender, stating that inequalities suffered by any
group reduce the quality of life for all.
►They impact the family by arguing that women should have the right
to choose on issues such as abortion.
►They also argue that laws should be put in place that allows the police
and legal system to intervene in the family in situations of domestic
abuse in order to protect women and children.
33

34. Marxist Feminists
►Women are being exploited by the unfair capitalist society.
►They believe that this unfair capitalist society sees the man
being exploited at work (working hard) and this results in him
becoming angry. This anger is relieved when he gets home and
the “housewife” helps to sooth and take care of him and his
needs. The man then goes back to work for the bourgeoisie
who pays a small salary and keeps majority of the business
profits for themselves.
►Margaret Benston (1969) in The Political Economy of Woman’s
Liberation argues that the capitalist system leads to the
exploitation of women in the home (unpaid labour), the family
acts in the interest of the men and employers and that the
family socializes its members into the dominant value system
of the ruling class.
34

35. Radical Feminists
►These feminists focus on male dominance. They view patriarchy as
the major problem in families and society, rather than capitalism.
►The radical feminists believe that women live in a patriarchal
society and this is very evident within the family.
►Ann Oakley (1974) in The Sociology of Housework stated that
women are exploited in contemporary society and that the family is
the foremost means of maintaining male dominance over women.
►In other words, women are being exploited by men for the benefit
of men. Domestic work and child care are examples of real work/
labour however, society has viewed these as insignificant or
invisible.
►They are extreme in the sense that they believe that men should be
removed from the society and only used for procreation ‘when
needed’.

35

36. In summary…
►The traditional roles to be observed
by females are out rightly rejected by
the feminists.
►They disagree with the patriarchal
structure of society.
►They are of the view that this
structure only serves to protect the
male’s privileges and downplay the
desires of the female to seek
education, employment, political
careers, personal and domestic
relationships.

36

37. Criticisms of the Feminists
►Critics have argued that there are different variations of households and often
women have considerable power within each type of household. They can even
utilize networks of kin, siblings and offspring/ children. This shows that power is
not limited to the home alone.
►The involvement of women in domestic affairs and child care means that they
actually make all the major decisions in the family. However, this power is
mediated by their income levels and family ethnicity.
►The major critique from the Caribbean states that the feminist theories does not
recognise race and ethnicity in discussions of genders and families. The theories
are largely based on the white, nuclear family experience.
►They have also been critiqued to be more focused on the role of women at the
expense of other family members.
►Their concept of the patriarchal structure is also too generalized.
►The implication that all women are exploited in the family is overstated.
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38. NEXT CLASS…
We will look at:
►the Feminist Perspective,
►and changes in kinship patterns.
38

39. CARIBBEAN KINSHIP
Next we will look at the
diversity of ethnicities
and kinship patterns
within the Caribbean
and eventually discuss
the changes in kinship
patterns within the
Caribbean family.
39

40. ETHNIC DIVERSITY
40
►Family forms within the Caribbean have been influenced by
the region’s unique history (slavery, indentureship and
colonisation).
►This unique history combined with the contemporary lifestyle
of the region, helped to shape the variety of family forms
presently in the Caribbean (Single Parent, Nuclear, Extended,
etc.).
►This means that many aspects of Caribbean culture have not
been indigenous but have been adapted from other societies
and cultures. The cultural traditions and heritage of the many
ethnic groups that came to the Caribbean (Europeans,
Africans, Chinese, Indians, etc.) have contributed to the
diversity of family forms in the region.

41. 41
(1957)

42. African-Caribbean Family
►The significance of mothers and grandmothers echoes the
matrifocal nature of families in many African countries
which are run on matriarchal lines. This pattern has
extended to the Caribbean as well.
42

43. 43
Grandmother dominated households Absentee fathers
Consensual unions of varying
durability (marital, visiting and
common-law unions)
Matrifocal in nature (female
headed households)
Features of the Afro-Caribbean Family

44. Afro-Caribbean Family Explained
Grandmother Dominated Households:
►Within the Afro-Caribbean population, women have been acknowledged
as the backbone of the family. This was especially true for the
grandmothers who ‘picked up the slack’ when parents could not care
for their children.
►They assisted with child care (also referred to as child shifting) if
parents were absent from the traditional family structure for reasons
such as migration for better opportunities or new relationships.
Unemployment and poverty are mostly responsible for absentee
parents. Some writers see this as having the advantage of a global
network.
►Grandmothers had many roles in their African and Caribbean
communities: they were midwives, purveyors of domestic medicine,
and as previously mentioned caretakers of children. Grandmothers
were also the source of oral histories and narratives that helped their
grandchildren resist the oppression of the larger society.
44

45. Absentee Fathers:

►According to Herskovits (1964) and Frazier (1939), the lower-class
Afro-Caribbean family was maternal and frequently extended with high
rates of illegitimacy. Herskovits (1964) argued that the Africans brought
with them cultural practices that they retained while enslaved on the
plantation system. One such practice was polygamy. What is polygamy?
►The affective bonding and structural closeness was between a mother and
her child/ children, with the father or husband being marginal to the
group. This pattern is very present in the Caribbean family forms. It is this
reason why men are seen as having marginal roles and the women are
considered as leaders/ supporters of the households.
►Oscar Lewis (1966) argued that poverty impacts the poor at an individual,
family and community level and becomes a cultural design for living. Males
tend to abandon their families when they are unable to fulfil their
expected male function of financial provider for the family. Thus leaving
the economic and nurturing responsibilities on the female.
45

46. Characterized consensual unions of varying durability:

►The Afro-Caribbean family is also known to have numerous
consensual unions such as marital, common-law and visiting unions.
►Edith Clarke (1957) in My Mother Who Fathered Me, stated that
family structure in Jamaica was dependent on economic and social
conditions as well as the stability of the relationship between the
couple.
►According to Clarke, it was not considered proper for a man to
propose marriage unless he owned a house and was able to support a
family. It was also considered derogatory for a wife to ‘go out to
work’. She went on to state that men enjoyed sexual prowess and it
was a status factor to have fathered children from different
conquests.
►Generally, cohabitation prior to marriage was not considered wrong
as this helped to provide evidence of partnership stability.
►Due to the varying types of unions, theorists have described the
Caribbean family as ‘dysfunctional’.
46

47. Matrifocal Households:

►Marriage is not considered necessary for
procreation; marriage in lower classes
usually occurs after the birth of children.
►Many women in the Afro-Caribbean
population choose to have and raise
children independently.
►Adaptations to economic and social
conditions have resulted in formations of
matrifocal households, visiting unions and
common-law unions.
47

48. Indian-Caribbean Family Patterns
►This pattern reflects the Indian
understanding of the family, which are
often patriarchal (where the father is seen
as the head, main provider and final
authority).
►According to Morton Klass (1961) this was
because of their kinship ties, which was
vitally important in the life of the East
Indian.
►Traditionally, women were responsible for
the household and taking care of the
children. More recently there have been
changes in the traditional male and female
roles with more women receiving
education and taking prestigious jobs.

48

49. Features of the Indo-Caribbean Family
•Stresses roles of the members

•Great emphasis on the extended family structure

•Inferior roles of women

•Strong adherence to traditional Indian values, customs and religions

49

50. Chinese-Caribbean Family Patterns
►In this family, they seek to preserve and practise
many of their traditions and their language.
50

51. 51
Features of the Chinese- Caribbean Family
Retain the cultures,
traditions and customs
of China
Provide education for
all their children but
favour sons over
daughters
Families are very stable
and isolated from others
Extended in nature

52. Changing Family Patterns
Family patterns in the Caribbean
have been changing as a result of
modernization and acculturation.
Sociologists have been assessing
these changes and how they affect
the family. Can you think of any
patterns that are passed down
through ethnic heritage and have
changed over the decades?
(For discussion next class)
Acculturation- the processes of change in artifacts,
customs, and beliefs that result from the contact of
two or more cultures. The term is also used to refer
to the results of such changes.
Modernization- the transformation from a traditional,
rural, agrarian society to a secular, urban, industrial
society.
52
•African-Caribbean family patterns

•Indian-Caribbean family patterns

•Chinese-Caribbean family patterns

53. Caribbean Family Patterns
►Nuclear Family- traditional theorists have always viewed the nuclear family as the ideal
family structure however, in the Caribbean there have been several modifications to the
nuclear family.
►Visiting Union – R.T. Smith has stated that these types of relations are found in
low-income African families. The woman might enter into such a relationship for financial
support for herself and her children, which would result in a large number of first-born
children being born into visiting relationships. This can eventually turn into common-law
unions.
►Common-Law/ Consensual Unions – this relationship is more common among the
Afro-Caribbean communities. This type of union was also evident among the early East
Indians who were married but territory laws did not recognise the marriage. In other
words, many were married according to their ancestral religious traditions but were not
considered legally married.
►Caribbean Matrifocal Family – these families are usually affected by poverty. R.T. Smith
(1973) described the Caribbean as having a kinship system
53

54. Caribbean Family Patterns
Caribbean Matrifocal Family – these families are usually affected by poverty. R.T. Smith (1973) described the
Caribbean as having a kinship system that is bilateral. In the system tghere is separation of the domestic
domain from the economic and political domain. this leads to a division of labour by gender, in which
women’s roles are in the domestic domain where they focus on child-rearing and household chores. In this
case, the women are the focal point of the family while the role of the male (if he is present) is marginal.
Power and authority are in the hands of the female. This type of family is found mainly among people of
African origin and there are several explanations for its existence:
1)A consequence of African Retentions – according to Herskovits et al. (1947) Africans brought with them
their cultural traits, one of which is polygamy. The father or male has several wives and so his role in each
home is marginal. Herskovits states that this persisted in the Caribbean.
2)A consequence of the Plantation System of Slavery – according to M. G. Smith (1965) matrifocality is
dominant in the Caribbean because of the legacy of slavery. Under slavery, stable family life was
impossible because males were sold in order to break unions. As a result, males tended to be marginal to
the relationship and this trend has persisted after emancipation. On the plantation, the men were often
kept in separate living and sleeping quarters from the women and children and this practice may have
influenced familial and kinship patterns for the descendants of enslaved populations.
3)A consequence of Economic Factors (poverty & socio-economic conditions) - according to Oscar Lewis
(1966) a large percent of households in the Caribbean are female headed. This is linked to the persistence
of poverty among lower-class Afro-Caribbean families. The males are unable to support their family
economically. As a result, they are unable to meet their responsibilities of fatherhood. Matrifocality is
therefore a characteristic of the subculture of poverty.

54

55. Changing Caribbean Family Patterns
►There are presently numerous changes taking place within the Caribbean family
structures.
►Single parenting is becoming popular in modern industrialized societies.
►The changing roles of women has resulted in weaker family stability and divorce
rates are increasing. Women are now seeking independence from troubled
marriages.
►Fathers are also not taking responsibility for children and this leaves the women to
support their children both emotionally and financially.
►These changes are not only occurring in the Caribbean but globally.
►In most societies, there is a division of labour within the family, with the mother and
father having distinct social roles. Some form of marriage, involving legal sanction or
social acceptance, is seen as the best framework for child-rearing (nuclear family
model).
►Many theorists have criticized alternative family forms such as the single-parent or
extended matrifocal family as being dysfunctional since it lacks male role models,
and is therefore one of the root causes of problems in society.

55

56. CLASS ACTIVITY

1)Discuss carefully how any aspect of the above listed family
patterns can be identified throughout the Caribbean. (4
marks)
2)Assess the view that the nuclear family is the most ideal
family for the modern day Caribbean family. (4 marks)
3)Critically consider the factors that have led to the
prevalence of the matrifocal families in the Caribbean. (4
marks)
4)Outline THREE explanations for the high incidence of single
parent households in the Caribbean. Which of these appears
to be the most plausible explanation? Give reasons for your
answers.

56

57. NEXT CLASS…
We will look at:
►Family and Gender,
►Problems associated with the family
(PRESENTATIONS).
57