pesticide formulations and calculation of the doses

different formulations of pesticides and calculation the insecticide dose

1. Pesticide Formulations, Application
equipments-Preparation of Spray
fluids and botanicals

2. Pesticide’s
•Pesticides –Chemical which kills or suppress
the pest population.
•Pesticides include various types.
•Pest-Pest is any organisms-causes harmful
effects to farmers.
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3. Pesticide
SI.
No.
Pesticides
1. Insecticide -Insects Eg.Thiamethoxam25% WG
2. Herbicide -Weeds Eg. Pendimethalin30%EC
3. Nematicide-Nematodes Eg. Carbofuran3% G
4. Fungicide -Fungus Eg. Carbendazim50% WP
5. Bactericide -Bacteria Eg.Streptomycin sulfate
6. Acaricide-Mites Eg. Propargite57%EC
7. Rodenticide-Rats Eg. Zinc phosphide80% W/v
8. Molluscicide-MolluscansEg. Metaldehyde2.5% pellets
9. Avicide–Birds Eg. Avitrol(4-aminopyridine)
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4. INSECTICIDE APPLICATION
EQUIPMENTS
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5. DUSTER
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
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6. DUSTERS
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
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7. ROTARY DUSTER
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8. KNAPSACK DUSTER
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
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9. POWER OPERATED DUSTER
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
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10. PLUNGER DUSTER
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
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11. BELLOW DUSTER
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12. SPRAYER
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

13. SPRAYER
•Mainfunctionofasprayeristoatomizethesprayfluidwhich
maybeasuspensionoremulsionintosmalldropletsandeject
itwithsomeforcefordistributingitproperly.
•Partsofsprayer:
–Tank
–Pump
–Pressuregauge
–Valves
–Filter
–Pressurechamber
–Hose
–Spraylance
–Cuttoffdevice
–Boomandnozzle
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

14. Sprayer parts
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

15. Sprayer parts
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

16. Nozzle
•Alltypesofsprayersgenerallyspeakingemit
pesticidesolutioninveryfinesprayform.
•Sprayingnozzlethusisadeviceforemittingspray
liquid,breakingitupintosmalldropletsand
throwingthedropletsawayfromthenozzleorifice.
•Differentdesignsofnozzleareusedtoproduce
appropriatedropletsizespectrum.
•Inordertobreaktheliquidintodropletsenergyis
needed.
01-06-2024
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
16

17. Nozzle
•Itbreakstheliquidintodropletsandspread
themintospraydroplets.
•Itconsistofbelowparts
–Body
–Cap
–Swirlplate
–Washer
–strainer
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

18. The spray nozzles therefore are classified as:
•Hydraulic energy nozzles.
•Gaseous energy nozzles.
•Centrifugal energy nozzles.
•Thermal energy nozzles.
01-06-2024
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PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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19. Hydraulic energy nozzles
•Almostallsprayersusedforhighvolumespraying
methodsarefittedwithhydraulicnozzles.
•Thehydraulicnozzlesaremostcommonlyusedspray
nozzlesforpesticidesapplication.
•Almostallthehydraulicsprayersusethistypeof
nozzle.
Thefollowingtypesofhydraulicnozzlesareusedfor
sprayingpesticides:
1. Hollow cone type
2. Fan type
3. Impact type
01-06-2024
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PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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20. 1. Hollow cone type
•Thisisaverypopulartypeofhydraulicnozzleforspraying
insecticidesandfungicide.
•Itproducesahollowconepatternofsprayconsistingof
mixtureofdifferentsizesdroplets.
•Initssimplestdesignthistypeofnozzleismadeofbrass
metalhavingorificeholedrilledinitandtangentialcut
groovesprovidesswirlmotiontosprayliquidwhichbreaks
downintodropletwhenemergingfromthenozzleunder
pressure.
•Thediscandtheswirlplate(core)aresuitablyfittedinthe
bodyofthenozzlewhichhasthreadsforscrewing(fitting)it
tothelance/boom.
•Thenormalworkingpressureofhollowconenozzleisabout
40psi.
01-06-2024
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
20

21. 01-06-2024 21
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

22. 2. Fan type
•Theyarealsocalledflatfannozzles.
•Thesprayliquidisthrownfromanorificewhichiselliptical
togiveaflatshapedsheetofspray.
•Theseareusedforbandspraying.
•Thesenozzlesaregenerallyusedonboomswithproper
distanceinbetweenandoverlappingtogiveeven
distribution.
•Thenormalworkingpressureisabout40psi(insecticides).
•However,thesefannozzlescanalsobeusedforHerbicide
applicationbuttheapplicationisdoneatlowpressurelike
15-20psitoavoiddriftoffinedroplets.
01-06-2024
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
22

23. 3. Impact type
•Thesenozzlesarealsoknownasdeflectornozzlesor
floodjetnozzles.
•Inthesenozzles,thesprayliquidemergingfroma
circularholestrikesaninclinedsmoothfaceandis
deflectedatanangle.
•Theliquidthusspreadsasasheetinawideangled
fanpattern.
•ThesenozzlesareusedforHerbicidesprayingand
arelowpressure(15-25psi).
•Thespraypatternessentiallyconsistsofcoarse
droplets.
01-06-2024
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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24. 4. Adjustable nozzle
•Thesearealsocalledastrippleactionnozzle.
•Theyaresocalledbecauseofvaryingpatternsofspraysthat
canbeobtainedbymanipulatingtheswirlvelocityofspray
liquidintheeddychamber.
•Thehollowconespraypatternconsistingoffinespray
particles,orajetsprayfororchard/treesprayinganda
mediumcoarsespraypatternscanbeobtainedbysimple
adjustments.
•Thesenozzlesaregenerallyusedwithfootoperatedsprayers,
rockingsprayersorhighpressurehydraulicsprayersfor
sprayingtrees.
01-06-2024
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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25. Gaseous energy nozzles
•Inthistypeofnozzlesprayliquidisinjectedintoastreamofhighvelocity
air.
•Theforceoftheairstrechestheliquidtoformligamentswhichultimately
breakintofinespraydroplets.
•Theairstreamfurthertransportsthedropletstothetarget.
•Theliquidflowintotheairstreamismetered.
•Motorizedknapsacksprayerormistblowerisfittedwiththistypeofair
blastnozzle.
•Thespraydropletsizedependsuponthenozzledesign.
•Thepositioningofliquidflowandairvelocityisveryimportant.By
increasingtheliquidflowratethedropletsizealsoincreases.
•Inlargermodelsofsprayer‘shydraulicnozzleatomisetheliquidfirstand
thenthedropletsarefurthershearedbytheairblast.
•VerticalnozzlesalsoworkongaseousenergyforULVspraying.
01-06-2024
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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26. Centrifugal energy nozzles
•Ifliquidisfedonfastrotatingdisc,thenitiscarriedby
centrifugalforcetotheoutermostedgesofthediscandspray
dropletsareissued.
•Rotatingcylinderingcageoffinemeshalsoproducefinespray
ifliquidisfedintoit.
•Therevolvingspeedofthediscorcageisveryimportantfor
sizeofdroplets.
•Thedischasserratedteethontheperipherywhichmake
dropletspectrumnarrow.
•Thephysicalpropertiesofthesprayliquidareimportantfor
dropletsizebesidesthespeedofrotation.
•ThesetypesofnozzlesaregenerallyusedforULVsprayingand
forL.Vsprayingmethods.
01-06-2024
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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27. Thermal energy nozzles
•Foggingmachinesworkwiththermalenergynozzles,also
calledhottubenozzles.
•Sprayliquidisinjectedintostreamofhotgases(exhaustof
engine)whereitvaporisesduetohightemperaturebutthen
itcondenseswhenissuedoutofthenozzleduetooutside
temperatureandformsfogoffinedroplets.
•Exhaustnozzlesprayers(vehiclemounted)areusedforULV
applicationinlocustcontroloperation.
•Pulsejetenginemodelsareusedforpesticidefoggingfor
publichealthpurposes.
01-06-2024
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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28. Other Types of Nozzles
•Solid cone nozzle
•Flood jet nozzle/Triple action nozzle(Post
emergence Herbicide)
01-06-2024 28
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

29. 01-06-2024 29
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
Impact

30. Other types of Nozzle
01-06-2024 30
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

31. Different target and optimum size
•Flying insects- 1-50 micron.
•Insects on foliage-30-50 micron.
•Foliage(Herbicide)/Soil(Herbicide)-250-500 micron
01-06-2024
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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32. Calibration of sprayer
•Thesprayercanbecalibratedtheoreticallyandpracticallyin
thefield.
•Itisgoodtofrequentlyverifythecorrectnessoftheoretical
calibrationwithfieldpracticalcalibration.
•Averysimpleandeasytorememberformulais
F = SDA
10,000
WhereF-flowrateinLitres/min
S-Swathwidthinmeter
D-Operator'swalkingspeedinmeter/min
A-ApplicationrateinL/ha
01-06-2024
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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33. Calibration of sprayer
•Theaboveformulaisusefulforcalibrationof
anytypeoffieldsprayingsystemie.high
volume,lowvolume,ultra-lowvolume,tractor
mountedsprayeroraerialspraying.
•Ifanythreevariablesinthisformulaare
known,thevalueoftheremainingfourth
variablecanbefoundout.
01-06-2024
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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34. 01-06-2024 34
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

35. Types of sprayer
•I. Manually operated hydraulic sprayer
–Hand syringe
–Hand sprayer
–Bucket pump
–Knapsack sprayer
–Rocker sprayer
–Foot sprayer
01-06-2024 35
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
Hand
syringe
Bucket
pump
Knapsack sprayer
Rocker arm sprayer
Foot sprayer

36. Back pack -Knap sack sprayer
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

37. Drone sprayer(Mostly ULV sprayer)
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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38. Bucket sprayer with pump
01-06-2024 38
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

39. Foot sprayer
01-06-2024 39
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

40. 01-06-2024 40
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

41. 01-06-2024 41
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

42. Rocker sprayer
01-06-2024 42
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

43. •II. Maually operated compression sprayer
–Pneumatic hand sprayer
–Pneumatic knapsack sprayer
Types of sprayer
01-06-2024 43
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
Pneumatic hand
sprayer
Pneumatic knapsack sprayer

44. II.Pneumatic knap sack sprayer
01-06-2024 44
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

45. 01-06-2024 45
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

46. Types of sprayer
•III.Power sprayer
–Mist blower cum duster
–Motorised Knapsack sprayer
–Nozzles
–Jet nozzles
–Adjustable micronizer nozzle
01-06-2024 46
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

47. Power sprayer
01-06-2024 47
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

48. Types of sprayer
•IV.Ultra low volume sprayer
–ULV
–Hand carried
–Battery operated spinning
disc sprayer
01-06-2024 48
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

49. Types of sprayer
V.Electrodynesprayer(EDS)
•Electrodynesprayeruseselectricitytoatomizecertainoil-
basedpesticideformulationintoaspraycloud,electrically
chargingtheresultingdropletwithanonmovingpartnozzle.
•Theatomizingnozzleconsistsofapairofelectrodes(highand
lowvoltage)andanarrowgapoutletforthepesticideliquid
flow.
•Dropletsranginginsizefrom25to200μmformwhen
accumulationofasurfaceelectricchargeontheliquid
producesalossoffluidsurfacetension.
•Dropletsemittedfromthenozzletraveltowardthetarget
alongcurvedelectricfieldfluxlinesatanaveragespeedof10
m/sandimpingeupontheequipotentialleafsurfacesat90°
angles.
•Applicationsaslowas500ml/hagiveadequatebiological
controlinsomecanopies.
01-06-2024 49
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PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

50. Electrodyne sprayer (EDS)
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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51. Other appliances
•Soil injecting gun
•Bird scarer
•Flame thrower
•Granular applicator
01-06-2024 51
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

52. Soil Injecting gun
01-06-2024 52
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

53. Soil injecting gun
01-06-2024 53
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

54. Bird Scarer or Acetylene gun
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

55. Flame thrower
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

56. Granular applicator
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

57. SPRAY FLUID PREPARATION
01-06-2024 57
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

58. Insecticide dosage
•Insecticidesmayneedtobeselectivelyapplied
forcontrollinginsectpests.
•Accuratelycomputingtheamountofinsecticide
requiredforagivenareaanduniformapplication
rateisessentialforeffectivecontrolofinsect
pests.
•Commercialproductsavailableinthemarketare
commonlyintheformofawettablepowder(WP),
Granules(G)andEmulsifiableconcentrate(EC)
01-06-2024 58
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

59. Insecticide dosages
•Insecticiderecommendationareoftenexpressedas
kilogramofactiveingredientperhectare(Kga.i/ha)or
•Percentageconcentrationofactiveingredient(%a.i)of
theinsecticideinthefinaldilutedsolution.
•Therefore,theinsecticideshouldbeusedinthecorrect
dosagebydilutingtheexactamountofthe
concentratedformofinsecticidewithapredetermined
volumeofwaterorotherdiluentsorbyspreadingthe
exactamountofgranulesrequiredoveraspecificarea.
•Toachievethis,itisnecessarytocalculatetheexact
amountofinsecticidematerialneededforthearea
beingcovered.
01-06-2024 59
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

60. Insecticide dosages
•Eachcommercialinsecticidepossessesan
activeingredient(a.i)theprinciplechemical
compoundthatactsontheinsect.
•Becausethisactiveingredientishighlytoxicit
ismarketedinadilutedform.
01-06-2024 60
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

61. CALCULATION FOR GRANULAR(G)
OR DUST(D) BASED INSECTICIDES
01-06-2024 61
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

62. Calculation for formulation-
Granules or Dust
Formula:
Recommended rate X spray area(m
2
)
•Kg of D/G =------------------------------------------------
required a. i. (%) in G/D of commerical insecticide x 100
01-06-2024 62
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

63. 1. Calculation
•CartapHydrochloride4%Ggranules(4%a.i)is
appliedattherateof2Kga.i.perhectareinrice
fieldtocontrolStemborer.Findouttheamount
ofCartapHydrochloride4%Grequiredfor1acre.
Specificationrequiredasperformula:
•Areatobetreated(1ac=4000m
2
)
•RecommendedrateintheunitKga.i.perha.
(2Kga.i.perha)
•ConcentrationofcommercialGorD.
(4%)
01-06-2024 63
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

64. Specification required should be
applied on to the formula
Formula:
2[Kg a.i /ha] X 4000[m
2
]
Kg of G = ------------------------------------------------
required 4[a. i. (%) in G/D] x 100
=20 kgof Cartap Hydrochloride is required for one acre of land (Ans)
01-06-2024 64
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

65. 1. Home work
•Carbosulfan6%Ggranules(6%a.i)isapplied
attherateof2.5Kga.i.perhectareontorice
fieldtocontrolRicegallmidge.Findoutthe
quantityofCarbosulfan6%Grequiredforone
hectare?
01-06-2024 65
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

66. CALCULATION FOR
EMULCIFIABLECONCENTRATE OR
WETTABLEPOWDEROR
SOLUBLE CONCENTRATE
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

67. Volume of Spray fluid
•Thesprayfluidamountrequiredtocoveruniformly
anareaoragivenamountoffoliage.Thevolumeis
affectedbythesprayer,dropletsizeandvolume
suchas,
(i)Highvolumespray(HV)require300-500lit/haor
more
(ii)Lowvolumespray(LV)required50-150lit/ha.
(iv)Ultralowvolumespray(ULV)require1-10lit/haor
less
01-06-2024
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
67

68. Calculation for formulation-
EC or WP or SC etc
Formula:
a.i (%) desired X Spray volume(lit)
•Kg or Lit/ =------------------------------------------------
required a. i. (%) in commercial EC or WP or SC
01-06-2024 68
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

69. 2. Calculation
•Tocontrolleafhopperincottonfield,0.09%
Profenofos50%ECistobeprepared.Findout
thequantityofProfenofos50%EC(inlit)required
for1ha.
Specificationrequiredasperformula:
•Sprayvolume(1ha=400lit)
•Desiredstrength(0.09%)
•ConcentrationofcommercialECorWP(50%)
01-06-2024 69
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

70. Specification required should be
applied on to the formula
Formula:
0.09[%] X 400[in lit]
Litres of EC =------------------------------------------------
required 50 [a. i. (%) in EC/WP/SC]
= 0.72 lit or 720 ml in 400 lit of water (Ans) or
=1.8 mlof Profenofos in one lit of water(Ans)
01-06-2024 70
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

71. 2. Home work
•TocontrolAphidsincottonfield,0.005%of
Clothianidin50%WDGistobeprepared.Find
outthequantityofClothianidin50%WDG(in
lit)requiredfor1Acre?
01-06-2024 71
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

72. CALCULATION TO FIND OUT
STRENGTH OF SPRAY FLUID(EC/WP)
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PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

73. Calculation for strength of spray fluid
of formulation-
EC or WP or SC
Formula:
Vol. of Commercial Pesticide(lit) X a.i of Commercial Pesticide (%)
•Strength of =------------------------------------------------
spray fluid Spray volume (lit)
(in %)
01-06-2024 73
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

74. Strength of spray fluid for formulation-
EC or WP or SC
•Afarmerapplied3.8litofcommercial
Propargite19.5%ECinaredgramfieldagainst
miteinfestation.Totalvolumeofsprayfluidis
1900lit.Findoutthestrengthofthespray
fluid?
•Specificationrequired:
•Litersofcommercialpesticideapplied(3.8lit).
•a.iofcommercialpesticide(19.5%EC)
•Sprayvolume(1900lit)
01-06-2024 74
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

75. Calculation for strength of spray fluid
of formulations-
EC or WP or SC etc
Formula:
3.8(lit) x 19.5(%)
•Strength of =------------------------------------------------
spray fluid 1900(lit)
(in %)
= 0.039 % or 0.04% (Ans)
01-06-2024 75
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

76. 3. Home work
•Afarmerapplied5litofcommercial
Thiodicarb75%WPinacottonfieldagainst
bollworminfestation.Totalvolumeofspray
fluidis1800lit.Findoutthestrengthofthe
sprayfluid?
01-06-2024 76
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

77. BOTANICALS
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Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

78. Neemoil and NSKE spray fluid
calculation
0.3 % to 3% of NeemOil can be applied:
•3ml neemoil in 100 ml water= 3%
•30 ml neemoil in 1000ml(1 lit) water=3%
•12,000 ml(12 lit) neemoil in 400 lit water=3%
5% of Need seed kernalextract can be applied:
•5 gm of NSK powder in 100 ml water= 5%
•50 gm NSK Powder in 1000 ml(1 lit) water= 5%
•20,000 gm (20 Kg) NSK powder in 400 lit water=5%
01-06-2024 78
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
Neem oil
Neem Seed Kernal Extract

79. 4. Home work
•(i)CalculatethequantityofNeemoilrequired
toprepare2%of150litofsprayfluid?
•(ii)CalculatethequantityofNeemSeed
Kernelpowderrequiredtoprepare5%of400
litofsprayfluid?
01-06-2024
K.Devarassou, Assistant
Professor,PAJANCOA,Karaikal,
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
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