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Introduction of Polygraphy

1. FORENSIC 105 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUE

2. CHAPTER 1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGRAPH

3. UNIT 1 NEED-TO-KNOW CONCEPTS

4. What is Polygraphy? I t i s th e scientific metho d of detecting deception using a polygraph instrument. This is incorrectly referred to as Lie Detection.

5. What is Polygraph? D an instrument for the recording of changes in blood pressure; pulse rate, respiration and skin resistance as indication of emotional disturbances especially of lying when questioned.

6. What is Polygraph? The term “polygraph” is composed of two words “poly” means many and “graph” means writing and simply means as “many writings” .

7. What is Polygraph? It is a recorder of a psycho physiological changes occurring within the examinee’s body as the polygraph examiner asks series of questions.

8. Is polygraph a Lie Detector? Li e detector i s th e popular but misleading name of the Polygraph.

9. What i s th e other nam e of the polygraph? “TRUTH VERIFIER”

10. What are the concepts of Polygraph Examination? Polygraph examination is used to test an individual for the purpose for detecting deception or verifying the truthfulness of his statements.

11. What are the concepts of Polygraph Examination ? I t i s based on th e theory tha t “a conscious mental effort on the part of a normal person t o deceive, causes involuntary physiological changes that i s i n effec t a body’s reactio n t o an imminent danger to its well-being”.

12. What are th e objectives of a Polygraph Examination? Obtain additional investigative leads to the facts of the case/offenses. Ascertain if a person is telling the truth

13. What are th e objectives of a Polygraph Examination? Locate the fruits or tools of the crim e an d wher e about s of wanted persons. Identif y other persons involved (accomplices of crime)

14. What are th e objectives of a Polygraph Examination? Obtai n th e valuable information from reluctant witnesses. Eliminate the innocent suspects

15. Definitio n of Terms

16. DEFINITION OF TERMS FEAR – is emotional response to specific danger that appears to beyond a persons defensive power.

17. DEFINITION OF TERMS D REACTION – it is an action in mental attitude evokes by external influence. D RESPONSE – is any activity or inhibition of the previous activity of an organism resulting from stimulation.

18. DEFINITION OF TERMS DECEPTION – is an act of deceiving or misleading usually accompanied by lying. LYING – the uttering or conveying of falsehood or creating a false or misleading information with the intention of affecting wrongfully the acts and opinion of other.

19. DEFINITION OF TERMS D SPECIFIC RESPONSE – is any deviation from the normal tracing of the subject. D NORMAL TRACING – is a tracing on the chart wherein the subject answered in the irrelevant question.

20. DEFINITION OF TERMS D DETECTION – It is an act of discovery of existence, presence of fact or something hidden or obscure. D POLYGRAPH EXAMINER – is one who conducts and administer the test.

21. DEFINITION OF TERMS D SUBJECT - refer s t o an y person undergoing polygraph examination. He/ She may be the suspect, complainant, victim, witness, relative of the victim/suspect or job aspiring applicant ( in cases of employment on government or private institutio n undergoing screening through loyalty test or integrity checking

22. DEFINITION OF TERMS Admission- is the voluntary acknowledgement or by implication by a party in interest or by another by whose statement he is legally bound, against his interest, of existence or truth of a fact in dispute material to the issue. Confession- is the express declaration of guilt by the accused on the accusation against him.

23. DEFINITION OF TERMS Emotion- any feeling, especially strong or intense feelings, as of love, joy, fear, etc. often accompanied by complex physiological changes. In polygraphy, it is the feeling of fear of detection which is a factor in the result of the examination.

24. DEFINITION OF TERMS Interrogation - i s th e vigorous questioning of a person suspected of having committed an offense or of a crime, who is reluctant to make full disclosure of information in his possession which is pertinent to the investigation

25. UNIT 2 EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

26. Ordeal, Trial or Judicium Dei is a common method of deciding guilt or innocence and a practice of referring disputed questions to the judgment of God, determined by various means, particularly by physical tests. It is a semi-magical method of determining guilt of innocence which goes right back to pre-historic times through many cultures. Here are the examples of Ordeals:

27. RED HOT IRON ORDEAL Practiced in the hill tribe of north Bengal. The accused had to carry a bar of red hot iron in his hands while he walked nine marked paces.. Another is the suspect will run barefooted and blind folded over a nine red-hot iron, after that the hand or foot will be cover up and inspected in three days afterward. If the accused had escape unhurt, the person was pronounce innocent, if hurt, the person was guilty.

28. ORDEAL BY BALANCE Practiced in Vishnu, India. A scale of balance is used, in one end of the scale the accused is placed and in the other end is a counter balance. The person will step out of the scale and listen to a judge to deliver an exhortation on the balance and get back in. If he was found lighter than before, then he should be acquitted, if not,, if the weight remains the same or he became heavier, then he is guilty.

29. ORDEAL BY WATER In this type of ordeal, the water was symbolic of the flood of the Old Testament, washing sin from the face of the Earth, allowing only the righteous minority to survive. There are two kinds of ordeal by water the boiling water and the cold water.

30. BOILING WATER ORDEAL This ordeal is consisted of lifting a stone out of a boiling water, with the hand inserted as deep as the wrist. More serious offenses demanded that arm was submerged up to the elbow. The burn was bandaged for three days before examination. If the accused had escape unhurt, the person was pronounce innocent, if hurt, the person was guilty.

31. COLD WATER ORDEAL In this ordeal, the accused was tied at feet and hands and was lowered to cold water by rope. This rope is tied around the accused waist and had a knot in the rope. If both knot and accused dipped beneath the surface of the water, the accused was proven innocent. If the knot is dry or if the water refused to receive him, hi is guilty.

32. ORDEAL BY RICE CHEWING It is perform with a kind of rice called sathee, prepared with various spells. The person on trial eats the sathee, with the face to the east and the spits upon a pea leaf. If saliva is mixed with blood, he is declared to be a liar. Indians practice this ordeal.

33. Ordeal by Combat The aggrieved party claimed to fight the alleged offender or to pay a champion to fight for him. The victor is said to win not by his own strength but because of supernatural powers that had intervened on the side of the right, in which the judgment of God was thought to determine the winner. If still alive after the combat, the loser might be hanged or burned for a criminal offense.

34. ORDEAL BY CORSNAED (BLESSED BREAD) A priest puts a corsnaed or hallowed bread into the mouth of the accused, with various spoken curse. If the accused swallowed it he was freed from punishment

35. TEST OF THE EUCHARIST This was applied chiefly among the clergy and monks. When they the host it was believed that God would smite the guilty with sickness or death. Others believed that if the accused is innocent, when given a poisonous drink for him to take in, Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven to prevent the accused from taking in the poisonous drink.

36. ORDEAL OF THE BIER It was an ancient belief that the slain dead could point out their killer. In England, it is customarily for the accused to approach the bier where the corpse lay. In the view of the witness, the wounds of the victim were observed to see if they began to bleed again. They believed that murderer is near, which causes the flood to flow out from the wounds of the victim.

37. ORDEAL OF THE NEEDLE A red hot iron needle was made to pierced the lower lip of the alleged criminal and if blood flowed from the wound, he was deemed guilty, but if none, he is innocent. Wanaka, Eastern Africa practiced this ordeal.

38. ORDEAL BY HEAT AND FIRE The accused walked barefooted over a red hot coals, or was deemed to walk through fire, if he was unharmed by fire he was considered innocent.

39. TRIAL OF THE CROSS The accuser and the accused were placed under the cross with their arms extended or crosswise and the first to move his hands or suffer them to fall was held guilty or liar.

40. TRIAL OF THE WAXEN SHIRT The accused was dressed in cloth covered with wax and walked barefooted over burning coals. If he was unhurt by the fire and the wax did not melt, he was considered innocent.

41. DONKEY’S TAIL ORDEAL As a psychological theory, a donkey is placed in a room alone and observed. Then one by one, the accused and the accuser will enter the room. If the donkey cried a judgment of guilt in crimes, is pressured. It is believed the deep inside one’s conscience, he is guilty.

42. ORDEAL OF THE TIGER The accused and the accuser are placed inside a cage of a tiger, if the tiger spare one of them hi is considered innocent.

43. BURMA The ordeal being practice by this country is the two contesting party, the accused and the accuser are furnished with candles with equal size and lighted simultaneously, the owner of the candle that outlast the other is the winner.

44. BORNEO The accuser and the accused were presented a shellfish placed on the plate. An irritating fluid was then poured on the shellfish and the litigant whose shellfish moved first was adjudged the winner.

45. GREECE A suspended axe was spun in the center of group of suspects. Soon the axe stopped, whoever was in the line with the axe blade was supposed to be guilty out by divine providence.

46. UNIT 3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF POLYGRAPH

47. In the middle of 19 th century, Dr. Hans Gross defined “search for truths” as a basis and goal of all criminal investigations. He stated, “a large part of criminal work is nothing more than a battle against lies.

48. ANGELO MOSSO (1895) He studied fear and its influence on the heart. He developed the sphygmomanometer, this instrument was designed to measure the flow of blood while a person lay on his back in a prone position.

49. CESARE LOMBROSO (1936-1909) He employed the first scientific instrument to detect deception, which is known as hydrosphymograph, this instrument measures changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were asked about their involvement in or knowledge of specific response. He was accorded the distinction of being the first person to utilize an instrument for the purpose of detecting lies.

50. WILLIAN MOULTON MARSTON (1915) He was considered as the father of modern polygraphy. He experimented the blood pressure, respiration and skin resistance as the basis for the responses of a person and can be use in detecting lies.

51. JOHN LARSON (1921) He devised the very first practical polygraph in 1921. His instrument gave a continuous recording of blood pressure and respiration. He devised the first two recording channel polygraph in the history.

52. LEONARDE KEELER He invented the “Keeler Polygraph” which is an improvement of Larson’s apparatus. This apparatus was with components for recording, blood pressure, pulse and respiratory changes. A galvanometer what is known as the galvanic skin reflex generally referred to as GSR.

53. VITTORIO BENUSSI (1914) He detected deception with a pneumograph, an instrument that graphically measures the inhalation and exhalation. He presented a paper before the second meeting of the Italian Society for Psychology in Rome, on the subject of his experiments regarding respiratory symptoms of lying.

54. HAROLD BURTT (1918) He determine that respiratory changes were indication of deception. He found out that changes in blood pressure were of greater value in determining deception than in changes in respiratory.

55. LUIGI GALVANI He is an Italian physiologist who was accorded the distinction for developing galvanic skin reflex (GSR) of the galvanometer, which records electrical bodily resistance, it reflected emotional changes by measuring changes in person skin resistance to electricity.

56. STICKER (1897) He made the first suggestion for using galvanograph for detecting deception based on the works of several predecessors.

57. SIR JAMES MCKENZIE (1960) He invented the ink in the polygraph. A famous heart specialist. It was said that polygraph exist as early as 1906 but it is not being used to detect deception.

58. RICHARD O. ARCHER (1953) The first polygraphist to record simultaneously on a regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns. He was also the first on to record simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes.

59. RICHARD I. GOLDEN (1969) He presented a paper at the annual seminar of American polygraph association at Houston, Texas regarding his experiments using existing control question techniques but requiring the subject to answer each question twice. The first time truthfully and the second time with a lie, for the purpose of requiring additional data from the examinee by comparing his subjective truthful answer with a known lie to the same question.

60. ANTON MESMER In 1778, he was the first one to introduce hypnotism as a method of detecting deception.

61. ALLEN BELL (1972) He is an American inventor who developed a device called Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE). This instrument detects slight trembling in the voice, which may be interpreted to determine if the person is telling the truth.

62. CHAPTER 2 LIES AND EQUIPMENTS

63. UNIT 1 TYPES OF LIAR & LIES

64. What is Lie? It refers to either untruthful or falsehood statements; any acts that deceives or creates false impression. It is also synonymous to deceit, deception, or fabrication.

65. What is meant by “Detection? This simply refers to the act of detecting, discovering, perceiving, finding, or uncovering something hidden or obscure

66. Why do people Lie?

67. What are Common Types of Liars? Lying can be devastating, it does not only hurt the one who is being lied to, but it also hurts the one who tells it. Lying is a common denominator in many of our lives an d recognizin g som e of th e different types might help us in dealing with the liar in our lives.

68. Panic Liar A person who lies in order to avoid the consequences of confession. He or she afraid of embarrassment to loved ones and is a serious blow to his or her ego.

69. Occupational Liar Is someone who lied for years. This person is a practical liar and lies when it has a higher payoff than telling the truth.

70. Tournament Liar A person who loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not being detected. He views an interview as another contest to won. He lies because it is the only weapon remaining with which to fight.

71. Ethnological Liar A person who was trained not to be a squealer. This person loves to be interrogated and has taken a creed either personal or with others, that he or she will never reveal the truth.

72. Psychopathic Liar This type of liar has no conscience. He shows no regret for his dishonest actions and no manifestations of guilt.

73. Pathological Liar A person who cannot distinguish the right from wrong. This are those person who is mentally sick.

74. Black Liar A person who always pretend and a hypocrite.

75. Type s of Lies

76. Li e of Omission This is a type of lie that people usually used because it is simple to tell. Individuals who will make use of this type of lie will tell the truth while omitting details that could create possible troubles.

77. Li e of Fabrication This is the most difficult type of lie that a subject could use in an interview.

78. Li e of Minimization In this type of lie individual will accept that something occurred but downplays the indication. Lie of minimization could be used if a subject wanted to stay close to the truth, however, he covers the truth for his or her own benefit.

79. Lie of Exaggeration This is a lie often used to exaggerate things for the hope of obtaining some advantage. This is also often found on resume, where applicant exaggerates his or her experiences, knowledge, skills, salary, and length of service.

80. White Lie Used to maintain harmony of friendship \, harmony of home or office.

81. UNIT 2 SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF LYING

82. Signs of Lying (Verba l Clues)

83. Method s of Respondin g t o th e Question The way the respondent answer the question is clue of deception. In general truthful people tend to be direct, untruthful people tend to be cautious about their answers.

84. Lengt h of Tim e befor e giving response In general, truthful persons answer questions immediately after the question is asked, untruthful persons take their time in giving responses.

85. Repitition of Questions The act of repeating the question is another means for the deceiver to gain time to frame his or her answer. The question may be repeated word for word, or the respondent may frame the answer with a request to repeat the question?

86. Fragmented or Incomplete Sentences Untruthful person often speak in disjointed or curtailed sentences. This is usually because he has started to answer, then though better of it.

87. Being Overly Polite Untruthful subjects are more likely to be polite to the accuser, using pleasing term such as, sir or ma’am, boss or chief.

88. Oaths Lying persons will frequently utter oaths, such as, I swear to God I didn’t do it or I swear on my Father’s grave. Most truthful people do not need to swear or affirm, they are confident with their denials.

89. Clarit y of Response Honest people tend to be very clear in their answers, while untruthful persons tend to speak softly and broaden their answers.

90. Assertiveness Truthful person are confident about their innocence, while deceitful ones are not confident unless they are practice liars. Truthful people will respond directly without waiver or qualifications; while deceptive people tend to respond indirectly with waivers and qualifications.

91. Inconsistencies Contradicting testimonies made by a person is one of the best indicator of dishonesty.

92. Pauses Gap in speech patterns may be one reliable clue to deception. The examiner should assess in speech pauses if it is too long, too frequent, or which occur at inappropriate places.

93. Spee d of Speech Persons who are tense or upset frequently increases the swiftness of their speech, who tend to run together and the conversation could be fragmented.

94. Signs of Lying (Non-Verba l Clues)

95. Emblems They are often performed deliberately, these are expressions made with the body, whose meaning are clearly understood. Here are the example of emblems: Shaking or nodding of the head, shrugging of shoulders, the thumb up sign, etc.

96. Manipulators These are usual behavior of touching one’s self. It encompass grooming of the hair, wringing the hands, picking imaginary fu from coat. Manipulators may go on for several minutes or may last for a short time. Props, like cigarettes, cellphone , pencil can be use as manipulators. It is usually done by untruthful subject for them not to focus on the question and answer to avoid detection, instead they are converting their attention to other objects.

97. Breathing Although breathing is an involuntary movement, breathing is very much affected by stress especially when lying.

98. Sweating This is another uncontrollable body function. Perspiration occurs with heat as well as with emotion. Too much sweating could be an indicator of deception.

99. Frequent Swallowing A dry mouth frequently accompanies deep emotion. Increased swallowing that will lead to dry mouth might indicat e deceptio n .

100. Facial Muscles Facial muscles is not easy to control. Example: to force a smile is easy, but even beginners will notice that it is not a genuine smile. This can be used in detecting deception

101. Eyes The eyes most likely to express emotion. The failure to have an eye to eye contact is a great indicator of deception. This action indicates that a person is hiding something.

102. UNIT 3 The Equipment (Parts and Functions of Polygraph Machine and Its Equipment

103. What does polygraph record? A standard polygraph records changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, galvanic skin reflex (sweat gland activity) and upper and lower breathing patterns. The polygraph records significant changes from the subject’s norm when specific questions are asked.

104. What is Polygraph Instrument? It is an instrument for the recording of changes in blood pressure; pulse rate, respiration and skin resistance as indication of emotional disturbances especially of lying when questioned.

105. Major Parts of Polygraph Machine Pneumograph Galvanogrpah Cardiosphymograph Kymograph

106. Pneumograph This instrument records changes in breathing of the subject, it consist of a transducer called pneumograph tubes which are fastened arounds the subjects abdominal and chest part of the body. 2 units of Pneumograph Component Pneumograph Chest Assembly or the Pneumo 1 – This unit is simply attached to the subjects chest and function of this assembly is to record the changes of the subject’s heartbeat. Pneumograph Abdominal Assembly or Pneumo 2 – The second unit simply attached to the abdomen of the subject and function of this assembly is to record the changes of breathing pattern.

107. Galvanograph This instrument records the skin resistance of the subject to a very small amount of electricity. The GSR or Galvanic Skin Reflex comprise of transducer called finger or palm electrodes that is attached on the subject’s finger primarily the index and ring finger or the palm to check and detect skin resistance towards a small amount of electricity. Galvanograph component also has the longest pen it has 7 inches recording pen.

108. Cardiosphy g mograph This instrument records the changes in blood pressure and pulse rate. It has a transducer called Arm Cuff, it is placed around the subject’s arm. It also has a blood pump Assembly , this unit is attached directly to the arm cuff and it has the sphygmomanometer, this unit is the basis of determining gauge of the air supplied to the arm cuff while the pump bulb Assembly supplies air to the arm cuff through pumping the tube. Blood pressure is read at two points: the high point at which the heart contracts to empty its blood into circulation, called systole; and the low points at which the heart relaxes to fill with blood returned by the circulation called diastole.

109. Kymograph It is a motor that pulls the chart paper under the recording pen simultaneously at the rate of 6 to 12 inches per minute. It is sometimes referred to as chart drive module

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111. Chapter 3 The Examination Proper Unit 1 The Polygraph Examiner

112. The Polygraph Examiner A polygraph examiner is one who skilled and capable to detect deception or verify truth of statement through instrumentation or the use of mechanical device. The instrument or device utilized to detect deception or verify truthfulness of the statements must meet the basic instrumentation requirement of being capable of recording simultaneously on a moving chart the physiological responses.

113. The following are qualifications and qualities expected of a polygraph examiner are: 1. He must remember that he is an impartial seeker of the truth, conducts his examination in a professional and ethical manner, and never allow his personal feelings, sympathies, or prejudice influence the result of the examination. 2. He should constantly bears in his mind his primary responsibility to his subject to give them all possible safeguards against error and never accept the polygraph examination, any subject whose physical and mental health or states makes him unfit. 3. Technically, he must have a complete knowledge of the instrument and its potentials and limitations, the most modern polygraph techniques, proficiency in the conduct of the polygraph examination, test construction and chart interpretations. 4. Morally, he must have a sincere desire to be a polygraph examiner in its strictest sense, by devoting himself to the polygraph profession through maintenance of a high personal integrity and increasing personal proficiency through constant study and research.

114. Responsibilities of Polygraph Examiner to his Subject 1. The polygraph examiner recognizes the fact that his primary responsibility must be to the person who has voluntary submitted himself to a polygraph examination. 2. He should never conduct examination on person without first appraisal of the subject’s constitutional rights. 3. He should never perform examination to any person unless the instrument he is going to utilize is in good working condition and makes a continuous permanent recording on a moving chart of at least 2 physiological tracing. 4. He should never render a certain conclusive verbal and written opinion based on the chart analysis without having administered at least two or more charts. 5. He should not suggest testimony concerning the charts or conclusions presented by another examiner unless he is methodically familiar with the techniques and procedures employed.

115. Responsibilities of the Investigator to the Examiner. 1. He must not wait until the last minute, after all investigative method and techniques have failed, the test should never be used as a last resort. 2. He must not fail to investigate the case before seeking assistance. The polygraph examination does not establish whether a crime has been committed or not. Faulty or incomplete investigation places the examiner in a position to ask weak questions rather than strong and specific one. 3. He should not depend on the mass screening of possible suspects to produce the guilty party except when no reasonable amount of investigation had produced a likely suspect or materially narrowed down the number of possible suspects. 4. Not to stop investigation if polygraph examination is deferred or temporarily delayed.

116. 5. He must not use polygraph as a props, ruse or trickery to secure confession or for the evaluation of the mental and physical state of the suspect. 6. He should not tell to anyone that the polygraph would decide whether the suspect is innocent or guilty. The court makes the decision. 7. He must not think that investigation is over if the test indicated that the subject lied or confessed. Evidence and testimonies should be gathered to prove the facts of the offense and the allegation against the subject.

117. Responsibility of the Investigator to the Subject. 1. Be knowledgeable about the polygraph so that he can talk openly and freely to the person about the test. The subject may know very little of may have been misinformed about it. 2. Recommend the test as a means for the subject to indicate his innocence. 3. Stress the test’s capacity for indicating through the recorded response whether a person is telling the truth. 4. Guarantee the subject that the examiner is qualified and impartial to all persons involve in the case. 5. Avoid any claim for the instrument or examiner that is not backed up by facr.

118. THE EXAMINATION ROOM

119. 1. Ideally, polygraph test should be performed in a quiet, private, 90% soundproof room. Unusual noise, such as ringing of the telephone or conversation of persons outside the examination room or presence of investigators or other spectators in the room itself, would bring disturbances and distractions that in the turn would distort the different physiological recordings and seriously interfere with a satisfactory polygraph diagnosis. 2. Whenever it is possible to do so, a special equipped and furnished room should be set aside for polygraph examinations. Such room should be very conventional as painted walls and furniture. It should contain no decorations, pictures or other objects that would distract the attention of the person being examined, If decorations, pictures is desired, they should not be placed in any part of the room faced by the subject during the course of the test.

120. 3. The subject should not face a glass window or another room during the test because possible outside distractions which may affect the responses. 4. It is essential that the examination room be adequately ventilated with even, comfortable temperature. If existing facilities permit, there should be “observation room” adjoining the examination room, in the wall of which there an inserted “one-way mirror” and a concealed microphone so that a person in the observation room may hear as weel as see what occurs in the examination room.

121. Chapter 3 The Examination Proper Unit II FOUR (4) PHASES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

122. Limitations of the Subject who will undergo Polygraph Examination The subject must have a goodnight sleep at least 5 hours prior to the test. He must refrain from smoking for at least 2 hours. He should not undergo prolonged interrogation prior to the test. The subject must not have been subjected to physical abuse or body contact. He must refrain from drinking alcoholic beverages, taking sedatives, or capsule or syrup for at least 12 hours prior to the test. He must not suffering from any temporary illness like headache, toothache, stomachache, fever, menstruation, severe colds and coughs. He must not hungry

123. How does the test process works? 1. The examiner receives and reviews the facts of the case. 2. The examiner explains the test process to the subject and review facts of the case during pretest interview. 3. The examiner designs the specific questions and making sure each one is easily understood. 4. The polygraph instrument is attached on the subject’s body and he is given an additional instruction. 5. The questions are read to the subject while the polygraph sensors are attached on the subject’s body. 6. After chart have been run, the examiner analyzes the charts and develops a numerical score for the test. This score results in a conclusion of truthful, deceptive or inconclusive. 7. The examiner will transmit the test result to the client verbally and a written report maybe requestd.

124. FOUR (4) PHASES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

125. Phase 1 – Initial interview with the Investigator Handling the Case It is essential for the examiner to obtain accurate information concerning all the available facts and circumstances that form the basis for the suspicion or accusation directed against the person to be examined in order to conduct a satisfactory polygraph examination. It is the phase of examination in which the examiner will gather all the information needed in order to formulate a questions that can be used on the other phase of the examination. That is why having a strong facts and circumstances will result to a strong and satisfactory polygraph examination while having a weak facts and circumstances will lead to weak and unsatisfactory polygraph examination

126. Phase 1 includes: 1. Acquiring and evaluating facts. 2. Determining the areas the subject needs to be asked. 3. The investigator shall furnished the examiner the following: A. sworn statement of the suspect, witnesses and victim. B. Incident or spot report. C. Background Investigation of suspects, witnesses, and victims. D. Rough sketch or pictures of the crime scene and other facts.

127. Phase II – Pre Test Interview The examiner conducts pre test interview with the subject prior to the test is considered essential both for the purpose of conditioning the subject for the examination and also to provoke and observe indications of guilt or innocence. The examiner should not hold back any information from the subject about the instruments, its attachment or recording. This will serve to increase a lying subject concerned over possible detection. The examiner should be friendly to the subject, no accusatory approach will be made under this phase. The subject behavior himself is usually the best source of information The primary purpose of pre test interview is to prepare or condition the subject to the test.

128. This phase includes: 1. The appraisal of subjects constitutional rights. 2. Obtains subject’s consent to undergo polygraph test by signing statement of consent. 3. The taking of personal data of subject. 4. Determine the suitability of the subject. 5. Clinical observation of the subject. 6. Evaluating the psychological preparation of the subject. 7. Informing the subject of his involvement of the case.

129. Rights of the Subject 1. To be examined by a qualified examiner. 2. To be determined if fit for examination. 3. To be informed of the reason for the lie detector test. 4. To have an explanation of the polygraph machine and what it does. 5. To give consent to the lie detector test. 6. Not to be compelled to undergo prolonged questioning. 7. Not to be expose to oral criticism or abuse. 8. Not to be exposed to physical, mental or psychological abuse 9. To refuse to submit to lie detector test.

130. Phase III- The conduct of Instrumentation or Actual Test After the pre-test interview, the examiner should proceed to place the attachment on the subject. The first to be attached is Pneumograph, then the Cardiosphymograph and the Galvanograph. Review all the questions with the subject before the actual examination is made. The examiner should discourage any comments or statement by the subjects. Test instrument must be given to the subject.

131. Upon completion of the necessary preliminary preparation the instruments is attached to the subject. The pneumograph tubes will be placed on the subjects chest and abdominal part. The finger of palm electrodes will be placed on the subjects index and ring finger or the hand. The arm cuff will be placed on the subject’s arm. The synchronous motor carrying the paper upon which blood pressure pulse respirations recording are made is then set in motion, the motor being so timid that the paper moves along at the rate of a out six inches per minute, then ten to fifteen seconds after the instrument has been set in motion, the inked filled pens of the instruments are permitted to make their blood pressure pulse respiration tracings before the question are asked of the subject. During the test period the subject is informed that he will be asked several questions which should be answered by either yes or no answers, and that they are so brief and to the point. Approximately five to ten seconds after this instruction first question is asked and then the other questions follows after or at the interval of fifteen or twenty seconds.

132. PHASE IV – POST–TEST INTERVIEW/ INTERROGATION This includes all consideration that bears on the examination. This is done just after the instrument is turned off. If the Polygraph test result indicates deception, the examiner will then proceed to conduct short interrogation. The purpose of which is to obtain confession. However, if the Polygraph indicates that the subject is innocent; the examiner will just release the subject cordially and thanks him/ her for his/her cooperation.

133. Can A person be compelled to undergo lie detector test? In as much as the test requires the subject to answer the question either by “yes or no”, it infers the use of intelligence and attention or other mental faculty which is self incriminatory. Therefore, you cannot compel a person to be subjected to the test.

134. Is there a best time of a day to conduct a polygraph examination? Yes, since it is important that the person tested be capable of the maximum reactions, that person should be well rested prior to the test. In other words, testing conducted in the morning will be more productive than those examinations conducted in the later in the day and in the evening, these significantly increases the risk of an inconclusive result. The person should not be tested after the argument, interrogations or long day of work if possible.

135. Can someone below the age of 18 take a polygraph? Yes, but the examiner must have first the written consent of the parent or guardian of the child. However, most examiners will not test anyone who is less than 12 years age.

136. Can medication affect the result? Yes, any drug or medication that suppresses normal activity of the Central Nervous System will reduce the strength of reactions found on the polygraph charts, resulting in a higher likelihood of inconclusive result.

137. Can pregnant woman be tested? It does not affect the outcome of a polygraph examination to test a pregnant woman unless the fetus is making excessive movements or causing pain to the mother during the test. Most examiner will not test pregnant woman under any circumstances. Some examiner will only test if there is a note from the woman’s physician stating that there is no complications from the pregnancy and the stress of taking a polygraph test would have an impact on the health of the mother or the fetus.

138. Chapter 4 FORMULATION OF QUESTIONS AND TECHNIQUES Unit I FORMULATION OF THE TEST QUESTIONS

139. Three simple criteria in the formulation of questions: Short – The questions must be as short as possible to prevent the subject from losing focus, minimize their impact upon the subject, and to avoid long questions that can confuse the subject. In other words, formulated questions must be answerable by a simple YES or NO. Simple – The questions must not contain any legal terminologies and technical terms. Furthermore, their meanings must be clear and have reference to only one element of an offense or fact. Direct – The questions must be able to stand alone and not depend on some other questions. They should focus on factual information not based on opinion. The relevant test questions should be limited to a single case investigation. The polygraph technique is not effective for simultaneous testing involving two or more unrelated case investigation.

140. General Guidelines 1. The question must be clear In other words, the question that must in the test should be thoroughly understandable to the subject. There are also isolated cases wherein the examiner must use the subject’s own dialect to facilitate better understanding. For example, if the subject does not know any dialect other than what he has grown up with, the examiner must certainly adjust to the situation 2. The question must be simply stated The question must be stated as simply as possible. This means that the questions must have only one meaning. The sentence must completely avoid having double meaning. For example, Did you shoot him then run into the house? In this question, It combines two sets of facts or occurrence, one of which might be truthfully answerable by YES and other by NO.

141. 3. Avoid lengthy questions Asking long question is not only time consuming but also confusing for the subject as well. Such a question can also result in a loss of impact on a lying subject. 4. The test questions should focus on facts. The polygraph test questions should concern factual information, and should not be based upon opinions. Opinion question responses cannot be relied upon in evaluating truth or deception.

142. Test Questions: Relevant questions (leaded/material questions) – these are questions pertaining to the issue under investigation. It is equally important to limit the number of relevant questions to avoid discomfort to the subject. Relevant questions must be very specific to obtain an accurate result. Irrelevant questions (unleaded/immaterial questions) – these are questions which have no bearing to the case under investigation. Control questions – This question are those that inquire about an act or wrongdoing of the same general nature as the main incident being investigated and broad as possible. Basically, control questions must serve as the agitating factors of an innocent subject.

143. There are two general types of questions to be constructed and maybe supplemented by other types of questions: General Question Test – most commonly applied. Peak-of-Tension Test – usually used as supplementary test.

144. This consists of a series of Relevant & Irrelevant Questions asked in a planned order. Questions are so arranged as to make possible a comparison of responses to relevant questions with a subject’s norm made during the answering of irrelevant questions. There are other types of questions asked in the GQT: THE GENERAL QUESTION TEST (GTQ)

145. Relevant questions (leaded/material questions) Sample in Relevant Questions: A case involving a shooting incident: Weak Relevant Question – it concern some secondary element of the crime or problem and deals with mostly in guilty knowledge and partial involvement. Weak Relevant Question: Are you involved in the plan to shoot Pedro Dela Rosa? Strong Relevant Question – it is defined as verbal stimulus of primary important projected in the form of a question which overcome a psychological excitement level and causes pneumograph, cardiosphygmograph, and galvanograph tracings changes from the subject’s physiological norms. Strong Relevant Question: Are you the one who shot Pedro Dela Rosa?

146. Evidence Connecting Question – it is designed to stimulate the guilty subject and focus his attention on the probability of incriminating proof that would tend to establish his guilt. Evidence Connecting Question: Was the gun to shoot Pedro Dela Rosa Yours? Knowledge Question – this question is designed or begun to probe whether the subject possess information regarding the identity of the offender, the location of evidences or items of secondary element of the case. Knowledge Question: Do you know who shot Pedro Dela Rosa?

147. Control Questions 2 Classification of Control Questions: A. Primary Control Question – It must concern about actions that transpired within 3 to 5 years time prior to case under investigation occurred. Example Question: Before attaining the age of 28, have you ever stolen anything? Have you ever stolen anything from your work of place. B. Secondary Control Question – It is more precise in nature and is based on another experience of unlawful activity, which will improve the chance of responsiveness. It covers up to the current period. The question for responsiveness must not be connected to the case under investigation. Example Question: Have your ever committed any illegal act in your community?

148. Irrelevant questions (unleaded/immaterial questions) 1. Determine the subject’s norm under test conditions; 2. Terminate a lingering type of reaction that may appear on either relevant and control question answers; 3. Provide subjects an outlet for a relief response after answering relevant questions; 4. Accentuate a deceptive response to a relevant question; 5. Separate the subject’s reaction to pertinent questions using an irrelevant questions in between; Example Question: Are you Married? Is Tuesday today?

149. General Question Test Sample Have you ever been called by the name Allan? (Irrelevant) Is today Monday? (Irrelevant) Do you have anything to do with the robbery at SM/ Shoemart last night? (Weak Relevant) Are you over 20 years of age? (Irrelevant) Were you one of those who robbed the SM/ Shoemart last night? (Strong Relevant) Have you been involved in a robbery case this year? (Primary Control Question) Do you drink water? (Irrelevant) Was the pair of gloves found at SM yours? (Evidence Connecting-Relevant) Do you know of anyone involved in the robbery at SM/ Shoemart last night? (Knowledge Question-Relevant) Have you ever been involved in any robbery in your entire life? (Secondary Control Question) Have you deliberately lied to any question I have asked you? (Relevant-Check Question (optional))

150. Check Question – last question asked in the lie test. It is direct question that relates to the fact that the subject has told the truth to all questions asked in the lie test.

151. PEAK-OF-TENSION TEST (PTT) The subject may be given this test if he is not yet informed of the details of the offense for which he is being interrogated by the investigation, or by other persons or from other sources like the print media. This valid test is only made possibly when there is no widespread publicity about a crime where intimate details as to the methods of commission or certain facts of the case is known from the victim and investigator. The questions formulated are similar in nature and construction, only one of which is true and the perpetrator who would naturally be in possession of such unpublicized knowledge will usually exhibit a rise in the tracing up to that particular question followed by a decline thereafter, caused by the relief of knowing that a dreaded question dangerous to his well-being, is past.

152. Examples of Peak-of-Tension Test: Do you know whether the stolen watch from Allan is a Seiko? (This is an introductory phrase plus padding question) Is it an Omega? (Padding) Is it a Rolex? (Padding) Is it Timex? (Relevant question) Is it Alba quartz? (Padding) Is it a Citizen? (Padding)

153. Chapter 4 FORMULATION OF QUESTIONS AND TECHNIQUES Unit II Test Techniques

154. The polygraph examination is composed of five test Test I – General Question Test Test II – Card or Number Test Test III – Spot Responder Test Test IV – Mixed Questions Test Test V – Silent Answer Test

155. THE GENERAL QUESTION TEST (GQT) This test is about the case under investigation. These are sequences of relevant, irrelevant and control questions asked in a designed order. The questions are arranged in order to contrast the subjects response between relevant, irrelevant and control questions. The questions is restricted to yes or no only.

156. The sequence and sample of GQT: Q1. Have you ever been called by the name Allan? (Irrelevant) Q2. Is today Monday? (Irrelevant) Q3. Do you have anything to do with the robbery at SM/ Shoemart last night? (Weak Relevant) Q4. Are you over 20 years of age? (Irrelevant) Q5. Wer e yo u on e of thos e wh o robbe d th e SM/ Shoemart las t night ? (Strong Relevant) Q6. Have you been involved in a robbery case this year? (Primary Control Question-Relevant) Q7. Do you drink water? (Irrelevant) Q8. Was the pair of gloves found at SM yours? (Evidence Connecting-Relevant) Q9. Do you know of anyone involved in the robbery at SM/ Shoemart last night? (Knowledge Question-Relevant) Q10. Have you ever been involved in any robbery in your entire life? (Secondary Control - Relevant)

157. Card or Number Test: Upon finishing of the first test, here is another part of the test, examiner will show to the subject seven (7) variously numbered card face down. The cards are set in such a way the examiner will know which card has been chosen by the subject. The numbers 7, 11 and 13 should not be used because other subjects are too superstitious and numbers 6 and 9 should not be included to avoid confusion on the part of the subject. The cards with number 15, 8, 5, 3, 4, 14 and 12 are used. The subject is given an instruction to get a card, look it and memorize the number of the card that was chosen and return it without showing it to the examiner or telling the number. After the selection is finished, the examiner shuffles the cards and will instruct the subject to answer “NO” to each question regarding the cards, even if the number of the card he has chosen is asked. In short one of the subject’s answers to the questions will be a lie. The verification test is intended to assure the innocent examinee of the accurateness of the test and of the competency of the polygraphist. It further serves to arouse the guilty examinee.

158. Spot Responder Test This test consists questions previously asked questions in GQT. With the same number of the same question on the earlier test, the sequence would be: Q1. Have you ever been called by the name Allan? (Irrelevant) Q3. Do you have anything to do with the robbery at SM/ Shoemart last night? (Weak Relevant) Q2. Is today Monday? (Irrelevant) Q5. Were you one of those who robbed the SM/ Shoemart last night? (Strong Relevant) Q4. Are you over 20 years of age? (Irrelevant) Q6. Have you been involved in a robbery case this year? (Primary Control Question-Relevant) Q7. Do you drink water? (Irrelevant) Q8. Was the pair of gloves found at SM yours? (Evidence Connecting-Relevant) Q9. Do you know of anyone involved in the robbery at SM/ Shoemart last night? (Knowledge Question-Relevant) Q10. Have you ever been involved in any robbery in your entire life? (Secondary Control - Relevant)

159. Mixed Question Test: The test is the same with test III but questions of GQT is again mixed nd the sequence of the questions are as follows: Q4. Are you over 20 years of age? (Irrelevant) Q1. Have you ever been called by the name Allan? (Irrelevant) Q9. Do you know of anyone involved in the robbery at SM/ Shoemart last night? (Knowledge Question-Relevant) Q6. Have you been involved in a robbery case this year? (Primary Control Question-Relevant) Q2. Is today Monday? (Irrelevant) Q3. Do you have anything to do with the robbery at SM/ Shoemart last night? (Weak Relevant) Q10. Have you ever been involved in any robbery in your entire life? (Secondary Control - Relevant) Q5. Were you one of those who robbed the SM/ Shoemart last night? (Strong Relevant) Q7. Do you drink water? (Irrelevant) Q8. Was the pair of gloves found at SM yours? (Evidence Connecting-Relevant)

160. Silent Answer Test In this test subject is instructed by the examiner to avoid from giving any verbal answer to the questions that are to be asked of him during the test. The subject is instructed to pay attention to each question and answer the question only by himself, silently. In addition he should think of truthful answer and give that truthful answer silently to himself.

161. Purpose of each Test: Test I – The first two irrelevant question s are designed to condition the subject to have standard tracing and to established truth telling patterns for the primary part of the record. Test II – To check feasible distortion when the selected number is asked. Test III – To determine the responsiveness of the subject to critical questions and also serve as a check on possibility of spot respond. Test IV – To compare the degree of reaction between relevant and Control Question. Test V – To serve as an affirmative check.

162. Chapter 5 CHART MARKINGS,

163. SIGNS AND SYMBOLS (commonly used in Chart Marking)

164. Signs and Symbols in Chart Markings. 1. X it indicates the beginning or the start of the test. Inform the subject that the test is about to begin. “X” is placed on the chart below the cardio tracing. 2. XX it indicates the end or ending of the test. Mark “XX” below the cardio tracing. Inform the subject that the test is about to end by giving the instruction to sit properly, the test is about to end, the blood pressure cuff will be released in a

165. 3. / // - points where each questions begins and ends. (also called stimulus mark). - The single stimulus mark or the vertical line indicates the beginning of the question and double stimulus mark or the vertical line indicated the ending of the question. 4. + , - , no sign - plus sign indicates that the subject answer the question with “YES”, minus sign indicates that the subject answer with “NO”. No sign should be placed when the subject fails to answer the question being asked or when “Silent Answer Test” is conducted. - signs are placed below or at the right side of the number of the question.

166. 5. T - If the subject talks instead of answering the single “YES” or “NO” T --------- T (draw a horizontal line between the symbols to show the length of talking. 6. RQ - It is indicated on the chart below the cardio tracing when the subject requests a repartition of question.

167. 7. C - It is when the subject was coughing. 8. OSN - outside noise is indicated on the chart with letters OSN and shall be placed on the chart that was disturbed by the outside noise.

168. 9. S - it is indicated on the chart for sigh in the chart and shall be placed in the pneumo tracing exactly where it took place. Sigh may be indicative of deception or merely denotes relief, sigh must be distinguished from deep breath. 10. PJ - It indicates paper jam.

169. 11. SN - it is indicated when the subject sniff and shall be placed in the pneumo tracing exactly where it took place. 12. BI - It is indicated as breathing instruction. This is done when the subject is carefully and properly instructed by the examiner to have a deep breath.

170. 13. M or M --------- M - It indicate movements. When the subject moves it indicate with letter “M” . Prolonged movements is indicated with the first “M” when movement is noticed and second M when movement stopped, and draw horizontal line between the two symbols to determine the length of the movement. 14. MI - It indicated movement instruction This is done when the subject is carefully and properly instructed by the examiner about movement.

171. 15. L - it indicates laugh. 16. B - It indicates when the subject belch or burp. Burping affects both pneumo and galvo tracings.

172. 17. CT - it indicates clearing of the throat. 18. Y - It indicates yawn.

173. 19. TI - it indicates talking instructions. This is done when the subject is carefully and properly instructed by the examiner about talking. 20.SZ - it indicates for sneeze. Sneezing affects all the three tracings.

174. Chapter 5 CHART MARKINGS, Unit 2: Chart Interpretations

175. Chart Interpretations

176. 1. Accuracy of Instrumental Deception The accurateness of instrumental deception detection is dependent upon the examiner’s capability to diagnose truth or deception by reading and interpreting the chart of the subject. If one can precisely interpret the chart produced by the combination of psycho physiological events. 2. Keynotes to Accurate Chart Interpretation “Question formulation is the keynote to accurate chart interpretation. If a relevant question is phrased and delivered properly ti determine its particular purpose, it will influence the subject’s psysiological changes, which will make chart interpretation easy.

177. Rules to be followed in the Chart Interpretation 1. There must be a specific response. 2. To be a specific response, the response must form deviation from norm. 3. It must appear in at least (2) test charts. 4. The best indication of deception is the simultaneous specific responses in the (3) tracing of the chart.

178. Pneumo Tracings, which may be considered Indicative of Deception 1. Change in Rhythm por Regularity. The rate or normal breathing is 18 cycles per minute. Generally, the change in rate will be decrease or increase of amplitude causing an abnormality in the respiration pattern of different period. 2. Change in amplitude or volume A normal respiration will have an average of about one pint of air is inhaled and exhaled during a single cycle, this is known as tidal air. But the lungs are not completely deflated during normal exhalation there is still residual air remaining. There is an increase in the residual volume causing the recorded inspiration stroke to go higher and the expiration stroke lower than in the normal breathing in a sigh.

179. 3. Changes in inhalation and exhalation ratio The time consumed in inhalation and exhalation has a ration of 3 to 5, which means that respiration takes only 3/5 for the exhalation in normal respiration. Researcher established that this ratio changes with emotion. 4. Serrated inhalation/exhalation strokes Serration maybe recorded in the case the subject is in an intense nervous state as a result of tremendous breathing. Serration may be signified catching of the breath when surprised or shocked, coughing, crying or swallowing may affect the tracing.

180. 5. Hyperventilation The subject attempt to confuse the examiner from making an interpretation from the pneumo pattern, he resorts to a regular deep breathing in an attempt to beat the test. It may be caused by prolonged suppression of the breathing such as loss of oxygen has to compensated when the danger has passed. 6. Suppression Suppression or shallow breathing a kind of breathing against expected shock on an attempt to control to the shock received.

181. 7. Respiratory Block It is an exaggerated form of suppression in which there is strange shortening of both the inhalation and exhalation stroke.

182. Cardio Tracings, which may be considered indicative of deception 1. Increase or decrease in blood pressure. An increase in blood pressure is indicated by a rise and fall in cardio tracing. 2. Increase in blood pressure only It is shown by a prolonged rise in the blood pressure tracing during a crucial questions and a return to the norm when the subject is released from that stimulus by the introduction of irrelevant question.

183. 3. Decrease only in blood pressure It is shown by a prolonged fall in the blood pressure tracing during a crucial questions and a return to the norm when the subject is released from that stimulus by the introduction of irrelevant question. 4. An increase and decrease in pulse rate. Changes in pulse rate will be seen during crucial situations, this changes can be easily seen by the charts in the instruments.

184. Galvo Tracings, which may be considered indicative of deception 1. Increase in the amount of perspiration produce. Perspiration is one of the best indicative of deception, If a person is confronted with a crucial situation and have a feeling of great emotions, pores are opening and that will results to the pouring of perspiration of the body.

185. Type of blood Pressure Trends 1. Sustained Blood Pressure

186. 2. Ascending Blood Pressure Trends

187. 3. Descending Blood Pressure Trends

188. 4. Typical Distortion: A change in tracing trend one or more cycle.

189. Various Types of Cardio Tracing 1. Increase in pulse rate

190. 2. Decrease in Pulse Rate

191. 3. Increase in Pulse Amplitude

192. 4. Decrease in Pulse Amplitude

193. 5. Change in pulse rate and amplitude

194. Respiration Patterns 1. Normal Tracing

195. 2. Respiratory Blocks

196. 3. Staircase Suppression

197. 4. Ordinary Suppression

198. 5. Respiration Cycle Change This is indicative of slower breathing during relevant question interval.

199. It is characterized by slow, sliding exhalation tracing.

200. It shows frequent cycles because of faster breathing.

201. It is an indicative of heavier breathing during the relevant question interval.

202. Blood Presure- Pulse Patterns (Non Deceptive)

203. Blood Pressure- Pulse Deception Criteria

204. Chapter 6 ADMISSIBILITY, ACCURACY OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

205. Admissibility of Polygraph Examination Is polygraph Examination Result Admissible in Court? Yes, If allowed by the judge. The judge will unlikely to use polygraph test if unaccredited and inexperienced examiner administered the test. Polygraph and expert testimony relating thereto can be admissible under the following conditions: 1. That the admissibility of the polygraph test result is subject to the decision of the trial judge like for example, if the trial judge is not persuaded that the examiner is competent or that the test was conducted under proper condition, he may reject to accept such evidence.

206. 2. That if the examiner’s opinion are offered as evidence, the opposing party shall have the right to cross-examine the examiner respecting: A. the qualification and trainings of examiner; B. the condition under which the test was administered; C. the restrictions and possibilities for the error of the technique; D. at the good judgment of the trial judge, any matter deemed important to the inquiry.

207. Cases involving the use of Polygraph Examination in the Philippines A. Criminal Case Case 1 PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES VS. AMADO DANIEL alias AMADO ATO Case 2 The subject case was docketed as Criminal Case no. 92-7817 for Illegal Possession of Firearms, against DANILO J. BAJAS, before the National Judicial Region, Regional Trial Court, Branch 146, Metro Manila Case 3 The subject was filed by JUDITH ASILO, charging a crime of estafa against MELANIO M. SPORAS, VIRGINIA L. SPORAS and ELENA FALZON, before the National Judicial Region, Regional Trial Court of the City of Makati, Brach 146, Metro Manila, docketed as Criminal Case No. 94-6985.

208. B. Civil Case Case 1 The subject case was docketed as civil case no. 58092 was filed by CRESENCIA ISAGUIRRE against ELVIRA ISAGUIRRE, et. Al., for Sum of Money, before the National Capital Judicial Region, Regional Trial Court of Pasig, Branch 162, Metro Manila. Case 2 The subject was docketed as Civil Case no. 91-3453 was filed by JESUSA REYES and CONRADO B. REYES for Sum of Money against Bank of Philippine Islands, National Capital Judicial Region, Regional Trial Court of Makati, Branch 142, Metro Manila.

209. Factors Affecting Polygraph Examination Validity A. Examiner It has long been recognized that the examiner’s skill has an important effect on the validity of polygraph tests. Their experience and trainings. . Experience Examiners experience is an essential element reported by investigators and has often been used to explain differences in accuracy rates. There are some data to indicate that experienced examiners have better accuracy rates. . Training In recognition with this outcome, training has been accorded a high priority both within the and outside Government agencies that conduct polygraph examinations and by polygraph examiner groups.

210. B. Subject Those diagnostic categories and subjects variables are gender, intelligence, ethnic and group differences may also affect validity. Gender One of the most obvious subject differences is gender. Males and Females may have different patterns of physiological response, and such differences may affect polygraph testing validity. Intelligence The ability of intelligent subject to anticipate questions may affect polygraph accuracy. One possibility is that intelligent subjects are less detectable because, if trained they are bale to anticipate questions and employ countermeasures. Ethnic and group differences Research conducted cross culturally indicates that there are ethnic differences in response to stress. Such differences may in turn affect detection of deception.

211. C. Settings Polygraph examination takes place in a number of settings, ranging from facilities specifically designed for this purpose to motel rooms. Specifically designed facilities usually include one-way mirrors for observation and audio recording capabilities, and are located so as to prevent interruptions during the examination. It is reasonable to assume that the setting may interact both with subject and examiner characteristics to affect the validity of polygraph tests.