Pre and post harvest management techniques for enhancing the essential oil content and its quality of flowers and ornamental crops

Pre and post harvest management techniques to increases the essential oil content in flower crops

1. Pre and post harvest management techniques for enhancing the essential oil content in flowers and ornamental crops Presented by KUMARESAN. M 2016803104 Ph. D scholar, Dept. of Floriculture & Landscaping TNAU Chairman: Dr. M. KANNAN Professor & Head Dept. of Floriculture & Landscaping TNAU

2. Introduction Flowers possess - sweet and floral scent -responsible for natural essential oil Concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds Volatile oils or simply “oil of the plant” Essential oils have become an integral part of everyday life Highest production of rose and tuberose oil are UP and Andhra Pradesh Highest production of jasmine oil - TN, Karnataka and Kerala Devi et al., 2015

3. STATUS OF ESSENTIAL OILS World production of perfume oils- 250,000 tons Essential oils contain on average of 100 chemical components According to industry sources, more than 3,000 essential oils are known Out of these, 300 are used for commercial purposes on a regular basis The world production of essential oils is growing at more than 10 per cent annually and at present it is estimated at about 1,10,000 tones valued at over 11 billion US dollars Flowers used commercially for oil extraction are jasmine, rose, tuberose, marigold, plumeria, champaka, magnolia etc., Babita et al., 2015

4. Global production and India’s market share in essential oil production Category World Production (M. Tons) India's Share Essential oils for fragrances 4344.00 4.0% Essential oils for processing 80410.00 21.0% Essential oils for flavours 21670.00 14.0% Sanganeria , 2016 Fragrance industry is 60% Flavour industry 20% and Pharmaceutical industry 20% Demand:

5. Estimated world production of essential oils for FRAGRANCES Essential Oil Quantity in tons Producing Countries Jasmine Absolute 20.00 Egypt, India, China Rose oil/absolute 40.00 Turkey, Bulgaria, India, China Marigold 5.00 South Africa, Egypt, India Ylang Ylang Cananga odorata 100.00 Comoros, Madagascar, Indonesia Geranium 200.00 China, Egypt, India Chamomile 10.00 Moracco , Egypt, Belgium, Italy, France Sanganeria , 2016

6. Import and export of essential oil India ranks 26 th place in import and 14 th in export in world trade of essential oil Total share in world export of essential oils and perfumery material is only 0.4 %. The major buyers of Indian essential oil are USA, France, UK, Netherlands and Saudi Arabia. Growth in perfumery is higher i.e., 15% in India compared to 7% in America and 5% in Europe The world’s largest importer of aromatic materials is USA followed by Japan ( Verma et al., 2016 )

7. Components responsible for fragrances S.No. Flowers C hemical constituents References 1. Rose ( Rosa spp.) 1- citronellol , nerol , gereniol , linalool, eugenol etc. Pal, 1972 2. Jasmine ( Jasminum spp.) Benzyl acetate , benzyl benzoate geraniol, e ugenol , b enzaldehyde , indole , nerol , m ethyl jasmonate etc. Abdul Khader et al., 1984 3. Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa) Geraniol , n erol , benzyl alcohol, methyl benzoate , methyl salicylate , eugenol , and methyl anthranilate Hussain , 1986 4 . Marigold (Tagetes sp) Dihydrotagetone , β- ocimene , tagetone , limonene etc., Chisowa et al., 1998

8. Components responsible for fragrances S.No. Flowers C hemical constituents References 5 . Murraya paniculata   Phenyl ethyl alcohol, indole , ( E )- nerolidol , benzyl benzoate, phenyl ethyl benzoate and manool Rout et al., 2007 6 . Champaca ( Michelia champaca ) Linalool, methyl benzoate, benzyl acetate, phenyl, α- ionone, β- ionone, ionone oximes and methyl linoleate Zhu et al ., 1984 7. Carnation ( Dianthus caryophyllus ) Phenyl ethyl alcohol, eugenol , hexyl benzoate, benzyl benzoate, benzoin , nootkatone , benzyl salyicylate , m- cresyl phenyl acetate, hexadecanoic acid and eicosene . Ghorab et al ., 2006

9. Antimicrobial activity of flower crops Plant Method of extraction/ essential oil isolation Solvent used Activity Reference Chrysanthemum morifolium ( Chrysanthemum) Shaking in water bath at room temperature for 24 h 80% methanol Antibacterial activity Shan et al ., (2007) Dendrobium nobile ( Dendrobium ) Extraction in a shaker for 48 h Ethanol, chloroform, and distilled water Antibacterial activity Uma Devi et al ., (2009) Rosa spp. (Rose) Soxhlet extraction Petroleum ether, alcohol, and water Antibacterial activity Hirulkar and Agrawal (2010)

10. Plant Method of extraction Solvent used Activity Reference Lonicera japonica Thunb . (Honeysuckle) Shaking in water bath at room temperature for 24 h 80% methanol Antibacterial activity Shan et al ., (2007) Plumeria alba Linn. (White champa ) Hydrodistillation with a Clevenger apparatus for 3 to 4 h 80% methanol Antibacterial activity Zahid et al ., (2010) Nymphaea lotus Linn. (Egyptian white water-lily) Extraction in a shaker for 48 h Hot water and 80% ethanol Antibacterial and antifungal activity Hassan et al ., (2009) Antimicrobial activity of flower crops

11. Leading producers of flavors and fragrances Position Company Name (Headquarters) Sales in Million (Rs.) 1. Givaudan ( Vernier , Switzerland) 192576 2. Firmenich (Geneve, Switzerland) 122342 3. International Flavors and Fragrances (New York, USA) 113280 4. Symrise AG (Holzminden, Germany) 87603 5. Takasago International Corporation (Tokyo, Japan) 51353 6. Sensient Technologies Flavors &Fragrances (Milwaukee, USA) 30208 7. T. Hasegawa Co. Ltd (Tokyo, Japan) 21145 8. Mane S.A. (Le Bar-sur-Loup, France) 19635 9. Frutarom Industries Ltd (Haifa, Israel) 16614 10 Robertet S.A. (Grasse, France) 15859

12. Techniques applied to the analysis of essential oils Chromatographic Techniques TLC GC LC CCC SFC Spectroscopic Techniques UV MS IR Hyphenated Techniques GC-MS GC-UV HPLC-GC SFE-GC

13. Essential oil yield of major flowers Flower crops References Rosa spp. Absolute oil (%) R. damascena 0.14 R. centifolia 0.11 R. borboniana 0.09 R. ' Gruss an Teplitz ' 0.03 Younis et al., 2009 Jasminum spp. Concrete recovery (%) J. auriculatum 0.28-0.36 J. grandiflorum 0.25-0.32 J. sambac 0.14-0.19 Abdul et al., 1984

14. Essential oil yield of flower crops Flower crops Concrete content (%) References Tuberose (single flowered cultivars) 0.08 – 0.11 Guenther, 2009 Marigold ( Tagetes sp) 1.25 Thappa et al., 1993 Champaca ( Michelia champaca ) 0.16 – 0.20 Hussain , 1995 Magnolia (Magnolia biondi ) 0.03 – 0.16 Chen et al., 1994 Ylang-ylang ( Cananga odorata ) 0.8-0.95 Gopal , 2006 Nerium ( Nerium indicum ) cv. Double pink 0.32 - 0.33 Richard, 1997

15. Description of flowers for extraction of essential oil

16. Rosa sp

17. Rosa sp Rose is one of the most fragrant flowers in the world In India, R. damascena and R. bourboniana are cultivated for rose oil (Pal, 1972) 10 t of rose oil is produced in the world - Bulgaria produces more than 5 t India produces a very small amount of rose oil, which does not exceed 10 kg In Bulgaria, Rosa damascena yielded 1 kg oil/4000 kg of flowers Rosa damascene yields 0.05% oil Bulgaria and Turkey are the main producers of rose essential oil in the World market ( Rusanov et al ., 2005, 2009)

18. Jasminum spp.

19. Jasmine is the most important perfumery raw material Countries producing jasmine essential oil are India, Egypt, China and Morocco Egypt is the largest producer (10-15 t of concrete/yr) followed by Morocco, France, Algeria, Italy and India Jasminum auriculatum - highest oil recovery (0.29%). Jasminum grandiflorum or ‘ Chameli ’ has best quality oil (0.25-0.30%) . Appavu et al. ( 1980 ) Jasminum spp.

20. Polianthes tuberosa Tuberose flowers emit a powerful and delightful fragrance From 30,000 kg of loose flowers, 27.5 kg of concrete and 5.5 kg of absolute can be obtained The concrete content in single flowered cultivars ranges between 0.08 – 0.11 per cent (Guenther, 1952). Generally, 1 kg concrete is obtained from 1150 kg of flowers Oil is used on heavier types of scents and also used in non alcoholic beverages, ice cream, candy, baked goods etc. Priyanka et al ., 2016

21. Tagetes sp

22. Marigold is among the most common type of essential oil used in baby products Essential oils of T. minuta and T. erecta are commercially produced in France and Africa for use in perfumes ( Gopal , 1995) The yield of essential oil content of fresh matured flowers is 1.25 per cent ( Thappa et al., 1993) Tagetes sp

23. Other important essential oil-bearing ornamentals

24. Geranium Geranium maculatum Magnolia Magnolia grandiflora Champaca Michelia champaca Night-blooming jasmine - Cestrum nocturnum Indian Kadamb Anthocephalus cadamba Plumeria Plumeria acutifolia

25. Pre harvest factors that influence the production of essential oil in flower and ornamental crops Physiological variations Organ development Type of plant material (leaves, flowers, etc.) Seasonal variation Mechanical or chemical injuries Environmental conditions Climate Pollution Diseases and pests Cultural practices Pruning Fertilizer Plant growth regulators Harvest – time of harvest ( Figueiredo et al., 1997; Salamon , 2007).

26. Post harvest factors that influence the production of essential oil Packaging materials Storage duration Methods of extraction

27. Effect of time of growing season and time of day for flower harvest on flower yield and essential oil quality and quantity of four Rosa cultivars Adnan Younis et al ., 2013, Faisalabad, Pakistan A. R. damascena ‘ Gulqandi ’ B. R. centifolia ‘ Sahiwal ’ C. R. boruboniana ‘ Lahori ’ D. R. hybrida ‘ Grussan Teplitz ’

28. Effects of plant density and sowing date on quantity of essential oil of Calendula officinalis L. Berimavandi et al ., 2016, Rasht, Iran Plant density (D) : 20, 40, 60 and 80 plants/m 2 Sowing dates (S): April 19 and 29, and May 10

29. Essential oil extraction Flowers dried in 45°C Clevenger apparatus by steam distillation 50 g of dried plant materials was extracted with 1000 ml of water Water collected was re-extracted with 0.5 ml hexane Essence and hexane was separated from water physically

30. . Effects of plant density and sowing date on the quantity and quality traits of Calendula officinalis L.

31. Variation in essential oil content and composition of damask rose ( Rosa damascena Mill) flowers by salt application Kumar et al., 2016, Palampur (HP), India KNO 3 foliar spray @ 300 ppm, 600 ppm, 900 ppm, 1200 ppm, 1500 ppm, 1800 ppm and one control

32. The effect of KNO 3 foliar spray on the number of flowers and flower yield (g/plant) of damask rose The effect of KNO 3 foliar spray on the essential oil content of damask rose Citronellol + nerol , increased with application of KNO 3 up to 900 ppm and declined thereafter geraniol content increased with application of KNO 3 up to 1200 ppm

33. Effects of foliar application of micronutrients (Fe and Zn) on flower yield and essential oil of chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla L.) Yousef Nasiri et al., 2010 , Tabriz and Iran Fe, Zn and Fe + Zn at 0.35% Source of fertilizer: Ferrous sulphate Zinc sulphate Time of application: Stem elongation Flowering Both stages

34. Application treatments Flower yield ( kg .ha -1 ) Essential oil (%) Essential oil yield (kg .ha -1 ) Control 1340.8 0.852 11.462 Iron 1725.9 0.964 16.602 Zinc 1674.4 0.988 16.495 Iron + Zinc 1963.0 1.062 20.835 The influence of time of foliar application (iron and zinc) on flower yield, essential oil percentage and essential oil yield of M. chamomilla L. The influence of iron and zinc foliar application on flower yield, essential oil percentage and essential oil yield of M. chamomilla L. Application treatments Flower yield ( kg. ha -1 ) Essential oil (%) Essential oil yield (kg. ha -1 ) Control 1340.8 0.852 11.462 Stem elongation stage 1759.3 0.989 17.462 Flowering stage 1709.4 1.010 17.250 Both stages 1894.6 1.014 19.220 Fe and Zn - metal components of various enzymes ( saccharide metabolism, photosynthesis, and protein synthesis) Iron - activating catalase enzymes, superoxide dismutase, photorespiration, the glycolate pathway and chlorophyll content

35. Effect of some bioregulators on the chemical composition of essential oil in carnation ( Dianthus caryophyllus L.) Ghorab et al., 2016, Giza, Egypt Bioregulators Stigmasterol (unsaturated phytosterol occurring in the plant fats or oils) Putrescine (used in abiotic stress management)- Acid neutralizing Antioxidant properties

36. Effect of different bioregulators on chemical compositions of carnation Eugenol (33.54 %) - 400 ppm of putrescine Putrescine - antisenescent agents Decrease - leaf aging and senescence

37. Pruning system and foliar application of MgSO 4 on secondary metabolite profile of Rosa damascena R. damascena (cv. Jwala ) Two-factors 1. Types of pruning ( 90 cm height ) Complete pruning (C) Partial pruning (P) - five new shoots were left 2. Nutrient spray (1 st spray - axillary bud development stage 2 nd spray - flower bud appearance stage) Water spray control (M0) MgSO 4 @ 5.0g L -1 (M1) MgSO 4 @10.0g L -1 (M2) MgSO 4 @15.0g -1 (M3) MgSO 4 @ 20.0g L -1 (M4) Pal and Mitali , 2017, Palampur , India

38. Extraction of Essential Oil Hydro distillation for 4 h on a clevenger -type apparatus (5.0 L distillation) Flower and water ratio was 1:2 (w/v) Extracted essential oil was dehydrated by anhydrous Na 2 SO 4 GC–MS (analysis and compound identification) M0, M1, M2, M3, and M4 are the level of MgSO 4 @ 0.0, 5.0, 10.0, 15.0, and 20.0 g L -1

39. Representing dynamics of the volatile compounds as influenced by interaction effects of pruning system and foliar application of MgSO 4 Pruning system, the foliar application of MgSO 4 @ 15.0 g. L -1 registered about 26– 38% higher flower yield compared with water spray control The major constituents of essential oil were Citronellol (19.75–48.88%) E- geraniol (9.63–29.6%) Z- citral (0.07– 5.97%) Nonadecane (6.76–22.32%) and Heneicosane (2.87–10.21%)

40. Exogenous application of 24-Epibrassinolide on essential oil contents of Jasminum sambac L. Ahsan Akram et al., 2014, Faisalabad, Pakistan 24-Epibrassinolide; (1, 2, 3 and 4 μM ) - 30, 60 and 90 days after pruning Tween - 20 @ 0.1% 24-Epibrassinolide: Sixth class of plant hormones with widespread occurrence in plants in addition to abscisic acid, auxins , and ethylene - Chlorophyll contents, photosynthesis rate and essential oil Effect of EBL on essential oil contents of Jasminum sambac Treatments Essential oil contents (g) Control 1 μ M 2 μ M 3 μ M 4 μ M 0.0091±0.00051 0.0085±0.00027 0.0112±0.00091 0.0094±0.00066 0.0086±0.00022 EBL might activate the inherent genetic potential of the plant

41. Foliar application of plant nutrients and kinetin modifies growth and essential oil in Rosa damascena Probir Kumar et al., 2016, Himachal Pradesh, India 3-year-old plants of R. damascena Pruning: 75 cm height Two factors 1 - Time of foliar spray S1 - Auxiliary bud development stage S2 - Flower bud appearance stage 2 - Nutrients and kinetin Water spray control (F1) KNO 3 at 5.0 g L -1 (F2) Ca(NO 3 ) 2 at 4.06 g L -1 (F3) CuSO 4 5H 2 O at 2.0 g L -1 (F4) and kinetin at 0.20 g L -1 (F5)

42. The effect of foliar spray of plant nutrient and phytohormones on the oil content (%) Water spray control (F1), KNO 3 at 5.0 g L -1 (F2), Ca(NO 3 ) 2 at 4.06 g L -1 (F3), CuSO 4 5H 2 O at 2.0 g L -1 (F4) and kinetin at 0.20 g L -1 (F5)

43. Effect of harvesting time of flowers on concrete and absolute recovery in tuberose ( Polianthes tuberosa L.): A comparative study of single and double petalled cultivars Veena Chaudhary and Mukesh Kumar, 2017, UP, India

44. Effect of harvesting time of flowers on concrete and absolute recovery in tuberose (Single and double)

45. Evaluation of some postharvest storage approaches on essential oil characteristics of damask rose Maryam Mirzaei et al., 2016, Tehran , Iran Un stored petals (0 day storage duration) Storage Conditions Packaged using sealed polyethylene (PE) bags Immersed in water inside sealed plastic containers (20 cm, 25 cm and 30 cm), Storage temperature: 25 C ( 45% RH) or 4 C (90 RH) for 1, 2 and 3 days

46. Essential oil content (v/w%, fresh weight basis) of organic Damask rose under different storage conditions. PE: (Polyethylene bag); W: (Water). Water - maintain volatile oil content of the petals during the storage period ( monoterpene alcohols) -action of enzymes ( glucosidase ) PE bags - volatilization of essential oils

47. Damask rose essential oil components under different storage conditions

48. Comparative efficacy of various essential oil extraction techniques on oil yield and quality of Jasminum sambac L. Ahsan Akram et al ., 2017, Faisalabad, Pakistan Two methods: Supercritical fluid extraction Hydro-distillation

49. Supercritical fluid extraction and hydro-distillation on concrete and absolute (%) Supercritical fluid extraction and hydro-distillation on chemical compostituent through GC-MS analysis

50. REFRENCES Babita Singh, Sellam P., Jayoti Majumder and Puja Rai , 2014, floral essential oils: importance and uses for mankind, Hort Flora Research Spectrum , 3(1): 7-13. Bhagya , H. P., Y. C. Raveendra and K. A. Lalithya , 2015, Role of growth regulators in produc tion of essential oils in aromatic crops , HortFlora Research Spectrum, 4(2): 179-181. Cristina Figueiredo , José G. Barroso,1 Luis G. Pedro1 and Johannes J. C. Scheffer , 2008, Factors affecting secondary metabolite production in plants: volatile components and essential oils, flavour and fragrance journal, Flavour Fragr . J., 23: 213–226.

51. Fahime shokrani , Alireza pirzad , Mohammad Reza zardoshti , Reza darvishzadeh , 2012, Effect of biological nitrogen on the yield of dried flower and essential oil of Calendula officinalis L. under end season water deficit condition, International Research Journal of Applied and Basic Sciences. Vol., 3 (1), 24-34. Lobna , S. Taha and (2) Rawia , A.Eid , Journal of American Science, 2011, Stimulation effect of some bioregulators on flowering, chemical constituents, essential oil and phytohormones of tuberose ( Polianthes tuberos L.) Journal of American Science, 7(5). Misra A., N. K. Srivastava , R. Kumar and A. Khan, 2005, Effect of Palcobutrazol (PP333) on Flower Quality and Quantity of Rosa damascena , Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, Indian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Life Science, 36:4-6, 477-486.

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53. Seyed-Mostafa Hoseini-Mazinani & Alireza Hadipour , 2016, The response of calendula officinalis L. essential oil constituents to biofertilizer , Journal of essential oil bearing plants, 19:3, 632-639. Soner Kazaza , Sabri Erbasb , Hasan Baydarb , Tuba Dilmacunala , Mehmet Ali Koyuncua , 2010, Cold storage of oil rose (Rosa damascena Mill.) flowers, Scientia Horticulturae 126,284–290. Yadejari , M., 2015, Foliar application of micronutrients on essential oils of borago , thyme and marigold Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 15 (4), 949-964. Yousef and Nosratollah , 2015, Effects of soil and foliar applications of iron and zinc on flowering and essential oil of chamomile at greenhouse conditions

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