Problem solving in Psychology perspect

Problem solving in Psychology perspect

1. 1


Name:D.K.D.Madhubhashini
Reg no:A/BBA/09/068
Lecturer:Mrs.M.Gunasekara
Solving Problems

A PROPOSAL TO: CLIENT

3rd Year
1st Semester
2
nd
Assignment

2. 2

Acknowledgement

I consider it is a my great privilege thank all those people who helped me to
complete this assignment I express my sincere thanks to Main lecturer
Mrs.M.Gunasekara and Assistant Lecturer Miss.Kokila Subhashini for giving me
this opportunity to commence the project work and guidance do so.

At for last not for least like to thank my parents who gave me a great deal of helping
hand to make this assignment a success.


D.K.D.Madhubhashini

3. 3

Contents
Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 4
Thinking .................................................................................................................................................... 5
Problem solving ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Obstacles in problem Solving ................................................................................................................... 7
Problem Solving and Mental Set ...................................................................................................... 7
Einstellung ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Functional Fixedness ........................................................................................................................ 8
Group thinker .................................................................................................................................... 8
Irrelevant or Misleading Information................................................................................................ 8
Problem Cycle........................................................................................................................................... 9
Problem solving strategies ...................................................................................................................... 10
Algorithms ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Heuristics ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Trial-and-ErrorLearning.................................................................................................................. 10
Means-ends analysis ....................................................................................................................... 11
Problem solving by analogy............................................................................................................ 11
Novice Vs. Expert Problem Solvers ....................................................................................................... 12
Creativity thinking .................................................................................................................................. 13
Stages of Creative Thinking............................................................................................................ 13
Decision Making ..................................................................................................................................... 14
References ............................................................................................................................................... 15


Figure 1-Dunker’s Candle Problem .......................................................................................................... 6
Figure 2-Horse and Rider problem ........................................................................................................... 6
Figure 3-cheap-necklace problem" is used to study the incubation effect................................................ 7
Figure 4-Problem Cycle ............................................................................................................................ 9
Figure 5-Thornlike’s Learning curve ...................................................................................................... 11
Figure 6-Solution to the radiation problem............................................................................................. 12

Table 1- Novice Vs. Expert Problem Solvers 12

4. 4

Introduction
Everyone experiences problems from time to time. Some of our problems are big and complicated,
while others may be more easily solved. In addition, many of our daily activities involve complex
problem solving. For many, solving problem characterizes thinking itself. In problem solving, we are
motivated for a goal but have no means of obtaining it. We must break the goal into sub goals and
perhaps divide these sub goals further into smaller sub goals, until we reach the level that we have the
means to obtain (Anderson,1990)
Therefore, when we talk about problem solving we have to talk about the ability of human kind to
think and use the information to reach goals as Anderson mentioned. Thinking, which is an activity
that we start introducing problem solving from likely most other activities of the organism it is
organized. Problem solving however not all is alike. There are problems that can be solved with
relatively few mental steps, and there are problems that require extensive "thinking.” There are
problems that we have never encountered before, and there are problems we are familiar with. There
are problems that have very clear goals, and there are problems where the goals are far from clear.
Complex problems, then, can distinguished on any number of meaningful dimensions, and the solution
processes, the mental steps we engage in when solving a problem, may differ widely for different types
of problems.
When considerate problem solving in this assignment understands the nature of thinking, describe
various stages of problem solving, explain creativity and its role in life, and explain the process of
decision making are further discuss in upcoming chapters..

5. 5

Thinking

Thinking is a complex mental process which involves manipulation of information. Such information
is collected through our senses from the environment, as well as the information which is stored in our
memory because of our meeting with many events and situations in the past. The difference between
what is thinking and what is not thinking is just our awareness about the particular thinking process.
Thinking is a productive process in the sense that it helps us to form a new representation of any object
or event by renovating available information. It involves a number of mental activities, such as
inferring, abstracting, reasoning, imagining, judging, problem solving, and creative thinking.
Such activities take place in our mind and can infer from our behaviors. Thinking is usually originate
by a problem and goes through a sequence of steps such as judging, abstracting, inferring, reasoning,
imagining, and remembering. These steps are often direct towards solution of the problem.
Thinking depends on a variety of mental structures such as concepts and reasoning. Concepts are one
of the key elements of thinking. Concepts represent objects, activities, ideas, or living organisms. They
also represent properties, abstractions and relations Concepts are mental structures which allow us to
organize knowledge in systematic ways. We cannot observe them directly, but we can infer them from
behavior. We as human beings have the capacity to abstract the essential characteristics of objects,
events or what we perceive. Whenever we encounter a new stimulus, we tend to treat it as a member of
a familiar or remembered category and take the same action toward it and give it the same label.
Reasoning is also one of the key aspects of thinking. It is a process that involves inference. Reasoning
is used in logical thinking and problem solving. It is goal directed, and the conclusions or judgments
are drawn from a set of facts. In reasoning, information from the environment and the stored
information in the mind are used following certain rules. There are two types of reasoning: deductive
and inductive. In deductive reasoning we try to deduce or draw conclusion from a set of initial
assertions or premises; whereas in inductive reasoning we start from available evidence to generate a
conclusion about the likelihood of something. Most cases of scientific reasoning are inductive in
nature. Scientists and even lay people consider a number of instances and try to determine what
general rule covers them all.

6. 6

Problem solving
“higher-order cognitive process that
requires the modulation and control of
more routine or fundamental skills”
(Goldstein & Levin, 1987)Every day we
solve a number of problems ranging from
simple to complex. Some problems take
little time where as some take much time to
solve. We look for alternative solutions if do
not get the right kind of resources to solve
the problem in hand.
Before beginning to solve any problem, we
must be able to define it in clear and specific
terms. As Michael Posner (1973) has point
out, key to effective problem solving is often our initial formulation of the problem.
After formulating the problem, we must make an inventory of the elements of the problem, the
information, and other resources available to us. Often effective problem solving requires that we
flexibly interpret the meaning and utility of these
elements.In the case of solving, any type of problem
our thinking becomes directed and focused and we try
to use all the resources, both internal and external to
arrive at the right and appropriate decision.








Figure 1-Dunker’s Candle Problem
Figure 2-Horse and Rider problem

7. 7

Obstacles in problem Solving
The limitations most of us experience in
evaluating the elements of problem is
that we get stuck in “mental ruts” or in
psychological term “Mental Set”.
Problem Solving and Mental Set
In 1949, H.F Harlow showed that
rhesus monkey could develop
generalized learning set because of
repeated exposure to tasks which
involved trial and learning suggested
the ideology of problem solving mental set.
Mental Set means habitual ways of approaching or perceiving a problem. Sometimes we use a
particular strategy to solve a problem but we may or may not thrive in our effort to solve the problem.
This creates a set to approach future problems that are encountered by a person. These continue even if
the problem is different. Nevertheless, of this, we use the same strategy whenever we come across the
same problem and again fail to reach the solution. Such phenomenon in problem solving is called
mental set.
A mental set is a propensity on the part of an individual to respond to a new problem in the same
manner that he or she has used earlier to solve a problem. Earlier success with a particular rule
produces a kind of mental rigidity, which delays the process of generating new ideas to solve a new
problem. A mental set inhibits or affects the quality of our mental activities. However, in solving our
real life problems we often rely on past learning and experience with similar or related problems.
Einstellung
Luchins, in 1942, demonstrated the power of set in human problem solving. It shows how experience
can make approaches more rigid. The subjects could solve a familiar types of puzzle very easily, but
their previous experience had made them less able to perceive a new solution. Luchins referred to fixed
habit of mind as Einstellung, and described how it prevented people from looking at problems clearly.

Figure 3-cheap-necklace problem" is used to study the incubation effect.

8. 8

Functional Fixedness
Gluckberg (1962) set research participants a problem which involved using everyday items in familiar
ways. With referring to Duncker’s candle problem Gluckberg found that peoples’s ability to solve the
problem was seriously impeded by their usual functions. This, Gluckberg argued was another form of
mental set, which becomes known as Functional Fixedness.
Group thinker
Janis (1972) analysed a number of American foreign-policy decisions which had been made between
1940 and 1970 and showed that very often decisions had been taken which were unrealistic and
sometimes even disastrous when they were put into practice. This has occurred because of groupthink,
in which a group considers only a limited number of options, and doesn’t really look at the wider
context of its decisions.
Reasons why groupthink occurs is because of the way that people in long-term real life groups like
committees or action groups, often comes to assume that everyone in the group think alike. This puts
pressure on the group members to conform to what seems to be the majority view, and so people are
much likely to disagree openly with one another. Groupthink is a serious problem in decision-making
situations, because it can produce such dramatic and serious results.

Irrelevant or Misleading Information
It is essential to differentiate between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that
can lead to defective solutions when you are trying to solve a problem.

9. 9

Problem Cycle

Figure 4-Problem Cycle
 Problem Recognition – Define the problem
 Problem Observation – Clarify the current situation
 Problem Analysis – Thoroughly analyze all data
 Develop Solution – Design a plan of action
 Validation Solution – Analyze the results
 Sustain Solution – Maintenance
 Problem Evaluation – Evaluation and Follow up

10. 10

Problem solving strategies
Several investigators have deliberately forced their thinking programs to be as human as possible.
Most prominent among these are Allen Newell and Nobel laureate Herbert Simon, who have
programmed computers to play chess, to discover and prove the theorem of symbolic logic, and to
cryptograms. Newell and Simon found it useful to distinguish between two major kinds of solution
strategies. Algorithms and Heuristics.
Algorithms
An algorithm is a specific set of instructions for carrying out a procedure or solving a problem, usually
with the requirement that the procedure terminate at some point in which all the operations are required
to achieve the solutions are specified step by step. Specific algorithms sometimes also go by the name
method, procedure, or technique. The process of applying an algorithm to an input to obtain an output
is called a computation. This can be so time-consuming hence less feasible.

Heuristics
A heuristic is a mental shortcut that allows people to solve problems and make judgments quickly and
efficiently at the cost of possible error. In contrast, Algorithms that are guaranteed to work but are
totally blind to efficiency. These rule-of-thumb strategies shorten decision-making time and allow
people to function without constantly stopping to think about the next course of action. While
heuristics are helpful in many situations, they can also lead to biases. If the problem is complex
enough, even high-speed computers must resort to heuristics (Boden,1977).
Heuristics reasoning is very efficiency but is subject to error. We need to understand the flows inherent
in heuristic reasoning because we solve problems heuristically far more often than algorithmically
largely because algorithmic reasoning take more time and effort (Kahneman, Slovic and Tversky,
1982) and we tend to make judgments about the unknown on the assumption that it is similar to what
we know (Kahneman and Tversky, 1974). This strategy is known as representativeness heuristics.

Trial-and-ErrorLearning

Thornlike (1911) undertook a series of studies in anaimal problem solving which could be related to
human problem solving strategies as well. One set of experiments involved putting a hungry cat in to a
‘puzzle box’ with food outside. And he found that more time cat was placed in the box, the less it
would take to escape, and he was able to plot a learning curve which showed this relationship.

11. 11



Figure 5-Thornlike’s Learning curve
Means-ends analysis
Here we compare our current state to the goal state in order the most important difference between
them eliminate this difference becomes our main goal. We then search for a means or a procedure to
achieving this sub goal. If we find such a procedure but discover that something in our current state
prevents us from applying it, we introduce a new sub goal of eliminating this obstacle. Many
commonsense problem solving involve this strategy. This reduces distance between current state and
goal state by working forward and backward, generates, and evaluates goals when obstacle comes.
Problem solving by analogy
Another suggestion for solving difficult problems is to work by analogy, since many problems are
similar to each other. The school counselor who advices teenagers is likely to find that the problem she
hears about today reminds her of one she heard about a few months back, and her experience with the
first generally helps her in understanding the second. What holds for real world also holds for
laboratory. Sometimes new problems are solved by analogy with similar once encountered earlier.
With practical life examples, it is clear that analogies can help in finding a solution. The trick is to find
the right analogy and see its relevance. In many cases, a problem seems difficult because it is not
correctly interpreted. To solve this, it has to be looked in a new way. In effect, this is in the way the
problem is represented.

12. 12

Novice Vs. Expert
Problem Solvers
Novices and experts approach
problems very differently.
Broadly speaking, distinctions
between their approaches
include,



Table 1- Novice Vs. Expert Problem Solvers
Novices... Experts...
 Memorize how to solve specific problems.  Believe that you can solve most
problems by memorizing only a few
central principles.
 Identify problems in terms of surface
elements.
 Identify problems using principles by
which you can solve them.
 Believe that most problems are too
difficult for them to solve.
 Are confident that they can solve
problems, work a long time before
giving up, and do not believe that this is
a waste of time.
 Do not think about how they solve
problems but instead just plow through
them.
 Are able and willing to evaluate their
own thinking.
 Move on to the next problem without
considering possible connections
between them or the concepts that may
inform them.
 After solving problems, review why the
question was important, asking why the
professor gave the assignment.

Figure 6-Solution to the radiation problem

13. 13

Creativity thinking
Creativity is the ability to make unique human products and ideas such as symphonies or solutions to
social problems that are novel, nonexistent earlier and valued by others. Creativity is the mother of all
inventions and discoveries in the world. Unlike routine solutions to the problems, creative solutions are
novel, original, and unique, that others have not thought of before. The creative solutions or
productions are sudden or spontaneous and are the outcome of a lot of work and preparation already
done consciously and unconsciously. The sudden appearance of new ideas is called insight. The
creative thinker can be any more such as an artist, musician, writer, scientist or sports person.

Stages of Creative Thinking
Graham Wallas, one of the leading psychologists of early twentieth century stated that there are five
stages of creative thinking. These are Preparation, incubation, illumination, evaluation, and revision.
We briefly discuss these five steps of creative thinking in the subsequent section.
1. Preparation: This is the first stage in which the thinker expresses the problem and collects
facts and materials needed for the solution. He/she finds that the problem cannot be solved
after days, weeks, or months of concentrated effort.
Unable to solve the problem the thinker purposely or involuntarily turns away from the
problem, initiating incubation. At this stage of problem solving, it is vital to overcome negative
consequences of mental set and any kind of mental set or bias.
2. Incubation: This is a stage of no solution and involves a number of emotional and cognitive
difficulties. However, the negative effects of mental set, functional fixedness, and other ideas
that interfere with the solution tend to fade. Possibly, exhaustion and too much of concern with
the problem also mount up during this period. Further, the unconscious thought processes
involved in creative thinking are at work during this stage.
3. Illumination: In this stage, a possible solution to the problem seems to be realized as if from
nowhere. It is about having the insight about the possible solution.
Illumination occurs with its “aha” experience when a sudden idea or solution appears into
consciousness.
4. Evaluation: In this stage the obtained solution is confirmed or tested to see if it works.
Recurrently, the insight may turn out to be disappointing, and may need some modification in
the strategy of approaching the problem.

14. 14

5. Revision: Revision is compulsory in the case a solution which is not satisfactory. It has
established that creative people are generally talented (artists, musicians, mathematicians) and
have specific abilities. Creative people have been initiate to have some specific personality
characteristics such as they are independent in their judgments, self-confident, dominant,
impulsive, prefer complexity like wise
Guildford (1950,1967) has used the concept of convergent and divergent thinking to evaluate creative
ability. Convergent thinking is logical, factual, conventional, and focused on a problem until solution is
founded. When you ase asked to solve algebra problem Convergent thinking is what been used.
Divergent thinking is loosely organized, only partially directed and unconventional. Unlike convergent
thinking, divergent thinking produces answers that must be evaluates subjectively. Divergent thinkers,
in other words more easily break out of mental sets that limit our thinking. In our culture, people who
are good divergent thinkers tend to be thought of as creative (Butcher,1968)
Decision Making
When we are solving problems, we are looking for define answer; a correct solution. But sometimes,
goal oriented thinking isn’t about define answers: it’s about making decisions.We make decisions in
our day-to-day life, such as decisions pertaining to our personal life, social life, education, career etc.
When we take a decision which gives us success, where as our faulty decisions do not yield the desired
result. Decision-making is also related with another term ‘judgment’. Let us discuss these two aspects
of thinking separately.
1. Decision- making is a kind of problem solving in which we select an appropriate alternative
out of a number of alternatives available to us.
2. Judgment is a process of forming opinions, arriving at conclusions, and making critical
evaluations about objects, events and people on the basis of available information. The process
of judgment is often automatic and spontaneous. It does not require any prompting. Some
judgmental choices are habitual like need for going for a morning walk before getting ready.
Judgments involve evaluating information about the world (objects, events, persons, etc.),
while decisions require making choices.

15. 15

References
Anderson, J. R. (1980). Cognitive psychology and its implications. New York: W. H. Freeman and
Company.
Atkinson, L.Rita; Atkinson,C. Richard; Smith,E;Bem,J.Daryl. (1957) Introduction to Psychology. Harcourt
Brace College Publishers. 11
th
Edition.
Benjamin,B.Lahey. (2004). Psychology: An Introduction. McGrew Hill publishers,8
th
edition
Gleitan,Henry(1981). Psychology. W.W Northon & Company
Hayes, N. (1996). Foundation of Psychology. Thomas Nelson & Son’s Ltd,2
nd
editon