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1. Project Planning
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-1

2. Software project management
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-2

3. Project Planning
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-3
Onceaprojectisfoundtobefeasible,
Projectmanagerundertakeprojectplanning.
Initialplanismadebeforedevelopmentstarts
Thenupdatefrequently
ProjectPlanningActivities
Estimation:
Effort,cost,resource,andprojectduration
Projectscheduling
Stafforganization
Staffingplan
Riskhandling
Identification,analysis,andabatementprocedures
Miscellaneousplan
Qualityassuranceplan,configurationmanagementplan

4. Why project planning?
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-4
Itrequiresutmostcareandattention,because
commitmentstounrealistictimeandresource
estimatesresultin:
Irritatingdelays
Customerdissatisfaction
Adverseaffectonteammorale
Poorqualitywork
Projectfailure.

5. Fundamental estimation questions
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-5
Whatisthesizeofthesoftwaretobedeveloped?
Howmucheffort(man-power)isrequiredto
completeanactivity?
Howmuchcalendartimeisneededtocompletean
activity?
Whatisthetotalcostofanactivity?

6. When estimation required
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-6

7. Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-7
Sequence of Estimations
First,determinesizeoftheproduct.
Fromthesizeestimate,
Determinetheeffortneeded.
Fromtheeffortestimate,
Determineprojectdurationandcost.

8. Basis for successful estimation
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-8
Informationaboutpastprojects
Needtocollectperformancedetailsaboutpastproject
Iftheprojectiscompletelynew
highermanagementinvolvedmore.
Needtobeabletomeasuretheamountofwork
involved
Traditionalsizemeasurementforsoftwareis“linesof
code”.

9. Challenges of estimation
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-9
Changingtechnology
Thesebringuncertainties.
Projectdiffer
Experienceononeprojectmaynotbeapplicableto
another.
Highermanagementpressure
Projectmanagermaywishtoreduceestimatedcosts,
resourcesneededinordertowinthesupportfor
acceptance.
Manyestimationsaresubjectiveinnature

10. Problem with estimation
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-10
Underestimation
Projectisunfinished
Overestimation
Projectmayexpandinrespectoftime

11. Refining Estimation
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-11
AdjustingEstimates
Timeandcostestimatesofspecificactivitiesare
adjustedastherisks,resources,andsituation
particularsbecomemoreclearwithtime.
Reasonsforadjustment
Normalconditiondonotapply
Thingsgowrongontheproject
Changinginscopes.

12. Estimation Techniques
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-12
Bottomup
TopDown

13. Project scheduling
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-13
CPM
PERT

14. Work Breakdown Structure
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-14

15. Work Breakdown Structure
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-15
Thisworkbreakdownstructure(WBS)definesthe
projectbydividingitintoitsmajorsubcomponents
(ortasks),whicharethensubdividedintomore
detailedcomponents(orsubtasks),andfinallyinto
asetofactivities.
Thedivisionoftheprojectintosmallerandsmaller
taskscanbedifficult,butiscriticaltomanagingthe
projectandtoschedulingsuccess.
Grossrequirementsforpeople,supplies,and
equipmentarealsoestimatedinthisplanning
phase.

16. How to Draw Network Diagrams
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-16
1.PERT/CPM networkconsistsoftwomajor
components:
1.Events:
Eventsinthenetworkdiagramrepresentproject
milestones.
Suchasthestartorthecompletionofanactivity(task)
Eventsarecommonlyrepresentedbycircles(nodes)in
thenetworkdiagram.
Theeventscanbefurtherclassifiedintothefollowingtwo
categories:

17. How to Draw Network Diagrams
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-17
i.MergeEvent:Aneventwhichrepresentsthejoint
completionofmorethanoneactivityisknownasa
mergeevent.

18. How to Draw Network Diagrams
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-18
ii.BurstEvent:Aneventthatrepresentsthe
initiation(beginning)ofmorethanoneactivityis
knownasburstevent.

19. How to Draw Network Diagrams
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-19
2.Activities:
Activitiesinthenetworkdiagramrepresentproject
operations(ortasks)tobeconducted.
Eachactivityexceptdummyactivityrequiresresourcesand
takesacertainamountoftimeforcompletion.
Theactivitiescanbefurtherclassifiedintothe
followingthreecategories:
I.PredecessorActivity:Anactivitywhichmustbe
completedbeforeoneormoreotheractivitiesstartis
knownaspredecessoractivity.
II.SuccessorActivity:Anactivitywhichstartsimmediately
afteroneormoreofotheractivitiesarecompletedis
knownassuccessoractivity.

20. How to Draw Network Diagrams
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-20
III.DummyActivity:
Anactivitywhichdoesnotconsumeeitherany
resourceand/ortimeisknownasdummyactivity.
Adummyactivityinthenetworkisaddedonlyto
establishthegivenprecedencerelationshipamong
activitiesoftheproject.
Adummyactivityisshownbyadottedlineinthe
networkdiagram
Itisneededwhen
(a)twoormoreparallelactivitiesinaprojecthavesame
headandtailevents,or
(b)twoormoreactivitieshavesome(butnotall)oftheir
immediatepredecessoractivitiesincommon.

21. How to Draw Network Diagrams
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X

22. How to Draw Network Diagrams
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-22
Networkmodelsusethefollowingtwotypesofprecedence
networktoshowprecedencerequirementsoftheactivitiesin
theproject.
1.Activity-on-Node(AON)network:
2.Activity-on-Arrow(AOA)network:

23. How to Draw Network Diagrams
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-23

24. Example:
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-24

25. Answer(AOA):
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1
2
3
4
4
A
B
C
D
E

26. Answer (AON):
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-26

27. Example:
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28. Answer
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-28

29. Problems
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Activity Predecessor Activity
A -
B A
C A
D B
E B, C
F E
G D, F
H G
Q. Draw the network diagram for following activity

30. Solution:
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-30

31. Problems
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-31
Activity Predecessor Activity
A -
B A
C B
D B
E B
F C
G C
H F, G
I D, E, H
J I
Q. Draw the network diagram for following activity

32. Solution:
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-32

33. Problems
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-33
ActivityPredecessor
Activity
Duration
A - 6
B A 4
C B 7
D A 2
E D 4
F E 10
G - 2
H G 10
I J, H 6
J - 13
K A 9
L C, K 3
M I, L 5
Q. Draw the network diagram for following activity

34. Answer:
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-34

35. Critical Path
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-35
Thecriticalpathisthelongesttimepaththroughthe
network:
Theobjectiveofcriticalpathistoestimatethetotal
projectdurationandtoassignstartingandfinishing
timestoallactivitiesinvolvedintheproject.

36. How to find out critical path:
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-36
Tofindthecriticalpath,wecalculatetwodistinct
startingandendingtimesforeachactivity.These
aredefinedasfollows:
Earlieststart(ES)=earliesttimeatwhichan
activitycanstart,assumingallpredecessorshave
beencompleted
Earliestfinish(EF)=earliesttimeatwhichan
activitycanbefinished

37. Continue…
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-37
Lateststart(LS)=latesttimeatwhichanactivity
canstartsoastonotdelaythecompletiontimeof
theentireproject
Latestfinish(LF)=latesttimebywhichanactivity
hastofinishsoastonotdelaythecompletiontime
oftheentireproject

38. Continue…
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-38
Weuseatwo-passprocess,consistingofaforward
passandabackwardpass,todeterminethesetime
schedulesforeachactivity.
Theearlystartandfinishtimes(ESandEF)are
determinedduringtheforwardpass.
Thelatestartandfinishtimes(LSandLF)are
determinedduringthebackwardpass.

39. Continue…
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-39
Earliest
Start
Earliest
Finish
Latest
Finish
ES
LF
EF
LS
Latest
Start
To clearly show the activity schedules on the project
network, we use the notation shown

40. Forward Pass Method
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-40
EarliestStartTimeRule:
Beforeanactivitycanstart,allitsimmediate
predecessorsmustbefinished:
Ifanactivityhasonlyasingleimmediate
predecessor,itsESequalstheEFofthe
predecessor.
Ifanactivityhasmultipleimmediatepredecessors,
itsESisthemaximumofallEFvaluesofits
predecessors.
ES=Max{EFofallimmediatepredecessors}

41. Continue…
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-41
EarliestFinishTimeRule
Theearliestfinishtime(EF)ofanactivityisthesum
ofitsearlieststarttime(ES)anditsactivitytime.
EF=ES+Activitytime

42. Backward Pass Method
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-42
Justastheforwardpassbeganwiththefirstactivity
intheproject,thebackwardpassbeginswiththe
lastactivityintheproject.
Foreachactivity,wefirstdetermineitsLFvalue,
followedbyitsLSvalue.Thefollowingtworulesare
usedinthisprocess.
LatestFinishTimeRule
Thisruleisagainbasedonthefactthatbeforean
activitycanstart,allitsimmediatepredecessors
mustbefinished:

43. Continue…
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-43
Ifanactivityisanimmediatepredecessorforjusta
singleactivity,itsLFequalstheLSoftheactivity
thatimmediatelyfollowsit.
Ifanactivityisanimmediatepredecessortomore
thanoneactivity,itsLFistheminimum
ofallLSvaluesofallactivitiesthatimmediately
followit.
LF=Min{LSofallimmediatefollowingactivities}
LatestStartTimeRule
Thelateststarttime(LS)ofanactivityisthe
differenceofitslatestfinishtime(LF)anditsactivity
time.Thatis:
LS=LF−Activitytime

44. Calculating Slack Time
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-44
TotalSlackTimeorTotalFloat:
TotalSlackisthelengthoftimeanactivitycanbe
delayedwithoutdelayingtheentireproject.
Note:CriticalPathiszeroTotalfloattimepath.
Mathematically:
TotalSlack=LS−ES
or =LF−EF

45. Calculating Slack Time
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-45
FreeSlackTimeorFreeFloat:
Thelengthoftimebywhichthecompletiontimeof
anynon-criticalactivitycanbedelayedwithout
causinganydelayinitsimmediatesuccessor
activities.
Note:CriticalPathiszeroFreefloattimepath.
Mathematically:
FreeSlack=MinimumofEStimeof
immediatesuccessor–EF

46. Problem2
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-46
a)DevelopanAOAnetworkforthisproblem.
b)Whatisthecriticalpath?
c)Whatisthetotalprojectcompletiontime?
d)WhatistheTotalslackforeachactivity?

47. Problem 3:
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-47
a)DevelopanAOAnetworkforthisproblem.
b)Whatisthecriticalpath?
c)Whatisthetotalprojectcompletiontime?
d)Whatistheslacktimeforeachindividualactivity?

48. Problem 4:
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-48
Question:

49. Project scheduling with uncertain activity
times
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-49
PERT(ProgrammeEvaluationandReview
Techniques)handlestheissueoftimevariabilityof
anactivitybyusingthreetimeestimates:
Optimisticcompletiontime :Thistimeassumes
thateverythingwillgoaccordingtoplanandwith
minimum difficulties.Thisshouldoccur
approximately1%ofthetime.Thatistheactivity
completiontimewillbe<allottedtime.()
o
t

50. Continue…
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-50
Pessimisticcompletiontime :Thistime
assumesthateverythingwillnotgoaccordingto
planandmaximumdifficultieswilldevelop.This
shouldalsooccurapproximately1%ofthetime.
Thatistheactivitycompletiontimewillbe>allotted
time.
Mostlikelycompletiontime :Thisisthetime
thatwouldmostoftenoccurshouldthiseffortbe
reportedoverandoveragain.Thatistheactivity
completiontimewillbe=allottedtime()
m
t ()
p
t

51. Assumptions:
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-51
1.Thefirstassumptionisthatthestandarddeviation
,,isone-sixthofthetimerequirementrange.
2.Thesecondassumptionrequiresthatthe
probabilitydistributionoftimerequiredforan
activitybeexpressibleasabetadistribution.
Note:Forexpectedcompletionoftheproject,normal
distributionisused.
Expected(mean)timeofanactivity=
Andvariance= 0
4
6
mp
e
t t t
t

 2
02
6
p
tt





52. Problem:
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t m
t p
t

53. Example:
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54. Problem:
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55. Problem:
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Problem:

56. Project Crashing
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-56
Theprojectcompletiontimecanbereducedby
reducing(crashing)thenormalcompletiontimeof
criticalactivities.
Thecrashingofnormalcompletiontimeofcritical
activitieswillincreasethetotalcostoftheproject.
Thereisatrade-offbetweenthetotalcostofproject
andthetotaltimerequiredtocompleteit

57. Cost Involved in Project
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-57
Directcost
Thecostthosewithwhicharupeesordollarfigure
canbedirectlyassociatedinaproject.
Easytoquantifyinmonetaryterm.
Itincludessetcost,operationalcost,development
costetc.
Indirectcost
Thesecostaretheresultsofoperationsthatarenot
directlyassociatedwithagivensystemoractivity
Theyareoftenreferasoverheadcost.
Itincludesinsurance,maintenance,protectionof
thecomputercentrefromtheheatandfirelighting
theorganization,providingairconditioningfacility
etc.

58. Project Crashing
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-58
Steps:
1.Determinethenormalprojectcompletiontimeand
associatedcriticalpath.
2.Identifycriticalactivitiesandcomputethecost
slopeforeachofthesebyusingtherelationship:
3.Forreducingthetotalprojectcompletiontime,
identifyandcrashanactivitytimeonthecritical
pathwithlowestcostslopevaluetothepointwhere
(i)anotherpathinthenetworkbecomescritical,or
(ii)theactivityhasbeencrashtoitslowestpossibletime.
C

ost

Slop
–
e
–


=
Crash cost Normal cost
Normal time Crash time

59. Project Crashing…
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-59
4.Ifthecriticalpathundercrashingisstillcritical,
returntoStep3.However,ifduetocrashingofan
activitytimeinStep3,otherpath(s)inthenetwork
alsobecomecritical,thenidentifyandcrashthe
activity(s)onthecriticalpath(s)withtheminimum
jointcostslope.
5.Terminatetheprocedurewheneachcriticalactivity
hasbeencrashedtoitslowestpossibletime.
Determinetotalprojectcost(indirectcostplus
directcost)correspondingtodifferentproject
durations.

60. Example
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-60
Thedataonnormaltime,andcostandcrashtime
andcostassociatedwithaprojectareshownbelow.

61. Example…
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-61
IndirectcostisRs50perweek.
a)Drawthenetworkdiagramfortheprojectand
identifythecriticalpath.
b)Whatarethenormalprojectdurationand
associatedcost?
c)Findoutthetotalfloatassociatedwithnon-critical
activities.
d)Crashtherelevantactivitiesanddeterminethe
optimalprojectcompletiontimeandcost.

62. Solution
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-62

63. Solution
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-63

64. Solution
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-64

65. Solution
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-65

66. Problem1
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-66
Q.Thedataonnormaltimeandcostalongwith
crashedtimeandcostassociatedwithaprojectare
showninthefollowingtable:
TheindirectcostisRs.400perday.Findtheoptimum
durationandtheassociatedminimumprojectcost.