Psychological tests; Introduction and Classifications

A short note about the concept of the psychological test; introduction, definition, characteristics, needs, classification, types, and some selected psychological tests.

1. Psychological Tests (Intro & Classification ) Presented by SHIV PRAKASH (PhD Research Scholar) Dept. of Psychiatry Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, U.P. India

2. Contents Introduction Definition Objectives Classification Characteristics Selected Tests Conclusion

3. Introduction The term  sample of behavior  refers to an individual's performance on tasks that have usually been prescribed beforehand. The samples of behavior that make up a paper-and-pencil test, the most common type of test, are a series of items. Performance on these items produce a test score. A score on a well-constructed test is believed to reflect a psychological construct such as achievement in a school subject, cognitive ability, aptitude, emotional functioning, personality, etc. Psychological testing  is the administration of psychological tests, which are designed to An Objective Standardized Measure of A Sample Behavior In otherworld's; A psychological test is a systematic procedure for obtaining samples of behavior, relevant to cognitive or affective functioning, and for scoring and evaluating those samples according to standards.

4. History of Psychological Tests Some Ancient Psychological Tests 2200 B.C.E.  Proficiency testing begins in China. The Emperor evaluates public officials every third year. 1800 B.C.E.  Babylonians develop astrology in order to interact with the gods and predict the future. Greeks later redefine astrology to predict and describe personality. 500 B.C.E.  Pythagoras begins practicing physiognomy to evaluate personality. 400 B.C.E.  Hippocrates introduces Humorology to the field of medicine for the treatment of physical and mental illness. 400 B.C.E.  Plato suggests people should find employment that is consistent with their abilities. Some Modern Psychological Tests 1900 A.D.  Sigmund Freud publishes  The   Interpretation of Dreams  which goes on to influence approaches to understanding personality for the next 50 years. 1905 A.D.  Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon publish a 30-item scale of intelligence designed to help classify schoolchildren in Paris schools. 1939 A.D.  David Wechsler introduces the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale which was designed to measure adult intelligence.  1943 A.D.  Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory was published. 1949 A.D.  The 16PF Questionnaire, 1st Edition is released for public use .

5. Definition According to Anstey (1966)-:“Psychological test can be defined as devices and techniques for the quantitative assessment of psychological attitudes of an individual” According to Freeman-: “A Psychological test is a standardized instrument designed to measures objectively one or more aspects of a total personality by means of samples of verbal and non-verbal responses, or by means of other behaviors” According to American Educational Research Association (AERA, 1999)-: “An evaluative device or procedure in which a sample of an examinee’s behavior in a specified domain is obtained and subsequently evaluated and scored using a standardized process” According to Lee Cronbach (1949/1960), “A test is a systematic procedure for comparing the behavior of two or more persons”.

6. It may be used as important tools in the areas such mental health, research work areas. It may be used as tools in school placement, in determining the presence of a learning disability or a developmental delay in identifying giftedness, or in tracking intellectual development. Psychological tests are used in research, however, most serve a practical purpose such as schooling, job qualifications, etc. Psychological tests specially personality tests are administered for a wide variety of reasons, from diagnosing psychopathology (e.g., personality disorder, depressive disorder, etc.). To measure aspects of mental ability, aptitude or personality of a person. It may be Used as par t of the recruitment or selection process. Objectives Psychological tests are used to assess a variety of mental abilities and attributes, including achievement and ability, personality, and neurological functioning . 1 2 3 4 5 6

7. Characteristics Psychological tests tend to be objective standardized measures and require a highly controlled uniform procedure for administration and scoring. Objective Psychological tests remain quantitative measures. Descriptive evaluation is not followed. There are two types of measure: i . Quantitative ii. Qualitative. Psychological tests always use numbers and scores. Quantitative The diagnostic or predictive value of a psychological test depends on the degree to which it serves as an indicator of a relatively broad and significant area of behavior. Predictive and Diagnostic A psychological test is a standardized measure. Standardization implies uniformity of procedure in administrating and scoring a test. Standardized It is used to measure a sample behaviour among the individuals. Sample Behavior Psychological tests usually follow an objective rule. Objectivity A normative score form a normative table is not open to subjective interpretation. Norm Tests should be reliable and valid. It is the most important characteristics of Psychological tests. Reliability & Validity

8. NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS Maruish (1999) has discussed the ways in which psychological test has helped in treatment planning: 1 Problem identification : this is the most primitive use of psychological testing when we have to plan treatment. By the help of psychological tests we come to know an individual’s problems especially in cases where patient is hesitant or has less insight into illness. Also we come to know whether patient has answered honestly or not. 2 Problem clarification: assessment procedures clarify the known problem. We can also draw an inference about the severity of the problem, the complexity of the problem and the degree of impairment in the patient’s socio-occupational functioning due to illness. 3 Identification of important patient’s characteristics : this is most important especially in the psychological management of the illness. We come to know the strengths and weaknesses of that particular individual and can better plan treatment. 4 Monitoring of progress along the path of expected improvement : test help us to keep the baseline measurement so as it would become easy to know whether the patient’s condition is improving and also the pace at which he is improving.

9. Classification Psychological tests can be classified in different ways. Singh, A.K (2006) has classified psychological tests as below: Scoring Objective tests: in such tests there is no scope for subjective judgment. Scoring is done as per prescribed method. e.g . MMPI-II . Subjective tests: includes tests where there is scope of subjectivity in scoring. The examiner can include his opinion and judgment. Administration Individual tests: simply involve those tests that are administered on a single person at a given point of time. e.g. Kohs Block Design Test . Group tests: this includes tests that can be used on more than one person at a given point of time. e.g. Bells adjustment inventory .

10. Classification Time Limit Power Tests: includes tests that have generous time limit but the difficulty increased as one takes the test. Speed Tests: in this category, are those tests that have more or less same difficulty level but one has to finish it in given amount of time but generally it assesses how rapidly a test taker responds. Content/ Nature of Items Verbal tests: includes tests that emphasizes on reading, writing and oral expression as a primary mode of communication. Non-Verbal tests: in such tests emphasis is not on language but at the same time does not completely eliminate role of language. Test items are usually presented in figures or symbols. e.g. Raven’s progressive Matrices. Purpose or Objective Personality tests, Neuropsychological tests, intelligence tests, achievement tests, aptitude tests and interest tests.

11. Types of Psychological Tests 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mode of Administration Rate of Performance Behavioral Dimension Measure d According to Medium of Tests On the basis of nature of Items According to mode of Interpretations According to mode of Scoring According to scope Individual Group Speed Test Power Test Paper Pencil Test Performance Test Verbal Test Non Verbal Test Norm Referenced Criterion Referenced Self Scored Test Expert Scored Test Culture Specific Test Culture Free Test Personality Tests Intelligence Tests Aptitude Tests Achievement Tests Creativity Tests Interest Tests Value Tests Attitude Tests

12. Some Selected Test Intelligence Tests Personality Test Attitude Test Neuropsychological Test Stanford Binet Test Rorschach inkblot test Opinion about mental Illness Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) Screen Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Kogan's  Attitudes to Older People Questionnaire Memory Assessment Scales (MAS) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) Holtzman inkblot test (HIT) Perceived Stigma Questionnaire (PSQ) The Mini-Mental State Examination ( MMSE ) Bhatia’s Performance Test of Intelligence Somatic Inkblot Series (SIS) Teacher Attitude Inventory (TAI) General Health Questionnaire GHQ-12, 28 Alexander Pass Along Test Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)- II Attitude Scale Towards Family Planning Beck Depression/Anxiety Inventory Raven’s Progressive Matrices Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Marriage Attitude Scale Young Mania Rating Scale

13. Stanford - Binet test for Intelligence Since the development of the Stanford- Binet , it has been revised several times. Currently it is in its fifth edition assesses intelligence and cognitive abilities in children and adults aged 2 to 85 years. It was introduced in 2003 by Roid . The items of this scale were reviewed for gender, race, ethnic, cultural, regional, and socio-economical biases. It assesses five factors: ( i ) fluid reasoning, (ii) knowledge, (iii) quantitative reasoning, (iv) visual-spatial processing (v) working memory Hindi adaptation of 1960 version was done by S.P. Kulshrestha .

14. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) In 1955 Wechsler-Bellevue scale was revised and renamed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), which consisted of 11 separate subtests, which include the Verbal scale (6 subtests) and the Performance scale (5 subtests). It was called WAIS-R after a revision done in 1981 and again in 1997 (WAIS-III). The WAIS-III consists of seven verbal and seven performance tests. The reliabilities for the WAIS-III are generally quite high (Psychological Corporation, 1997). Areas of note are that average split-half reliability for the Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) is .98, Verbal IQ (VIQ) is .97, and Performance IQ (PIQ) is .94.

15. Bhatia’s Performance Test of Intelligence The test is developed by C.M. Bhatia in 1955.This test consist of five sub tests – ( i ) Block Design Test, (ii) Alexander Pass along Test, (iii) Pattern Drawing Test, (iv) Immediate Memory and (v) Picture construction Test. The test can be administered on persons of 11 years of the age and above. All five sub tests are administered in a sequence as given above. The obtained raw score are converted into mental age (MA) which can be used to calculate I.Q. (Intelligence Quotient) of a person. This test is not to be use on mentally retarded persons (Bhatia, 1955).

16. Rorschach Inkblot Test It was developed by Herman Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist in 1921. Binet proposed the idea of using inkblots to assess personality functioning when Rorschach was only ten years old ( Binet & Henri, 1896). First standardized inkblot test was made by Whipple (1910) but Rorschach receives the credit for introducing original and important use of inkblots as well as in relation to clinical settings. Rorschach test includes ten inkblots in which card no. VIII, IX and X are fully chromatic while as card no. II and III are called semi chromatic cards and include black, red and shades of gray. Card no. I, IV, V, VI, and VII are called achromatic cards and includes black and shades of gray. Test includes administration with specific instructions and seating arrangement.

17. Thematic Apperception Test It includes a number of pictures on which a subject is asked to make a story. This test was first published by Murray in 1935, “A method for investigating fantasies: the Thematic Apperception Test”. TAT includes thirty cards and one blank card. There are specific cards for male and female similarly for young and old ones. Thus cards are selected as per sex, age and if some specific issues are needed to be assessed. A standard administration of the TAT includes 19 cards plus one blank card, though the administration also depends upon the different issues that an examiner wants to know and also on the professional experience of the examiner.

18. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory MMPI)- II This measure is formulated by Starke Hathaway and J. Charnley McKinley, published first article on the test in 1940 and was initially called as Minnesota Personality Schedule (Hathaway & McKinley, 1940). By the technique of empirical keying approach, which includes determination of items that differentiate between groups of people, MMPI’s scales were formed. MMPI-II consists of 567 affirmative statements. The scale has 10 clinical scales: (Hs) - Hypochondriasis , (D) - Depression, ( Hy ) - Hysteria, (Pd -) Psychopathic Deviate, (Mf) - Masculinity-Femininity, (P)- Paranoia, (Pt) - psychasthenia , (Sc) - Schizophrenia, (Ma) - Hypomania and (Si) - social Introversion. Recently, there has been a development of this scale in 2008 and is known as MMPI-II-RF (Restructured form). This test is used on age group 18 and above and consists of 338 items. But MMPI-II-RF is just alternative to MMPI-II test and not the full replacement.

19. CONCLUSION Psychological testing is a series of test that measure traits. It also measures feelings, beliefs and abilities that can possibly lead to peoples problems. It is helpful to know the test results. As par t of a psychological test a tool is used, which can detect psychological characteristics, such as, current conditions, or endurance characteristics of persons, groups or organizations.

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