Recent advancesin crop improvement and production of onion (Allium cepa L.).pptx

Onion crop improvement

1. 1 WELCOME..

2. UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, DHARWAD COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DHARWAD “ Recent advances in crop improvement and production of onion ( Allium cepa L.) ” LAKSHMIKANTHA S PGS21AGR8768 DEPT. OF HORTICULTURE MASTER’S SEMINAR – II 2

3. Scientific name: Allicum cepa L. Family : Alliacea e Ch. No.: 2n=16 It is commonly known as “ Queen of Kitchen ,” due to its highly valued flavor, aroma, unique taste and the medicinal properties The genus name “ Allium ” comes from Greek word “ aleo ” which means “ to avoid ”, because of its offensive smell. ( Shigyo et al., 2018) The cultivated onions are consumed in the form of fresh , frozen and dehydrated forms 3

4. B . Allium cepa var. aggregatum A . Allium cepa var . cepa 4 Fig. 1: Commercially cultivated onion species in India

5. Fig. 2: Other related spices of allium B . Shallot - Allium ascalonicum L. C . Chive - Allium schoenoprasum L. A . Kurrat - Allium kurrat L . 5

6. D . Welsh onion - Allium fistulosum L. E. Leek - Allium porrum L. F . Garlic- Allium sativum L . 6

7. 7 FLOW OF SEMINAR

8. Origin and Distribution Origin Central Asia (Jones and Mann, 1963) Distribution It is distributed around the world, mainly China, India, Uzbekistan, Egypt, Iran, Turkey, Brazil, USA, Vietnam, Pakistan etc. 8 Pareek et al., 2017

9. In the world China ranks first with respect to area ( 1.22 million hectares ) and production ( 22.81 million tonnes ) followed by India . (Singh and Khar , 2021) In India Area - 1.43 million hectares Production - 26.09 million tonnes (NAFED, 2021) In Karnataka Area - 2.4 lakh hectare Production - 44.17 lakh tonnes (KSDH, 2020-21). Area and Production 9

10. Constituent Per 100 g of edible portion of bulb Moisture 86.60 % Carbohydrates 11.1 g Protein 1.20 g Fat 0.1 g Calcium 46.9 mg Phosphorus 50 mg Iron 0.6 mg Sodium 4 mg Vitamin C 119 mg 10 Anonymous, 2007 Table 1: Nutritional composition

11. Anti-fungal factor - catechol Amino acid - Alliin Enzyme- Allinase Lachrymator factor- 1-Propenyl sulfonic acid Punguncy - Allyl propyl disulphide 11 Chemical compounds Anonymous, 2007

12. 12 Bulbs are used for preparing a variety of foods and also as spice in curries The immature plants and flower heads are used as a vegetable Bulbs are used for making processed products like fakes, powder , paste and pickles In traditional medicine onion is used externally to treat boils, wounds, coughs, bronchitis, asthma, gastro-intestinal disorders and headache USES

13. Botanical description Habit:  Perennial herb with bulb Root:  Fibrous adventitious root system Stem:  Underground bulb Leaf:  a cluster leaves emerges   from the underground bulb and cylindrical Inflorescence: Umbel Flower:  Small and white ( protandrous )  Perianth :  6 , white, arranged   in two whorls of three each  Stamens: 6 , arranged   in two whorls of three each Gynoecium :  Tricarpellary superior ovary (two ovules in each locule on axile placentation ) 13

14. 14 Fig. 3: Floral biology A . Inflorescence B . Flower parts

15. 15 Table 2: Germplasm resources at different institutions Crop improvement Name of institutes Country No. of Allium accessions NBPGR India 4500 DOGR India 2050 National Institute of Agro biological Sciences Japan 1352 Royal Botanical Gardens UK 1100 AVRDC Taiwan 1082

16. Table 3: Important onion species for crop improvement 16 SL. No. Botanical name Feature 1 A.Vavilovii Ancestor of onion 2 Shallot- A. ascalonicum L. Commercial crop in Europe and USA 3 Tree onion- A. Cepa var. viviparum Bulblets at the top the stalk 4 A. roylei Resistant to downy mildew and leaf blight 5 A. victorialis Novel source of Flavanoids . 6 A. galanthum New source for male sterility.

17. 17 SL. No. Botanical name Feature 7 Chive- A. schoenoprasum Cold hardy 8 Chinese chive- A. tuberosum Widely cultivated in China 9 Tumble weed onion- A. schubertii Used as a cut flower and potted plant 10 Star of Persia- A. christophii Dried flowers 11 A. karataviense Used for growing on rock gardens. Patil et al., 2022

18. Numerous genes have been identified that may be useful for breeding. A few important ones are listed below 18 Genes governing different traits in onion Table 4: Major genes in onion Traits Gene (s) Albino seedlings a/a Glossy foliage gl / gl Yellow anther ya / ya Male sterility ms/ms Red colure i / i C/C R/R Yellow colure i / i C/C r/r White colure i / i c /c R/R Khar et al., 2008

19. BREEDING OBJECTIVES High yield Better bulb quality (size, shape, colour , pungency, TSS). Longer bulb storage life Resistance to diseases (twister disease, purple blotch, basal rot, downy mildew) Resistance to insect pests ( thrips , maggots ) Resistance to abiotic stresses (moisture stress, high temperature, salinity, alkalinity) 19

20. 1. Introduction Introduction is an ancient method of crop improvement. It refer to process of introducing crop plants or verity into new areas. 20 Breeding approaches Table 5: Introduced varieties of onion Sl. No. Name of Varieties Country Features 1 Bermuda Yellow, Linda Vista, Mercedes USA Yellow coloured bulbs, Suitable for fresh consumption 2 Sweet Sandwich USA Suitable for dehydration 3 White spanish , Brown Spanish - Suitable for hilly areas 4 Cream Gold Australia Suitable for hilly areas 5 Early Grano UAS Yellow coloured bulbs Patil et al., 2022

21. 2. Evaluation The germplasm are collected and evaluated to identify the genotypes with desirable characters Cross-pollinated nature of onion exhibits wide genetic variability . Thus, it offers a considerable scope to identify suitable type for any particular region through evaluation 21

22. 22 Table 6: Evaluation of rabi onion genotypes for yield and quality attributes in northern Karnataka Sl. No. Genotype Total yield (t/ha) Total sugar (%) Pyruvic acid (µ mol /g ) 1 Bhima Red 22.88 6.55 4.40 2 Bhima Raj 12.67 7.30 4.75 3 Bhima Dark Red 20.00 7.16 3.00 4 Bhima Kiran 25.33 10.90 4.60 5 Bhima Light Red 16.53 8.30 4.30 6 Arka Vishwas 21.52 7.30 4.10 7 Arka Niketan 11.84 7.62 5.50 8 Rampur Local 10.53 6.10 5.10 9 Double Red Local 22.67 7.18 4.75 10 Telagi Local 23.33 7.67 5.20 11 RVC-21-40 35.20 6.97 4.90 12 RVC-21-42 26.99 6.68 5.00 13 Agrifound Light Red 17.07 6.90 5.10 14 NHRDF-3 18.75 6.89 4.89 15 Bhima Shakti 22.00 7.60 4.50 UAS, Dharwad Manjunath (2022)

23. 23 Table 7: Evaluation of onion genotypes for yield attributes Sl. No. Genotype Bulb yield (t/ha) 1 ONVC-01 48.41 2 ONVC-05 42.72 3 ONVC-08 61.33 4 ONVC-10 28.22 5 ONVC-12 59.29 6 ONVC-13 18.85 7 ONVC-15 29.45 8 ONVC-18 38.51 9 ONVC-20 76.11 10 ONVC-23 54.10 11 ONVC-28 33.02 12 Bhima Super 57.60 Reddy et al., 2022 UAS, Raichur ONVC- Onion varietal collection

24. 3 . Selection It is the oldest method of breeding. It involves picking up of better ones from the entire crop plant Many released genotypes are developed through this breeding method 24

25. 25 Sl. No. Genotype Features Year of release Institute 1. Pusa Riddhi High anti-oxidant 2012 IARI, New Delhi 2. Arka Vishwas Export 2011 IIHR, Bengaluru 3. Arka Swadista Fermented or bottle preservation 2010 4 Arka Sona Export 2011 5 Phule Suvarna Export 2001 MPKV, Rahuri 6 Phule Samarth Kharif 2006 7 NHRDF Fursungi Red coloured bulb 2019 NHRDF , Nashik 8 Akola Safed Field tolerate to pest and diseaces 2005 Dr. PDKV, Akola 9 Hisar Onion Selection- I good storage life 2006 CCSHAU, Hissar Table 8: New genotypes released through selection

26. 26 Sl. No. Genotype Features Year of release Institute 10 Bhima Raj Resistance to Anthracnose 2007 DOGR, Rajgurunagar 11 Bhima Shweta Resistance to Anthracnose 2010 12 Bhima Shubra White coloured bulb 2010 13 Bhima Safed Tolerate to thrips and diseaces 2014 14 Bhima Kiran Tolerate to thrips and diseaces 2010 15 Bhima Super Suitable for dehydrated rings and salad 2006 Patil et al., 2022

27. 4 . Hybridization The production of a hybrid by crossing two individuals of unlike genetical constitution is known as hybridization The development of an F 1 hybrid in onion required the development of a male sterile line (A line), an inbred maintainer for A line (B line) and a pollinator male parent (C line). These lines have the following genetic constitution A- line – S msms B- line – N msms C- line – N MsMs 27

28. 28 A. Male fertile umbel B. Male sterile umbel C. Male fertile anthers D. Male sterile anthers Fig. 4: Male fertile and sterile flower

29. 29 Hybrid Parentage Features Arka Kirtiman CMS 65 x Selection 13-1-1 kharif and rabi Arka Lalima MS 48 x Selection 14-1-1 tolerant to purple blotch Table 9. hybrids released by IIHR, Bangalore

30. Fig. 5: Marker validation of male sterile lines (ms) and their corresponding male fertile maintainer lines with use of orf725 marker. 30 Manjunathagowda and Anjanappa (2020) IARI, New Delhi

31. 31 Table 10: Evaluation of F 1  hybrids in kharif and rabi season for bulb yield Sl. No. Crosses Bulb yield (t/ha) Kharif season 1 L-883 × GKD-42 18.35 2 PRO-7 x Bhima Dark Red 12.75 3 RGP-2 × Bhima Super 16.35 4 RGP-3 × Bhima Super 12.20 5 L-883 x GKD-75 12.50 Rabi season 6 DOGR 344 x Bhima Super 45.50 7 Pune Red x BDR 42.90 8 Bhima Shakti x BDR 42.05 9 Bhima Shakti x GKD-75 40.10 10 Bhima . Kiran x Arka Kalyan 39.40 UAS, Dharwad Jeevitha , 2020

32. Evaluation of F 1  hybrids in onion developed through male sterility . Male sterile line Male fertile line MS 111A Bhima Super MS 222A Bhima Red MS 1600A Bhima Raj MS 48A Bhima Kiran MS 65A Bhima Shakti N-2-4-1 DOGR-592 DOGR-595 DOGR-1133 DOGR-1168 DOGR-1203 RGO-53 32 Gupta et al. (2018) Table 11: List of Male sterile line and Male fertile line DOGR, Rajgurunagar

33. Hybrids Marketable y ield (t/ha) Superiority over best check (%) Season DOGR-Hy-1 41.30 42.84 Rabi DOGR-Hy-2 34.96 20.91 Rabi DOGR-Hy-50 37.46 24.11 Rabi DOGR-Hy-3 34.20 16.22 Kharif DOGR-Hy-4 34.08 15.81 Kharif DOGR-Hy-5 38.73 20.11 Kharif Table 12: Yield and suitability of promising hybrids which are developed through male sterility Best check for rabi : Bhima Kiran (Marketable yield of 28.90 t/ha ) Best check for kharif : Bhima Super (Marketable yield of 29.42 t/ha) 33 Gupta et al. (2018)

34. HY- 1 HY- 3 HY- 2 HY- 4 HY- 5 HY- 50 Fig. 6: Kharif hybrids Fig. 7: Rabi hybrids 34

35. 6 . MUTATIONS Mutation is the changing in genetic material or a random changing in gene or chromosome resulting in a new trait Mutation could be the better option to create variability as it is difficult to exploit through hybridization due to flower morphology. 35

36. 36 EMS Concentration (%) Seed germination after 12 days (%) Seedling length (cm) Fresh seedling weight (mg) Dry seedling weight (mg) Control 73.33 11.02 29.09 1.82 0.2 66.67 10.34 28.07 1.70 0.4 46.67 5.49 17.45 1.48 0.6 38.33 4.30 12.44 1.26 0.8 28.33 3.59 10.31 1.19 1.0 15.00 3.11 9.14d 1.11 1.2 Table 13: Effect of EMS concentrations on percent seed germination and seedling growth parameters of onion cv. Bhima Dark Red Singh et al., 2021 IARI, New Delhi EMS- Ethyl Methane Sulfonate

37. 37 Analysis for LD 50 concentration of EMS on BDR Lethal dose 50 (LD 50 ) is the minimum concentration of EMS mutagen that allows minimum 50% survival of mutated seeds or seedlings and it is calculated on the basis of seed germination recorded after 12 days of sowing ( Probit Analysis) Singh et al., 2021 IARI, New Delhi 0.6 per cent (600 PPM) EMS is the optimum dose for onion cultivar Bhima Dark Red, which can be used by onion breeders for development of onion mutants

38. 7. Polyploidy: it is the presence of more than two sets of chromosomes above the diploid level in the nucleus of the cells of an organism of an organism 38 Polyploidy breeding may enhance the resistance of crops and improve the quality and yield of crop products and is the important way to create new germplasm .

39. TABLE 14: Effects of colchicine treatment on mortality and variants of shoot tips of tillered onion 39 Concentration ( μmol /L) Duration (day) Shoot tips Number Deaths Mortality (%) Variants % Variants 250 2 90 25 27.78 18 20 250 4 90 37 41.11 38 42.22 750 2 90 55 61.11 11 12.22 750 4 90 58 64.44 13 14.44 1250 2 90 67 74.44 15 16.67 1250 4 90 68 75.56 17 18.89 Ren et al., 2018

40. 40 A. variants and B. diploids A B Fig. 8: Comparison of the of variants and diploids

41. P roduction technology Climate Onion is a cool season vegetable and grows well under mild climate without extreme heat or cold or excessive rainfall. Temperature Vegetative growth - 12.8- 23.0 °C Bulb formation - 20-25 °C. 41

42. Soil Onion grows well on light loam, sandy loam or clay loam and fertile soil rich in organic matter . The soil should be well drained . The optimum soil pH should be 5.8 to 6.5 42 Seed Rate Broadcasting - 20-25 kg ha -1 Transplanting - 8-10 kg ha -1 ( Rabi ) and 12-15 kg ha -1 ( Kharif )

43. Table 15: Effect of transplanting dates on growth and yield attributes of onion var. Bhima Shweta 43 Dates of Transplanting Plant Height (cm) Number of Leaves/ plant Marketable Yield (t /ha) 1 th August 50 8.9 17.6 15 th August 53.3 9.5 20.2 1 th September 55.9 9.9 26.1 15 th September 66.1 10.4 29 Dhar et al., 2019

44. Land- Fertile and well drained Raised beds having width not more than 90 cm . Seed treatment- Captan , Thiram , (2 g/kg seed ) Seedlings become ready for transplanting 6-7 and 8-9 weeks after sowing during Kharif and Rabi season, respectively. The ideal seedlings are 15-20 cm tall and 0.8-0.9 cm thick. 44 Nursery raising

45. Manures and Fertilizers FYM 30 t/ha 125:75:125 kg ha -1 N , P 2 O 5, K 2 O Micronutrients Application of zinc, boron and iron or their combination improved yield and quality (Vijay et al., 2017). Application of VAM and/or Azospirillum lifoperum ( 1.25 kg/ha) will improves the uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, manganese, and zinc (Ahmed et al., 2017). 45

46. 46 Table 16: Effect of integrated nutrient management on growth and yield of onion cv. Telagi Red Treatments Plant height (cm) No. of Leaves/ plant Bulb yield (t/ha) T1 59.09 8.50 42.05 T2 61.32 8.84 43.63 T3 60.09 8.65 42.75 T4 60.26 8.67 42.83 T5 61.48 8.86 43.68 T6 60.37 8.70 42.90 T7 58.49 8.42 41.60 UAS, Dharwad Anappa , 2010 T1 - 81 kg N + 16 kg P +74 kg K + FYM 30 t/ha, T7 - Control T2 -81 kg N + 16 kg P +74 kg K + Vermicompost 6 t/ha, T3 -81 kg N + 16 kg P +74 kg K + Poultry Manure 3 t/ha T4 - 162 kg N + 32 kg P + 148 kg K + FYM 30 t/ha T5 -162 kg N + 32 kg P + 148 kg K + Vermicompost 6 t /ha T6 -162 kg N + 32 kg P + 148 kg K + Poultry Manure 3 t/ha

47. 47 Fig. 9: Effect of foliar application micronutrients on total yield of onion bulb UAS, Dharwad Mamatadevi , 2018

48. Broadcasting Drill sowing Transplanting of seedlings Planting of bulbs 48 PLANTING METHODS Broadcasting: 20-25 kg seeds per hectare is required for broadcasting. A light irrigation is given immediately after sowing (thinned is done after 6-8 weeks ) Drill sowing: It is commonly fallowed in rainfed areas. Different methods of drill sowing are line sowing, criss cross sowing and two way sowing

49. 3.Transplanting of seedlings : Transplanting is more commonly practiced under irrigated conditions . Spacing 15cm x 8-10 cm is fallowed 4. Planting of bulbs:- To meet out the demand of green onions . Bulbs are dibbled at 15 cm x 45 cm distance. For planting a hectare area, about 7.5 quintal of medium sized bulbs is required. 49

50. 50 Fig. 10: Semi-automatic six row onion seedlings transplanter IARI, New Delhi Pandirwar et al., 2019

51. 51 Table 17: Effect of spacing and planting time on yield and yield contributing characters of multiplier onion. Poovamma et al., 2020 Treatments Equatorial dia. (mm) Polar dia. (mm) Bulb yield (t/ha) S 1 -10cm ×10cm 14.25 19.49 21.34 S 2 - 10cm×15cm 14.93 20.37 16.20 S 3 -15cm×20cm 16.59 22.92 10.58 P 1 -10 th November 16.04 21.82 17.89 P 2 -25 th November 15.62 21.59 16.32 P 3 -10 th December 15.07 20.64 15.26 P 4 -25 th December 14.29 19.67 14.68

52. 52 Table 18: Interaction Effect of planting time and spacing on yield and yield contributing characters of multiplier onion. Treatments Equatorial dia. (mm) Polar dia. (mm) Bulb yield (t/ha) S1P1 14.87 20.41 25.65 S1P2 14.51 21.20 21.40 S1P3 14.08 18.08 19.55 S1P4 13.54 18.27 18.75 S2P1 15.58 20.97 16.45 S2P2 15.17 21.26 16.42 S2P3 14.65 20.06 16.18 S2P4 14.32 19.20 15.73 S3P1 17.69 24.09 11.57 S3P2 17.18 22.30 11.15 S3P3 16.47 23.77 10.06 S3P4 15.02 21.53 9.55 S1 -10cm x10cm S2 -10cmx15cm S3 -15cmx20cm P1 -10 th November P3 -10 th December P2 -25 th November P4 -25 th December Poovamma et al., 2020

53. INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS Weed management :- Herbicides along with one hand weeding at critical stages ( upto 40 DAT). Commonly used herbicides are pendimethalin , fluchloralin , butachlor and oxyflourfen 53

54. 54 Table 19: Effect of weed management on yield of onion Treatment Bulb yield (t/ha) T1 - Control 14.0 T2- Hand weeding at 20, 40 and 60 DAT 24.3 T3 - Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 ha -1 fb1 hand weeding at 40 DAT 27.7 T4- Pendimethalin 30% EC @ 1kg ha -1 fb1 hand weeding at 40-60 DAT 27.0 T5 - Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg ha -1 + Quizalofop ethyl 5% EC (PEM) @ 0.05 kg ha -1 at 40 DAT 29.8 T6- Pendimethalin 30% EC @ 1 kg ha -1 Quizalofop ethyl 5% EC (PEM) @ 0.05 kg ha -1 at 40 DAT 29.0 T7 - Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg ha -1 + ½ dose of ( Quizalofop ethyl 5% EC @ 0.05 kg ha -1 + Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg ha -1 ) at 40 DAT 30.8 T8 - Pendimethalin 30% EC @ 1kg ha -1 + ½ dose of ( Quizalofop ethyl 5% EC @ 0.05 kg ha -1 + Pendimethalin 30% EC @ 1kg ha -1 ) at 40 DAT. 30.2 Sahoo et al., 2017 FB- fallowed by PEM- Post emergent

55. 55 Table 20. Response of onion to plant growth regulators and their methods of application on bulb yield Sl. No. Treatments Bulb yield (q/ha) 1 Control 194.09 2 GA 3 @ 100ppm- seedling dip 277.47 3 GA 3 @ 100ppm-foliar spray 283.31 4 NAA @ 100ppm- seedling dip 277.20 5 NAA @ 100ppm-foliar spray 281.97 6 CCC @ 100ppm- seedling dip 222.20 7 CCC @ 100ppm-foliar spray 233.31 Dwivedi and Asati , 2019 RVSKVV, Madhya Pradesh

56. First irrigation - just after transplanting Subsequent irrigation - depends on the soil types, crop stage, and the season of growing Critical stages- bulb initiation and enlargement 56 IRRIGATION

57. 57 Table 21: Effect of different irrigation systems on growth and yield of onion Treatments Plant height (cm) No. of leaf per plant Bulb diameter (mm) Yield (t/ha) Flood Irrigation 32.56 5.41 34.53 24.52 Sprinkler Irrigation 36.40 5.89 48.25 34.20 Perforated pipe Irrigation 40.60 6.00 55.48 36.65 Drip Irrigation 42.00 6.89 61.85 45.25 CD (0.05%) 5.60 1.50 16.89 23.07 CIAE, Bhopal Rao et al., 2019

58. 58 Table 22: Effect of water logging stress on leaf phenol, leaf flavonoid and single bulb weight (g/plant) in onion genotypes at harvesting Genotypes Leaf phenol (mg/g) Leaf flavonoid (mg/g) Bulb weight (g/plant) Bhima Shubhra 13.05 2.01 2.70 Bhima Safed 9.03 1.99 2.54 Acc. 1630 11.48 2.06 1.27 KH-M 2 11.57 2.87 3.81 Acc. 1664 15.96 3.07 3.33 Bhima Dark Red 8.83 1.75 3.48 Bhima Raj 10.05 1.86 2.65 W 361 9.40 1.60 2.24 RGP 5 20.45 5.16 4.88 W 208 10.60 1.92 2.23 Dubey et al., 2020

59. 59 Table 23: Influence of fertigation on total yield and B:C ratio of onion Treatment Treatment details Total yield (t/ha) B:C ratio T 1 RDF (110:40:60:30) kg NPKS/ ha + Surface irrigation 26.81 0.8 T 2 100% RDF through fertigation 35.60 1.53 T 3 80% RDF through fertigation 35.11 1.42 T 4 60% RDF through fertigation 27.02 1.05 C.D. @ (5%) - 6.55 0.38 Jeevitha , 2020 UAS, Dharwad

60. Matured bulbs (3-5 months) Green onions (2-3 months) Maturity indices: Tops falling and dries up of neck, roots and outer scales ( Pruthi , 2001). In Khari f - Colour changes in leaves (slightly yellow), tops start drying and bulbs attain true shape and size 60 HARVESTING

61. Trampling Making the tops down manually 15 days before harvesting. It results in improved TSS and higher yield . 61 Fig. 11: Trampling

62. 62 Mehta and Yadav , 2015 JAU, Junagadh Fig. 12: Tractor operated onion harvester

63. The bulbs after harvesting are kept in shade for complete drying of tops. After complete drying, the leaves are cut leaving about 2.0-2.5 cm neck above the bulb Early harvesting leads to sprouting of bulbs ( rabi and Kharif ) and late harvesting in formation of secondary roots during storage in rabi season 63 Table 24: Yield Different size Average yield (t/ha ) Big size onion 20-30 Small size onion 16-20 Multiplier onion 15-18

64. Post-harvest losses like decaying ( 10-12% ) and sprouting ( 8-10% ) (Anon., 2021) can be managed by proper use of pre-harvest and post harvest technology Pre harvest practices 1. Use of good storer varieties 4. Irrigation 2. Use of good quality seed 5. Application of chemicals 3. Nutrients management 6. Maturity indices Post harvest factors Top cutting Treatment of bulbs Irradiation Drying and curing 64 POST HARVEST MANEGEMENT

65. 65 Table 25: Effect of gamma irradiation doses on Physiological loss in weight, rotting and sprouting of onion Treatment PLW (%) Rotting (%) Sprouting 36 DAS 72 DAS 84 DAS 36 DAS 72 DAS 84 DAS 36 DAS 72 DAS 84 DAS Gy 7.51 24.95 28.49 1.6 12.07 19.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 10 Gy 7.19 19.98 25.47 0.77 3.21 13.73 0.00 0.00 0.00 60 Gy 6.18 15.74 23.45 0.72 3.48 14.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 120 Gy 5.08 14.98 18.00 0.54 0.91 3.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 Sharma et al. (2020) PAU, Ludhiana DAS- Days after storage

66. Grading is sorting of fruits and vegetables into different grades according to the size, shape, colour , and volume to fetch high price in market. In India onion bulbs are classified into three grades based on bulb size 66 Grading Bulb grades Bulb diameter (mm) A >60 B 50-60 C 35-50 Table 26: different grades in onion Bisen et al., 2022

67. 67 Table 27: Size requirement of onion for foreign markets Bulb size (mm) Countries 40-60 mm Gulf countries 35-40 mm South East Asian Countries and Nepal 30-35 mm Bangladesh 40-50 mm Sri Lanka >60 mm European countries Bisen et al., 2022

68. Fig. 13: Onion graders Manually operated onion grader Capacity: 1.0 t/hr/2 person     Motorized onion grader Capacity: 2.0 t/hr 68 Bisen et al., 2022

69. 69 Automatic onion grading machine Capacity: 8 - 10 t/hr   Automatic onion grading machine Capacity: 10 t/hr/2 person   Fig. 13: Onion graders

70. The storage life of onion is affected by the choice of cultivars , agronomic practices , harvesting time and storage conditions (NRCOG, 2003). The storage room having dry atmosphere, uniform low temperature and proper ventilation is ideal for successful storage of onion . 70 STORAGE

71. Sprouting of bulbs during storage is influenced less by relative humidity but more by temperature . On the other hand, rotting is influenced more by humidity . A temperature of about 0°C with RH 64-70% is best for long-term storage. Onions can also be stored at 29-34°C temperature but the skin color of bulbs stored at high temperature is not as attractive as that of onions stored at low temperature. 71

72. Fig.14: Storage structures B. Cold storage A. Nashik type 72

73. 73 Table 28: Effect of sulphur , zinc and boron nutrition on storability of onion ( Allium cepa L.) in northern transitional zone of Karnataka T 1 Recommended package of practice T 2 Soil application (AS) of S @ 30 kg ha -1 + ZnSO 4 @ 15 kg ha -1 + borax @ 7.5 kg ha -1 + FA of ZnSO 4 @ 0.5% and borax @ 0.25% T 3 SA of S @ 30 kg ha -1 + ZnSO 4 @ 15 kg ha -1 + borax @ 10 kg ha -1 + FA of ZnSO 4 @ 0.5% and borax @ 0.25% T 4 SA of S @ 30 kg ha -1 + ZnSO 4 @ 15 kg ha-1 + borax @ 10 kg ha -1 + FA of ZnSO 4 @ 0.5% and borax @ 0.25% T 5 SA of S @ 30 kg ha -1 + ZnSO 4 @ 25 kg ha -1 + borax @ 10 kg ha -1 + FA of ZnSO 4 @ 0.5% and borax @ 0.25% T 6 SA of S @ 40 kg ha-1 + ZnSO 4 @ 15 kg ha -1 +borax @ 7.5 kg ha -1 + FA of ZnSO 4 @ 0.5% and borax @ 0.25% T 7 SA of S @ 40 kg ha -1 + ZnSO 4 @ 15 kg ha -1 + borax @ 10 kg ha -1 + FA of ZnSO 4 @ 0.5% and borax @ 0.25% T 8 SA of S @ 40 kg ha -1 + ZnSO 4 @ 25 kg ha -1 +borax @ 7.5 kg ha -1 + FA of ZnSO 4 @ 0.5% and borax @ 0.25% T 9 SA of S @ 40 kg ha -1 + ZnSO 4 @ 25 kg ha -1 + borax @ 10 kg ha -1 + FA of ZnSO 4 @ 0.5% and borax @ 0.25% Sujaina et al. (2022) UAS, Dharwad

74. 74 Table 29: Effect of application of sulphur , zinc and boron on physiological weight loss, sprouting and rotting percentage of bulbs in onion 60 days after storage Tr. No. Physiological loss in weight (%) Sprouting percentage Rotting percentage T 1 15.47 5.24 8.9 T 2 12.08 3.00 5.85 T 3 12.04 2.97 5.39 T 4 11.37 2.42 4.80 T 5 11.29 2.34 4.62 T 6 11.19 2.27 4.57 T 7 10.96 2.13 4.40 T 8 11.06 2.15 4.51 T 9 10.92 2.04 4.35

75. A. Flakes B. Pickle D. Chutney C. Dehydrated powder 75 Fig . 15: Processed products of onion

76. 76 Table 30: Optimization of dye concentration and dye extraction time for onion peel powder Concentration of onion peel powder (%) Colour Strength v alues Heating time of s olution 15 Min 30 Min 45 Min 2 0.4943 0.7315 0.6930 4 0.7423 0.6885 0.9560 6 0.6133 1.0185 0.6790 8 0.7815 1.2598 1.0933 10 0.9993 1.4168 1.4280 Soundarya et al. (2021) UAS, Dharwad

77. 77 Fig 16: Effect of different drying methods on powder recovery and rehydration ratio in onion powder under ambient conditions (28±1°C and 43±1% RH) T1-Solar tunnel dryer T4- Freeze dryer T2-Fruit and vegetable dryer T5- sun drying T3-Tray dryer Powder recovery Rehydration ratio Parveen et al. (2022) UHS, Bagalkote

78. 78 PALNT PROTECTION Table 31: Bioefficacy of on insecticides against onion thrips at maturity stage Treatments Dosage %/ml/g/ha Population of thrips / 5 plants 1 DBS 7DAS Nimidicidine 300 ppm 4000 ml 685.33 280.67 Vermiwash 6000 ml 564.33 258.67 Jeevaamrutha 2 % 573.67 268.00 Panchagavya 2 % 626.67 282.00 Biodigester solution 4000 ml 584.67 210.00 Verticilium lecani 200 g 636.00 248.67 Imidacloprid 75WG 200 g 742.67 144.00 Acetamiprid 20 SP 200 g 656.33 252.00 Profenophos 50 EC 2000 ml 719.67 243.00 Dimethoate 30 EC 3000 ml 705.00 204.67 Thiomethoxam 25 WG 200 g 697.33 143.00 Control - 708.33 659.00 UAS, Dharwad Mallinath , 2013 DBS- Days before spray DAS- Days after spray

79. 79 Twister disease Sl. No. Causal agents Autho r 1 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Gibberella moniliformis . Alberto et al . (2014) 2 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides + Fusarium oxysporum + Meloidogyne graminicola Patil et al. (2018) Table 32. Earlier reports and investigations on causal agents of onion twister disease

80. a. Abnormal elongation at basal portion b. Rotting of bulb c. Neck twisting Fig. 17. Symptoms of onion twister disease 80

81. d. Abnormal proliferation and yellowing of leaves 81 e. Colletotrichum blight f. S even whorl symptom

82. 82 Tr. No. Name of the treatment Trade name Concentration (%) T1 Tebuconazole 50% + trifloxystrobin 25% 75 WG Nativo 0.05 T2 Fluopyram 17.7% + tebuconazole 17.7% 400 SC Luna experience 0.025 T3 Hexaconazole 5 EC Contaf 0.1 T4 Kitazin 48 SC Kitazin 0.1 T5 Myclobutanil 10 WP Systhane 0.1 T6 Azoxystrobin 23 SC Amister 0.1 T7 Tebuconazole 29.5 SC Folicur 0.1 T8 Flusilzole 12.5% + carbendazim 25% 37.5 SE Lustre 0.05 T9 Carbendazim 12% + mancozeb 63% 75WP SAAF 0.25 T10 Propiconazole 25 EC Tilt 0.1 T11 Carbendazim 50 WP Bavistin 0.1 T12 Mancozeb 75 WP DM-45 0.25 T13 Trichoderma + Pseudomonas - 1 T14 Copper oxychloride 50 WP Blitox 0.25 T 15 Untreated check/control Table 33. Different fungicides and bio-control agent’s employed against onion twister disease management Manthesha et al. (2022) UAS, Raichur

83. 83 Table 34: Effect of fungicides and bio agents on per cent disease index and yield of onion Tr. No. PDI 7 days Before harvesting Yield (t/ha) T1 20.19 21.61 T2 22.78 24.67 T3 23.75 22.50 T4 29.05 22.11 T5 35.38 22.45 T6 27.78 22.45 T7 26.69 18.84 T8 28.93 18.28 T9 16.59 28.28 T10 18.54 27.45 T11 26.48 20.23 T12 19.60 25.50 T13 17.26 26.89 T14 34.43 20.64 T15 72.11 14.70 Manthesha et al. (2022) UAS, Raichur PDI- per cent disease index

84. 84 Table 35: Effect of planting methods and disease management schedules on twister disease of onion T 1 Seed treatment with Vitavax power @2gm/kg seeds + spray Spinosad @ 0.25 ml/L at 30 and 60 days after transplanting T 2 T1 + Soil application of Neem cake (100 kg/ac) + Sulphur @ 4 kg/ ac + Trichoderma @ 2kg/ac + Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 2kg/ac. T 3 T1 + Micronutrient soil application- Zinc 4kg/ac (Along with vermicompost ) and Boron -(20% solubore , 0.10% spray)+ seedling dipping in Pseudomonas solution (10g/L) T 4 Seed treatment with Vitavax power @ 2gm/kg seeds + Spray Hexaconazole @ 1ml/L + Spinosad @ 0.25 ml/L at 30 and 60 days after transplanting.

85. 85 T 5 T1 + spray 13:0:45 @ 3g/L @ 45 days after transplanting T 6 All treatments ( T1+T2+T3+T4+T5) Seed treatment with Vitavax power @ 2gm/kg seeds + Soil application of Neem cake (100 kg/ac) + Sulphur @ 4 kg/ ac + Trichoderma @ 2kg/ac + Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 2kg/ac+ Micronutrient soil application- Zinc 4kg/ac (along with vermicompost ) and Boron - ( 20% solubore , 0.10% spray) + seedling dipping in Pseudomonas solution (10g/L) + spray 13:0:45 @ 3g/L @ 45 days after transplanting + Spray Hexaconazole @ 1ml/L + Spinosad @ 0.25 ml/L at 30 and 60 days after transplanting T 7 Untreated control

86. 86 Tr. No. Per cent disease incidence Yield (t/ha ) IBCR Raised bed Flat bed Raised bed Flat bed Raised bed Flat Bed T1 41.67 46.67 8.55 8.34 6.08 2.28 T2 38.33 43.33 8.92 8.73 1.94 0.87 T3 33.33 36.67 10.67 8.91 13.36 3.67 T4 31.67 35.00 11.15 9.07 21.20 6.23 T5 36.67 38.33 9.15 8.68 10.17 4.64 T6 25.00 31.67 11.47 9.52 7.00 2.35 T7 51.67 66.67 7.68 7.94 - - Table 36: Effect of planting methods and disease management schedules on yield IBCR – Incremental benefit cost ratio

87. FUTURE PROSPECTS Development of onion hybrids for quality and yielding traits Breeding for biotic and abiotic stress tolerance Genetic improvement of  white and yellow onion Genetic improvement of red onion for table purpose Development of improved agronomic practices in onion and garlic Biotechnological approaches for biotic stress management Development of improved post-harvest management 87

88. Onion is a versatile crop with a long history of domestication and use, different institutes involved in crop improvement and production aspects have developed high yielding varieties, hybrids and standardized the management aspects of irrigation nutrients, weeds and diseases etc. and also developed storage structures and grading machines. All these studies helping formers to produce onion to meet out the internal requirements as well as export 88 CONCLUSION

89. 89 Thank you..