Remote sensing.......................pptx

Remote sensing.pptx

1. REMOTE SENSING And its applications

2. Introduction Phytogeography explores the natural features and phenomena of the planet, such as landforms, climate, ecosystems, and hydrology. Remote sensing, on the other hand, involves using technology to collect data from a distance, often through satellites or drones, to study these features and processes. By combining the knowledge gained from phyto geography with the data acquired through remote sensing, researchers can gain deeper insights into Earth's complex interactions and make informed decisions about environmental management, disaster response, and sustainable development.

3. out the Earth's surface without actually being in contact with it.” !!! Do you know that we have been using RS technology in our day to day life? Hearing Sound!! Reading Book!! • Energy source and sensor are two important component of RS technology. • Methods of collection of information: (two types) • 1) In-situ measurements and 2) Remote Sensing observations. • Measurement of body temperature using a clinical thermometer is “in-situ” measurement because object is touched by thermometer.

4. (A) Energy Source or Illumination – the first requirement to illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest. (B) Radiation and the Atmosphere - as the energy travels from its source to the target, its interaction with the intervening atmosphere and one more time during its travel from target to sensor. (C) Interaction with the Target – During course of interaction with target Three different process (i.e. reflection, absorption, transmission) occur and it depend on the properties of both the target and the radiation. (D) Recording of Energy by the Sensor - after the energy has been reflected/scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require a remote sensor to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.

5. (E) Transmission, Reception, and Processing - the energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital). (F) Interpretation and Analysis - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated. (G) Application - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply the information for better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

6. Data Acquisition: The elements of data acquisition process are: Source of energy Propagation of energy through the atmosphere Energy interactions with earth surface features Retransmission of energy through the atmosphere Airborne and/or space borne sensor “Sensors- These interactions result in the generation of sensor data in pictorial and/or digital form. Sensors are used to record variations in the way the Earth surface features reflect and emit electromagnetic energy.”

7. Remote Sensing of 2 types (Based on energy source used)

8. Passive Remote Sensing Natural energy source like electromagnetic radiation from Sun is used as main Advantages for active sensors source of energy. Operation in night is not possible after naturally emitted thermal infrared is not available. Example: Weather satellite, Active Remote Sensing Artificial energy source in the form of electromagnetic radiation is generated to illuminate the objective/target. Include the ability to obtain measurements anytime, regardless of the time of day or season. Example: Radar technology, SAR, camera, GPS etc.

9. A Satellite is an object that orbits around another object in space. • There are two kinds of satellites: • Natural Satellites (such as the moon orbiting the Earth) • Artificial satellites : are man-made robots that are purposely placed into orbit around Earth to perform numerous tasks in communication industry, military intelligence and scientific studies both Earth and space.

10. India's first satellite is Aryabhatta (1975) • First experimental remote sensing satellite is BHASKAR-1 in 1979 ( Carried TV and microwave cameras). • Indian National Satellite (INSAT) series , IRS series, Kalpana-1 (meteorological satellite), RESOURCESAT (IRS-P6), EDUSAT in 2004, CARTOSAT-1 in 2005, OCEANSAT-2 (IRS-P4) in 2009, etc. • INSAT-3DR is a meteorological satellite lunched in Sept. 2016

11. A black body is one that absorbs all the EM radiation (light) that strikes it. • To stay in thermal equilibrium , it must emit radiation at the same rate as it absorbs it so a black body also radiates well. • All objects with a temperature above absolute zero (0 K, -273.15 °C) emit energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation

12. The sun act as a blackbody has effective temperature of 6000 K “ showers ” enormous quantity of electromagnetic energy. Electromagnetic radiation are created by the vibration of an electric charge and these changing electric fields induces changing magnetic fields in the surrounding medium. This vibration creates a wave which has both an electric and a magnetic component.

13. Two characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are important. These are the wavelength and frequency. Both are inversely related to each other. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency. The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency. An electromagnetic wave transports its energy through a vacuum at a speed of 3.00 x 108 m/s . The total amount of energy emitted by the sun and received at Earth’s atmosphere is constant, 1370 W/m2/sec. That received per unit area of the Earth’s surface is 343W/m2/sec.

14. The different wavelength bands of electromagnetic spectrum are as follows: Cosmic rays: These are very high frequency waves that originate from sun. Gamma rays: These follow cosmic rays with a wavelength less than 0.01nm. X-rays : These waves range from 0.01 to 10nm. Ultraviolet (UV): This energy adjoins the blue end of the visible portion of the spectrum and has wavelengths of 10 – 310 nm. Visible : This corresponds to the spectral sensitivity of the human eye and extends from approximately 0.4 µm to 0.7 µm. The color blue has the range of 0.4 to 0.5 µm, green from 0.5 to 0.6 µm and red from 0.6 to 0.7 µm. Infrared : Adjoining the red end of visible region are three different categories of infrared (IR) waves: near IR (from 0.7 to 1.3 µm), middle or short-wave IR (from 1.3 to 3 µm) and thermal IR (3 to 14 µm). Microwave : These wavelengths follow infrared region of the spectrum and lie in the wavelength of 1mm to 1m. TV and Radio waves: These waves extend beyond 1mm of the microwave region.

15. • Our eyes can detect is part of the visible spectrum. • It is important to recognize how small the visible portion is relative to the rest of the spectrum. • There is a lot of radiation around us which is "invisible" to our eyes, but can be detected by other remote sensing instruments and used to our advantage. • The visible wavelengths cover a range from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 μ m. The longest visible wavelength is red and the shortest is violet. • Over 99% of the energy flux from the sun (0.15 to 4 µm,) • With approximately 50% in the visible light region of 0.4 to 0.7 µm

16. Interaction of EMR with Atmosphere • Before radiation used for remote sensing reaches the Earth's surface it has to travel through some distance of the Earth's atmosphere. • Particles and gases in the atmosphere can affect the incoming light and radiation. These effects are caused by the mechanisms of scattering and absorption. • Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact with and cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. • Scattering depends on several factors including the wavelength of the radiation, the abundance of particles or gases and it size, and the distance the radiation travels through the atmosphere.

17. Scattering Atmospheric scattering is the unpredictable diffusion of radiation by particles in the atmosphere. There are three types of scattering: Rayleigh scattering Mie scattering Non-selective scattering

18. 4.1 Rayleigh scattering: This occurs when radiation interacts with atmospheric molecules and other tiny particles that are much smaller in diameter than the wavelength of the radiation. The effect of Rayleigh scatter is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength. Hence, there is much stronger tendency for short wavelengths to be scattered by mechanism than long wavelengths. This is the reason why sky appears blue during daytime; while black during night-time. At sunrise and sunset, however, the sun’s rays travel through a longer atmospheric path length than during midday. With the longer path, the scatter of short wavelengths is so complete that we see only the less scattered, longer wavelengths of orange and red. Rayleigh scatter is responsible for causing haze in imagery that reduces the contrast of the image.

19. Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of the radiation. Effect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering. • Occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant, and dominates when cloud conditions are overcast. • Ex: Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapor etc. Sky appears “Orange/red” during sunrise and sunset, because the light has to travel farther through the atmosphere than at midday and the scattering of the shorter wavelengths is more complete; this leaves a greater proportion of the longer wavelengths to penetrate the atmosphere. Sunset colors are typically more brilliant than sunrise colors, because the evening air contains more particles than morning air…

20. Non-selective scattering: This type of scattering happens when the diameters of the particles causing scatter are much larger than the wavelengths of the energy being sensed. Example includes scattering by water droplets. They commonly have a diameter in the range 5 to 100 µm and scatter visible and near to mid-IR wavelengths about equally, that’s why it is said to be non-selective. This implies that equal quantities of blue, green and red light are scattered; hence fog and clouds appear white.

21. Nonselective scattering occurs when the particles are much larger than the wavelength of the radiation. • Ex: Water droplets and large dust particles etc. • All wavelengths are scattered about equally. This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear white to our eyes because blue, green, and red light are all scattered in approximately equal quantities • (Blue + Green + Red light = White light).

22. Absorption The atmosphere prevents, or strongly attenuates, transmission of radiation through the atmosphere. Absorption is the other main mechanism causes molecules in the atmosphere to absorb energy at various wavelengths. Atmospheric absorption results in the effective loss of energy to atmospheric constituents. Water vapor, carbon dioxide and ozone are the most efficient absorbers of solar radiation. Ozone (O3) : absorbs ultraviolet radiation high in atmosphere Carbon-dioxide (CO2) : absorbs mid and far-infrared (13-17.5microm) in lower atmosphere Water vapor (H2O): absorbs mid-far infrared (5.5-7.0, >27microm) in lower atmosphere. Therefore, the concept of Atmospheric Windows comes into picture, which are those wavelengths that are relatively easily transmitted through the atmosphere. Thus, the wavelength ranges in which the atmosphere is particularly transmissive of energy are referred to as atmospheric windows.

23. Energy Interactions with Earth Surface Features When electromagnetic energy is incident on any given Earth surface feature, three fundamental interactions with the feature are possible. Various fractions of the energy incident on the element are reflected, absorbed and/or transmitted (1) The proportions of energy reflected, absorbed and transmitted will vary for different Earth features, depending on their material type and condition. These differences permit us to distinguish different features on an image. (2) The wavelength dependency means that, even within a given feature type, the proportion of reflected, absorbed and transmitted energy will vary at different wavelengths.

24. A graph of the spectral reflectance of an object as a function of wavelength is termed as spectral reflectance curve. The configuration of spectral reflectance curves gives us insight into the spectral characteristics of an object and has a strong influence on the choice of wavelength regions in which remote sensing data are acquired for a particular application.

25. Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the atmosphere can reach and interact with the Earth's surface. • Energy incident on the Earth’s surface undergo through above three process i.e. Reflection, Absorption, Transmission. • The proportions of each will depend on the wavelength of the energy and the material and condition of the feature . 1). Reflection is the process in which the incident energy is redirected in such a way that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. The reflected radiation leaves the surface at the same angle as it approached. In remote sensing, we are most interested in measuring the radiation reflected from targets. 2). Absorption occurs when radiation is absorbed by the target. • Energy is transferred into other form-Say HEAT. • The portion of the EM energy which is absorbed by the Earth’s surface is available for emission and as thermal radiation at longer wavelength.

26. 3). Transmitted occurs when radiation is allowed to pass through the target. • Depending upon the characteristics of the medium, during the transmission velocity and wavelength of the radiation changes, whereas the frequency remains same. The transmitted energy may further get scattered and /or absorbed in the medium. • The combine effects of absorption and scattering reduces the intensity of incident radiation is called ATTENUATION.

27. ATMOPSHERIC WINDOW • Solar radiation has to pass through the atmosphere before it interacts with earth surface. Some of radiation is scattered and absorbed by gases and particles during passing through the atmosphere. • Those areas of the EMR spectrum which are not severely influenced by atmospheric absorption is called ATMOPSHERIC WINDOW. • In RS of earth’s surface having atmospheric window regions like 0.4-1.3 µm, 1.5-1.8 µm, 2.2-2.6 µm, 3.0-3.6 µm, 4.2-5.0 µm, 7-15µm, and 1cm-30cm etc. • Attenuation is the combine effects of absorption and scattering which will reduces the intensity of incident radiation.

28. Concept of Signature • Signature is the basic property which allows to identify an object. • Each individual has an unique signature, with which it can be identified. • In Remote Sensing, Signature is any set of observable characteristics, which directly or indirectly leads to the identification of an object. • This could be characteristics like spectral, spatial, temporal and polarization variations of an object. • Spectral variation are the changes in reflectance/emittance of objects as a function of wavelength.(color of objects is a indication of spectral variation in visible region.) • Spatial variation is the arrangement of terrain features based on attributes like shape, size, texture of objects. • Temporal variation are the changes in reflectance with time.(Seasonal change of crop pattern/color is good indicator) • Polarization variation is the change in polarization of radiation reflected by objects (Generally used in microwave remote sensing)

29. Why leaf looks green? • Leaves: A chemical compound in leaves called chlorophyll strongly absorbs radiation in the red and blue wavelengths but reflects green wavelengths. • Leaves appear "greenest“ to us in the summer, when chlorophyll content is at its maximum. In autumn, there is less chlorophyll in the leaves, so there is less absorption and proportionately more reflection of the red wavelengths, making the leaves appear red or yellow (yellow is a combination of red and green wavelengths). The internal structure of healthy leaves act as excellent diffuse reflectors of near-infrared wavelengths. If our eyes were sensitive to near-infrared, trees would appear extremely bright to us at these wavelengths.

30. Why Water Looks Blue? • Water: Longer wavelength of visible and near infrared radiation is absorbed more by water than shorter visible wavelengths. Thus water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths, and darker if viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths. • If there is suspended sediment present in the upper layers of the water body, then this will allow better reflectivity and a brighter appearance of the water. The apparent color of the water will show a slight shift to longer wavelengths. • Chlorophyll in algae absorbs more of the blue wavelengths and reflects the green, making the water appear more green in color when algae is present.

31. Remote Sensors • Instruments used to measure the EMR reflected/emitted from target are referred as remote sensor. • Again of two type based on kind of radiation sense like Passive sensors sense natural radiation emitted/reflected from earth/objects where as active sensors carry own source of EMR to illuminate the target. • The major parameters of sensor system are 1. Spatial resolution (Pixel Size): the capacity of sensor to discriminate the small object on the ground of different size.(area of ground imaged by one pixel) • Most remote sensing images are composed of a matrix of picture elements, or pixels, which are the smallest units of an image.(Example:QuickBird:0.65m, GeoEye1:0.4m etc ). • Based on specific application, the sensor are customized.(Example: OCM,)

32. 2. Spectral resolution: the ability of a sensor to define fine wavelength intervals. (i.e. the number of spectral bands in which the sensor can collect reflected radiance. The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the wavelength range for a particular channel or band. The choice or number of spectral bands required will depend upon the application of use. The spectral reflectance curves, or spectral signatures of different types of ground targets provide the knowledge base for information extraction. Reflectance measurements can help reveal the mineral content of rocks, the moisture of soil, the health of vegetation, the physical composition of buildings, and thousands of other invisible details.

33. 3. Radiometric resolution: to discriminate two object based on its reflectance/emittance difference. (actual Information content in image) Radiometric resolution refers to how much information is in a pixel and is expressed in units of bits.(higher the RR, smaller the radiance difference that can be detected between two target. A single bit of information represents a binary decision of yes or no, with a mathematical value of 1 or 0. Typical Black & White images from a source such as a digital camera are 8 bits, meaning the information is represented with a value of 0-255 or 256 in total. In contrast, a colour image is represented using 3 channels, Red, Green, Blue and each channel is 8 bits, equaling 24 bits of information. Humans visualise colours as a combination of the three primary colours , red, green and blue. A radiometric resolution of 11 means the pixel has 2048 possible intensities of blue, 12 bit resolution represents 4,096 shades of blue.

34. 4. Temporal resolution: the capability to view the same target, under same condition at regular intervals. Important factors to consider with regards to temporal resolution : Leaf on/leaf off Tidal stage Seasonal differences Shadows Relationship to field sampling Phonological differences such as flowering, breeding and migration differences in relation to climatic conditions.

35. Data Acquisition and Interpretation The detection of electromagnetic energy can be performed either photographically or electronically. The process of photography uses chemical reactions on the surface of a light sensitive film to detect energy variations within a scene. Electronic sources generate an electric signal that corresponds to the energy variations in the original scene; and offer broader spectral sensitivity. An example is a video camera. In remote sensing, term photograph is reserved exclusively for images that were detected as well recorded on the film. The more generic term image is used for any pictorial representation of image data. As the term image relates to any pictorial product, all photographs are images. Not all images however, are photographs. A common exception to the above terminology is use of the term digital photography. Digital cameras use electronic detectors rather than film for image detection.

36.  Though the image shown in Figure 8 appears to be a continuous tone photograph, it is actually composed of two-dimensional array of discrete picture elements or pixels. The intensity of each pixel corresponds to the average brightness or radiance, measured electronically over the ground area corresponding to each pixel. Whereas the individual pixels are virtually impossible to discern in (a), they are readily observable in the enlargements shown in (b) and (c). Typically, the DNs constituting a digital image are recorded over numerical ranges as 0 to 255 (8-bit data), 0 to 511 (9-bit), 0 to 1023 (10-bit) or higher.

37. Reference data The acquisition of reference data is referred by the term ‘ground truth’, and involves collecting measurements or observations about the objects, areas or phenomena that are being remotely sensed. Reference data involves field measurements of temperature and other physical/chemical properties of various features. Reference data might be used to serve any or all of the following purposes:  To aid in the analysis and interpretation of remotely sensed data  To calibrate a sensor  To verify information extracted from remote sensing data Ground based measurement of the reflectance/emittance of surface materials to determine their spectral response pattern is one form of reference data collection. An example is spectra-radiometer that measures electromagnetic spectrum by recording data in very narrow bands simultaneously.

38. Environmental Monitoring: Remote sensing plays a critical role in monitoring environmental changes. It helps track deforestation, urban expansion, and changes in land use patterns. It's also used to monitor pollution levels, water quality, and the health of ecosystems. Agriculture and Crop Management: Farmers use remote sensing data to monitor crop health, estimate yields, and optimize irrigation and fertilization strategies. By analyzing satellite images, they can detect early signs of diseases, nutrient deficiencies, or pest infestations. Disaster Management: Remote sensing aids in disaster preparedness, response, and recovery. During natural disasters like earthquakes, floods, or hurricanes, satellite imagery can provide real-time information about affected areas, helping authorities allocate resources and plan evacuation routes. Applications of remote sensing

39. Weather Forecasting: Remote sensing satellites provide valuable data for meteorological agencies to predict weather patterns accurately. By observing cloud cover, temperature variations, and atmospheric conditions, scientists can create more reliable weather forecasts. Climate Change Studies: Remote sensing helps monitor and analyze changes in the Earth's climate system. Satellite data can track the extent of ice caps, monitor sea level rise, and measure greenhouse gas concentrations, contributing to a better understanding of climate change impacts. Oceanography and Marine Studies: Researchers use remote sensing to study ocean currents, sea surface temperature, and marine ecosystems. This information aids in fisheries management, monitoring coral reefs, and understanding the impacts of climate change on oceans.

40. Archaeology and Cultural Heritage : Remote sensing techniques like LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) are used to discover hidden archaeological sites and map landscapes. This technology has uncovered ancient ruins, structures, and artifacts that were previously difficult to detect. Urban Planning and Development: Remote sensing data helps urban planners monitor urban growth, assess infrastructure needs, and analyze population density. This information is crucial for creating sustainable and well-designed cities. Forestry and Natural Resource Management: Remote sensing assists in forest inventory, mapping, and monitoring. It helps track deforestation rates, estimate biomass, and plan sustainable forestry practices.

41. Wildlife Conservation: Conservationists use remote sensing to monitor wildlife habitats, track animal movements, and assess population dynamics. This data aids in designing effective conservation strategies. Geological Exploration: Remote sensing techniques are used to locate and assess mineral deposits, oil reserves, and natural resources. Satellite images and aerial photographs provide valuable insights for geological surveys. Transportation and Infrastructure Planning: Remote sensing supports transportation planning by analyzing traffic patterns, road conditions, and transportation infrastructure. This information is crucial for optimizing transportation networks.

42. Humanitarian Aid: In disaster-stricken or remote areas, remote sensing helps humanitarian organizations assess damages, identify accessible routes, and plan relief efforts efficiently. Health Monitoring: Remote sensing aids in tracking disease outbreaks, monitoring the spread of infectious diseases, and analyzing environmental factors that contribute to public health issues. Criminal Investigations: Law enforcement agencies use remote sensing to gather evidence, locate illegal activities, and monitor areas of interest during investigations.

43. Multistage remote sensing concept The success of many applications of remote sensing is improved considerably by making a multiple-view approach to data collection. This may involve: 1. Multistage sensing: Data about a site is collected from multiple altitudes. 2. Multispectral sensing: Data is acquired simultaneously in several spectral bands. 3. Multitemporal sensing: Data about a site is collected on more than one occasion. In the multistage approach, satellite data maybe analyzed in conjunction with high altitude data, low altitude data and ground observations. Thus, more information is obtained by analyzing multiple views of the terrain than by analysis of any single view. Further, it is pertinent to mention that any successful application of remote sensing requires appropriate data acquisition and data interpretation techniques besides conventional methods. Remote sensing data are currently being used in conjunction with GIS to acquire best possible solutions to problems.

44. FOREST FIRE DETECTION ONE OF THE APPLICATION IN REMOTE SENSOR

45. How can you detect forest fire using remote sensing in respect to electromagnetic spectrum??? On the basis of the size of the waves and frequency, the energy waves are grouped into Gamma, X–rays, Ultraviolet rays, Visible rays, Infrared rays , Microwaves and Radio waves. Each one of these broad regions of spectrum is used in different applications. However, the visible, infrared and microwave regions of energy are used in remote sensing Infrared rays are crucial for detecting forest fires because they can sense heat signatures. Specialized sensors, like thermal cameras, detect the infrared radiation emitted by objects based on their temperature. In the case of forest fires, these sensors can identify areas where the temperature is significantly higher than the surroundings, indicating the presence of a fire. This technology allows for early detection and monitoring of forest fires, enabling prompt response and mitigation efforts. Infrared (IR) rays, also known as infrared radiation, are a type of electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than visible light. Every object emits infrared radiation based on its temperature. Warmer objects emit more infrared radiation, while cooler objects emit less. In the context of detecting forest fires, specialized sensors such as thermal cameras are used. These sensors are designed to detect and measure infrared radiation.

46. Observation of fires in Florida (U.S.A.) from the MODIS (a) and the AVHRR (b) sensors (courtesy of the NASA Earth Observatory).

47. Radiation emitted in the different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum by fires of several burning temperatures.

48. Heat Detection : When a forest fire starts, it generates intense heat. This heat causes the temperature of the surrounding vegetation and objects to increase. As these objects heat up, they emit infrared radiation. Thermal cameras can pick up this infrared radiation even in conditions of poor visibility or darkness. Differentiation : Thermal cameras can differentiate between objects based on their temperatures. Living vegetation, the ground, and fire all emit different amounts of infrared radiation. By analyzing the varying levels of infrared radiation, the camera can distinguish between the normal temperature of the forest and the elevated temperature caused by a fire. Image Formation : Thermal cameras capture the emitted infrared radiation and convert it into a visual image. In this image, different colors or shades represent different temperatures. Hotter areas, such as the fire and its immediate surroundings, appear as brighter colors (e.g., white, red, or orange), while cooler areas appear darker (e.g., blue, green, or black). Early Detection : Thermal cameras are mounted on various platforms, such as satellites, drones, aircraft, and ground-based installations. These platforms allow for the monitoring of large areas of forests and wilderness. By continuously scanning the landscape with thermal cameras, it's possible to detect the initial stages of a fire, even before it becomes visible or widespread.

49. Real-time Monitoring : The data from thermal cameras can be sent to command centers or firefighting teams in real-time. This enables rapid response efforts, as authorities can accurately pinpoint the location and extent of the fire. Early detection also helps prevent the fire from spreading further and causing more damage. In summary, infrared rays are instrumental in detecting forest fires by capturing the heat signatures generated by the fire. Thermal cameras and sensors that detect infrared radiation allow for early detection, effective monitoring, and swift response to forest fires, ultimately helping to minimize their impact on the environment and communities.

50. The vegetation distribution is mainly depends on topographic and environmental factors. Vegetation cover affects local and regional climate. Among the topographic factors altitude, slope and aspect are effective parameters on spatial distribution of vegetation (Clerk,1999, Solan,2007, Stage,2007). The soil characteristics are most important which are affected by aspect and altitude in-turn helps to determine plant ecological group (Sneddon, 2001). In a forest ecosystem, soil properties are also influenced by vegetation composition. The aspect and slope can control the movement of water and material in a hill slope and contribute to the spatial differences of soil properties (Chun, 2007). The remote sensing technique is most useful tool to determine the vegetation pattern. Major anthropogenic activities (crop cultivation and livestock grazing) are dominantly undertaken on gentle sloppy area. Major ecosystem changes due to human activities are crop cultivation and animal husbandry ( Wondie , 2012). Aspect, slope and elevation have been found to significantly affect the spatial and temporal distribution of vegetation. The land use land cover classes identification would provide proper planning to protect further reduction of forest vegetation. Vegetation distribution By remote sensing

51. Geospatial variability refers to the variation in properties features, or phenomena across geographical space. It has numerous applications in various fields, helping us understand and manage spatial patterns. Geospatial variability is a Fundamental concept in geographic and environmental research, encompassing the diverse characteristics and phenomena that exhibit variation across geographical space. This concept is pivotal in understanding the intricate interplay between physical attributes, environmental factors, and human activities that shape the Earth's surface. Geospatial variability

52. soil properties, including texture, composition, and nutrient content, exhibit spatial heterogeneity due to geological processes and historical land use practices. Likewise, vegetation distribution demonstrates variability influenced by climate, topography and soil characteristics. Geospatial analyses, including Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and spatial statistics, underpins the exploration of geospatial variability. GIS integrates geographical data, allowing researchers to overlay and analyze diverse datasets to uncover patterns and relationships spatial statistics enable the detection of Spatial autocorrelation and identification of clusters or outliers within data distributions.

53. It has applications in various fields, including: Environmental Science: Studying variations in climate, soil composition, and vegetation across different regions to understand ecological patterns and make informed decisions about conservation efforts. Agriculture : Analyzing geospatial data to optimize crop planting, irrigation, and fertilization strategies based on the specific characteristics of different areas within a field. Urban Planning: Assessing geospatial variability in population density, infrastructure, and land use to design efficient and sustainable urban development plans. Natural Resource Management: Monitoring changes in water quality, forest cover, and mineral resources across landscapes to aid in sustainable resource management. Epidemiology : Examining the spread of diseases and health disparities by analyzing geospatial data to identify patterns and allocate healthcare resources effectively. Disaster Management : Using geospatial information to predict, mitigate, and respond to natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and wildfires. Transportation Planning: Analyzing geospatial variability in traffic

54. 7). Transportation Planning: Analyzing geospatial variability in traffic patterns and road conditions to design optimal transportation networks and improve traffic flow 8). Geological Studies: Investigating geospatial variations in rock formations, fault lines, and geological features to understand Earth's history and potential hazards. 9). Market Analysis: Examining consumer behavior and preferences based on geographic location to tailor marketing strategies and product offerings. 10). Remote Sensing: Utilizing satellite and aerial imagery to study change in land cover, urban growth, and environmental conditions over time.

55. GEOTAGGING Applications of

56. Geotagging – - is the process of adding geographical information to various media in the form of metadata. The metadata usually consists of coordinates like latitude and longitude, but may even include bearing, altitude, distance and place names.  It is the process of adding geographical identification like latitude and longitude to various media such as a photo or video.  Geotagging can help users find a wide variety of location-specific information from a device. Geo-tagging provides significant information to implementers and planners and allows the public to view progress of the national government programs anywhere in the country in real time.

57. In general, these coordinates are in  latitude and longitude  and in  decimal degrees , which can be used to pinpoint the location of the media on a map. Geotagging can also include other data such as altitude, bearing, and place names. When you look at the properties of a digital photograph, you can find these  GPS positions  in the EXIF metadata of your photos.

58. Applications of geo-tagging: Social media:  Users can geotag photos that can be added to the page of the location they are tagging. Users may also use a feature that allows them to find nearby Face book friends, by generating a list of people according to the location tracker in their mobile devices. Daily updates:  The increasing numbers of cell phones with built-in GPS facilities are capable of geo-tagging a photograph as its being shot. Efficiency:  Allows projects in remote and conflict-affected locations to be easily and accurately located, managed and validated. Health system : Used as a Monitoring Tool in Large Scale Public Health Projects it enable to capture the location on the mobile device it also allows users to read this location for varied purposes. Infrastructure:  Geo-tagging of assets will ensure better monitoring, recording, and terrain mapping for future development works. Public works:  Easy identification of assets created under MNREGA, such information can be utilized for creation of additional developmental works on existing assets. Specific advertisements:  advertisements relevant to particular area can be customized according to targeted audience, place and product

59. Because of geotagged photos have locations, we often incorporate them into a web map for broader audiences to consume. For tracking a trip or vacation, users take photos at different landmarks and sites. Then, the traveler can take these geotagged photos and put them on a web map to see where each photo was captured. For site reconnaissance, photos can be worth a thousand words. Not only can you check site conditions with the photo, but you also have the photo coordinates for geolocation. NASA is running a campaign “Adopt a Pixel” to acquire ground-based photos to improve  land cover  derived from  satellite imagery . If you add geotagging for each photo, you can better track locations by knowing the GPS coordinates where the photographs were taken from.

60. Geotagging vs georeferencing Although some use these terms interchangeably,  georeferencing  is a completely different process than geotagging. Geotagging simply means a photo (often ground-based photographs) has a single coordinate point associated with it. Instead, georeferencing takes an aerial photograph and assigns coordinates to  each pixel  in the raster. By georeferencing , it overlays the entire image in the real world. This process of orthorectification geometrically corrects any distortion. In the end, the aerial photo becomes an orthophoto so that its scale is uniform.

61. THANK YOU