REPORT-IN-DECISION-MAKING.pptasdasdasdsadasdx

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1. Ethical decision making

2. What is Ethics? Ethics Moral principles that govern a person’s behavior or the conducting of activity. Branch of knowledge that deals with moral principles. Discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and obligation. System of moral principles, Rules and Norms.

3. Ethical Decision Making Defined Process of evaluating and choosing among alternatives in a manner consistent with ethical principles. A cognitive process that consider various Ethical Principles, Rules and Virtues or the maintenance of relationship to Guide or Judge individual or group decisions or intended actions.

4. Ethical models that guide decision making

5. Right theories This approach stipulates that the best ethical action is that which protects the ethical rights of those who are affected by the action.  It emphasizes the belief that all humans have a right to dignity. This is based on a formulation of Kant’s categorical imperative that says: “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another

6.  Fairness or Justice Approach The justice or fairness approach to ethics has its roots in teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who said that “equals should be treated equally and unequals should be treated unequally”. This approach demands that decision makers should be guided by fairness, equity as well as impartiality. How fair is an action?

7. Utilitarianism This term was conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill to help legislators determine which laws were morally best. In analyzing an issue in this approach, we have to: Identify the various courses of action available to us. Ask who will be affected by each action and what benefits or harms will be derived from each. Choose the action that will produce the greatest benefits and the least harm. The ethical action is the one that provides the greatest good for the greatest number.

8. Utilitarianism The ACT UTILITARIAN theory (J.S. Mill): An action is right, if it generates the most overall good for the most people involved. The RULE UTILITARIAN theory (Richard Brandt ) : individual actions are right when they are required by set of rules which maximizes the public good.

9. Virtue Theory This emphasizes on the character rather than the rights or duties. The theory advocated by Aristotle. Stressed on the tendency to act at proper balance between extremes of conduct, emotion, desire, attitudes.

10. Virtue Theory Virtue Theory proposed by Mac Intyre , highlighted on the actions aimed at achieving common good and social (internal) good such as social justice, promotion of health, creation of useful and safe technological products and services. He gave five types of virtues that constitute responsible professionalism public-spirited virtues proficiency virtues team-work virtues self-governance virtues cardinal virtues

11. Common Good Approach The Common Good Approach regards all individuals as part of a larger community. It is required to safeguard the sustainability of our community for the good of all, including our weakest and most vulnerable members.  Some things that nurture a healthy, functioning community are: stable family life; good schools; affordable nourishment and health care effective public safety; a just legal system; fair trade and commerce; an accessible technological environment; a well-maintained infrastructure and a peaceful society.

12. Common Good Approach This approach tests whether an action benefits or erodes a specific element of the common good. It invites us to ask what kind of society we are and want to become, and what actions we need to take to achieve that end.

13. WHICH APPROACH TO USE?

14. WHICH APPROACH TO USE? Ethicists Velasquez, Cavanagh and Moberg  have provided a schematic for ethical decision making that uses the criteria of utility, rights and justice together. If an action meets all three criteria, it can be considered ethical They also argue that in case an action does not meet any ‘one or two criteria, a person must consider whether any overwhelming factors’ would tilt his or her decision.

15. ETHICAL DECISION MAKING WITH CROSS-HOLDER CONFLICTS AND COMPETITION The problem of ethical decision making becomes more complicated when we factor the conflicting interests of stakeholders in business. Balance is necessary in this situation. Stack holder conflicts arise when the needs of some stack holder group compromise the expectations of others.

16. ETHICAL DECISION MAKING WITH CROSS-HOLDER CONFLICTS AND COMPETITION Barry (1986) proposed the following decision making rules regarding cases of conflicts and mixed effects:

17. APPLYING MORAL PHILOSOPHY TO ETHICAL DECISION MAKLNG Applying moral philosophy to ethical decision making is a normal process individuals resort to. However, what moral philosophy they take depends on whether they make a personal decision outside the work environment or they do so in a work-related matter. This difference in the approach of applying moral philosophies may arise because the kind of goals and pressures that motivate persons to achieve success in the work environment does not exist in their domestic or personal lives.

18. KOHLBERG’S MODEL OF COGNITIVE MORAL DEVELOPMENT The concept of cognitive moral development given by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. His six-stage model of cognitive development explains why people make different decisions in similar ethical situations. They do so because they are in one of the six easily identifiable moral development stages , which grow from a lower level to the higher level as people’s knowledge and socialization continue to develop over time. It explains how people make decisions based on the stage of cognitive moral development.

19. KOHLBERG’S MODEL OF COGNITIVE MORAL DEVELOPMENT The Stage of Punishment and Obedience This stage is generally associated with the behavior of small children who respond to rules dictated to them by their parents or teachers. Consider what is good or bad purely in terms of the potential penalty they have to suffer if they violate the rules. Even adults who are in this stage of cognitive moral development may follow this behavior of obedience to rules out of fear of possible punishment by those who wield the power rather than adopting an attitude of reasoning by themselves what is good and what is bad.

20. KOHLBERG’S MODEL OF COGNITIVE MORAL DEVELOPMENT The Stage of Individual Instrumental Purpose and Exchange At this stage, the individual evaluates behavior on the basis of its fairness to him or her. This is also called the stage of reciprocity because one’s decision and behavior is not based on any eternal values of loyalty, or commitment to the job, but to what one gets in return. Example of “ Shagun ”

21. KOHLBERG’S MODEL OF COGNITIVE MORAL DEVELOPMENT The Stage of Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships and Conformity This is a stage where individuals consider the well-being of others, though they may still be motivated by the obedience to rules. Fairness to others is one of the individual’s ethical motives. At this stage, people tend to live up to what is expected of them by those close to them.

22. KOHLBERG’S MODEL OF COGNITIVE MORAL DEVELOPMENT The Stage of Social System and Conscience Maintenance During this stage, an individual considers his or her duty to society as being the right thing to do. Duty, respect for authority, and maintaining the social order become the focal points We come across many persons to be law abiding and have such a commitment to these values that they follow them even at great inconvenience to themselves.

23. KOHLBERG’S MODEL OF COGNITIVE MORAL DEVELOPMENT The Stage of Prior Rights, Social Contract or Utility At this stage, an individual has a broader vision and develops a sense of social obligation or commitment. These individuals reduce such conflict and arrive at decisions by rational calculation of overall utilities. Doctors attending to critically injured patients with a view to reviving them back to life, even ignoring the legal provision.

24. KOHLBERG’S MODEL OF COGNITIVE MORAL DEVELOPMENT The Stage of Universal Ethical Principles An individual at this stage realizes that there are certain universal principles that are to be respected. A person in this stage favors social ethics to organizational ethics for ethical direction.

25. KOHLBERG’S MODEL OF COGNITIVE MORAL DEVELOPMENT Kohlberg’s six stages can be further reduced to three levels of ethical concern: Immediate self-interest Social expectations General ethical principles His model also suggests that individuals tend to change their decision priorities after their formative years.

26. INFLUENCES ON ETHICAL DECISION MAKING There are three major influences that have an impact on employees’ decision making in profession : Personal moral standards Workplace ethics and culture The nature of the issue concerned Businesspersons and industrialists often face tough ethical dilemmas, such as whether to use inferior raw materials to cut costs or to lay off workers.

27. PERSONAL VALUES AND ETHICAL DECISION MAKING An ethical decision maker needs to build and develop certain values The Josephson Institute of Ethics defines “the six pillars of character”. Trustworthiness Respect Responsibility Fairness Caring Citizenship

28. PERSONAL VALUES AND ETHICAL DECISION MAKING Trustworthiness When people trust us that is the greatest asset we can earn for ourselves from the society. Trustworthiness is linked and intertwined with a variety of commendable qualities such as honesty, integrity and loyalty

29. PERSONAL VALUES AND ETHICAL DECISION MAKING Respect We expect people to treat us with respect whatever be our status in life and society. Even when we deal with unpleasant and unreliable people we have to give them respect. A world where people accept and follow such values will be a better place to live in with lesser ethical dilemmas to face and solve.

30. PERSONAL VALUES AND ETHICAL DECISION MAKING Responsibility Being responsible is to take care of something or to carry out a duty diligently. A responsible person is trustworthy, capable of rational conduct while handling important duties. Responsibility also means being accountable for one’s actions. A person who is accountable is expected to lead by example. He knows both his strengths and limitations and acts responsibly. The other elements of responsibility include  pursuit of excellence , as others who follow a responsible person expect that person to have the knowledge, willingness and capability to perform the assigned tasks safely and effectively

31. AuTHORs Bhavesh patel Asst. prof . Electrical engineering department Gec , BHUJ References: www.slideshare.net Upload & Share Presentations, Documents & Infographics (slideshare.net)