Report Personality Development LPANTAO AY 18-19-2.pptx

Personality Development

1. Part 1. What are the most interesting ideas of Sigmund Freud? Presented by: Lyndy G. Pantao

2. Topic Outline of Part 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Anna O 1.3 The Unconscious Mind 1.4 The Psyche 1.5 Defense Mechanisms 1.6 Psychosexual Stages 1.7 Dream Analysis 1.8 Critical Evaluation

3. 1.1 Introduction: Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis , a method for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior

4. 1.1 Introduction: Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality For example , anxiety originating from traumatic experiences in a person's past is hidden from consciousness, and may cause problems during adulthood (in the form of neuroses)

5. 1.1 Introduction: Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) Thus, when we explain our behavior to ourselves or others (conscious mental activity), we rarely give a true account of our motivation. This is not because we are deliberately lying. While human beings are great deceivers of others; they are even more adept at self-deception.

6. 1.1 Introduction: Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) Freud's life work was dominated by his attempts to find ways of penetrating this often subtle and elaborate camouflage that obscures the hidden structure and processes of personality.

7. 1.1 Introduction: Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) His lexicon has become embedded within the vocabulary of Western society. Words he introduced through his theories are now used by everyday people, such as anal (personality), libido, denial, repression, cathartic, Freudian slip, and neurotic.

8. 1.2 The Case of Anna O The case of Anna O (real name Bertha Pappenheim ) marked a turning point in the career of a young Viennese neuropathologist by the name of Sigmund Freud.

9. 1.2 The Case of Anna O suffered from hysteria , a condition in which the patient exhibits physical symptoms (e.g., paralysis, convulsions, hallucinations, loss of speech) without an apparent physical cause Her doctor (and Freud's teacher) Josef Breuer succeeded in treating Anna by helping her to recall forgotten memories of traumatic events.

10. 1.2 The Case of Anna O During discussions with her, it became apparent that she had developed a fear of drinking when a dog she hated drank from her glass. Her other symptoms originated when caring for her sick father.

11. 1.2 The Case of Anna O She would not express her anxiety for her illness but did express it later, during psychoanalysis. As soon as she had the opportunity to make these unconscious thoughts conscious her paralysis disappeared.

12. 1.2 The Case of Anna O Breuer discussed the case with his friend Freud Out of these discussions came the germ of an idea that Freud was to pursue for the rest of his life. In Studies in Hysteria (1895) Freud proposed that physical symptoms are often the surface manifestations of deeply repressed conflicts .

13. 1.2 The Case of Anna O However, Freud was not just advancing an explanation of a particular illness. Implicitly he was proposing a revolutionary new theory of the human psyche itself. This theory emerged “bit by bit” as a result of Freud’s clinical investigations, and it led him to propose that there were at least three levels of the mind.

14. 1.3 The Unconscious Mind Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he described the features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.

15. 1.3 The Unconscious Mind Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind , and a primary assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater degree than people suspect . Indeed, the goal of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious .

16. 1.4 The Psyche

17. 1.4 The Psyche Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of the mind comprising the entities id, ego, and superego (what Freud called “ the psychic apparatus ”). These are not physical areas within the brain, but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of important mental functions.

18. 1.4 The Psyche Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure principle (gratification from satisfying basic instincts). The id comprises two kinds of biological instincts (or drives) which Freud called Eros and Thanatos .

19. 1.4 The Psyche Eros , or life instinct , helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining activities such as respiration, eating, and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created by the life instincts is known as libido .

20. 1.4 The Psyche In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct , is viewed as a set of destructive forces present in all human beings (Freud, 1920). When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed as aggression and violence. Freud believed that Eros is stronger than Thanatos , thus enabling people to survive rather than self-destruct.

21. 1.4 The Psyche The ego develops from the id during infancy . The ego's goal is to satisfy the demands of the id in a safe a socially acceptable way . In contrast to the id, the ego follows the reality principle as it operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind.

22. 1.4 The Psyche The superego develops during early childhood (when the child identifies with the same sex parent) and is responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed. The superego operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable manner.

23. 1.4 The Psyche The basic dilemma of all human existence is that each element of the psychic apparatus makes demands upon us that are incompatible with the other two. Inner conflict is inevitable .

24. 1.4 The Psyche For example, the superego can make a person feel guilty if rules are not followed. When there is a conflict between the goals of the id and superego , the ego must act as a referee and mediate this conflict . The ego can deploy various defense mechanisms (Freud, 1894, 1896) to prevent it from becoming overwhelmed by anxiety.

25. 1.5 Defense Mechanisms

26. 1.6 Psychosexual Stages In the highly repressive “Victorian” society in which Freud lived and worked women, in particular, were forced to repress their sexual needs. In many cases, the result was some form of neurotic illness.

27. 1.6 Psychosexual Stages Freud sought to understand the nature and variety of these illnesses by retracing the sexual history of his patients. This was not primarily an investigation of sexual experiences as such. Far more important were the patient’s wishes and desires , their experience of love , hate , shame , guilt and fear – and how they handled these powerful emotions .

28. 1.6 Psychosexual Stages It was this that led to the most controversial part of Freud’s work – his theory of psychosexual development and the Oedipus complex . Freud believed that children are born with a libido – a sexual (pleasure) urge. There are a number of stages of childhood, during which the child seeks pleasure from a different ‘object.’

29. 1.6 Psychosexual Stages To be psychologically healthy , we must successfully complete each stage . Mental abnormality can occur if a stage is not completed successfully and the person becomes ‘fixated’ in a particular stage. This particular theory shows how adult personality is determined by childhood experiences .

30. 1.7 Dream Analysis Freud (1900) considered dreams to be the royal road to the unconscious as it is in dreams that the ego's defenses are lowered so that some of the repressed material comes through to awareness, albeit in distorted form. Dreams perform important functions for the unconscious mind and serve as valuable clues to how the unconscious mind operates .

31. 1.7 Dream Analysis On 24 July 1895, Freud had his own dream that was to form the basis of his theory. He had been worried about a patient, Irma , who was not doing as well in treatment as he had hoped. Freud, in fact, blamed himself for this, and was feeling guilty.

32. 1.7 Dream Analysis Freud dreamed that he met Irma at a party and examined her. He then saw a chemical formula for a drug that another doctor had given Irma flash before his eyes and realized that her condition was caused by a dirty syringe used by the other doctor. Freud's guilt was thus relieved.

33. 1.7 Dream Analysis Freud interpreted this dream as wish-fulfillment. He had wished that Irma's poor condition was not his fault and the dream had fulfilled this wish by informing him that another doctor was at fault. Based on this dream, Freud (1900) went on to propose that a major function of dreams was the fulfillment of wishes .

34. 1.7 Dream Analysis Freud distinguished between the manifest content of a dream (what the dreamer remembers) and the latent content , the symbolic meaning of the dream (i.e., the underlying wish). The manifest content is often based on the events of the day.

35. 1.7 Dream Analysis The process whereby the underlying wish is translated into the manifest content is called dreamwork . The purpose of dreamwork is to transform the forbidden wish into a non-threatening form , thus reducing anxiety and allowing us to continue sleeping. Dreamwork involves the process of condensation , displacement , and secondary elaboration .

36. 1.7 Dream Analysis The process of condensation is the joining of two or more ideas/images into one . For example, a dream about a man may be a dream about both one's father and one's lover . A dream about a house might be the condensation of worries about security as well as worries about one's appearance to the rest of the world .

37. 1.7 Dream Analysis Displacement takes place when we transform the person or object we are really concerned about to someone else. For example , one of Freud’s patients was extremely resentful of his sister-in-law and used to refer to her as a dog , dreamed of strangling a small white dog.

38. 1.7 Dream Analysis Freud interpreted this as representing his wish to kill his sister-in-law . If the patient would have really dreamed of killing his sister-in-law, he would have felt guilty. The unconscious mind transformed her into a dog to protect him.

39. 1.7 Dream Analysis Secondary elaboration occurs when the unconscious mind strings together wish-fulfilling images in a logical order of events, further obscuring the latent content. According to Freud, this is why the manifest content of dreams can be in the form of believable events.

40. 1.7 Dream Analysis In Freud’s later work on dreams, he explored the possibility of universal symbols in dreams . Some of these were sexual in nature, including poles, guns, and swords representing the penis and horse riding and dancing representing sexual intercourse .

41. 1.7 Dream Analysis However, Freud was cautious about symbols and stated that general symbols are more personal rather than universal. A person cannot interpret what the manifest content of a dream symbolized without knowing about the person’s circumstances.

42. 1.7 Dream Analysis 'Dream dictionaries ', which are still popular now, were a source of irritation to Freud. In an amusing example of the limitations of universal symbols, one of Freud's patients, after dreaming about holding a wriggling fish, said to him 'that's a Freudian symbol - it must be a penis!'

43. 1.7 Dream Analysis Freud explored further, and it turned out that the woman's mother, who was a passionate astrologer and a Pisces, was on the patient's mind because she disapproved of her daughter being in analysis. It seems more plausible, as Freud suggested, that the fish represented the patient's mother rather than a penis!

44. Freud's Followers

45. Freud's Followers Freud attracted many followers, who formed a famous group in 1902 called the "Psychological Wednesday Society." The group met every Wednesday in Freud's waiting room.

46. Freud's Followers As the organization grew, Freud established an inner circle of devoted followers, the so-called "Committee" (including Sàndor Ferenczi , and Hanns Sachs (standing) Otto Rank, Karl Abraham, Max Eitingon , and Ernest Jones).

47. Freud's Followers At the beginning of 1908, the committee had 22 members and renamed themselves the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society .

48. 1.8 Critical Evaluation Is Freudian psychology supported by evidence? Freud's theory is good at explaining but not at predicting behavior (which is one of the goals of science). For this reason, Freud's theory is unfalsifiable - it can neither be proved true or refuted. For example , the unconscious mind is difficult to test and measure objectively. Overall, Freud's theory is highly unscientific.

49. 1.8 Critical Evaluation Despite the skepticism of the unconscious mind, cognitive psychology has identified unconscious processes, such as procedural memory (Tulving, 1972), automatic processing ( Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Stroop, 1935), and social psychology has shown the importance of implicit processing (Greenwald & Banaji , 1995). Such empirical findings have demonstrated the role of unconscious processes in human behavior.

50. 1.8 Critical Evaluation However, most of the evidence for Freud's theories are taken from an unrepresentative sample. He mostly studied himself, his patients and only one child (e.g., Little Hans).

51. 1.8 Critical Evaluation The main problem here is that the case studies are based on studying one person in detail, and with reference to Freud, the individuals in question are most often middle-aged women from Vienna (i.e., his patients).

52. 1.8 Critical Evaluation This makes generalizations to the wider population (e.g., the whole world) difficult. However, Freud thought this unimportant, believing in only a qualitative difference between people.

53. 1.8 Critical Evaluation Freud may also have shown research bias in his interpretations - he may have only paid attention to information which supported his theories, and ignored information and other explanations that did not fit them.

54. 1.8 Critical Evaluation However, Fisher & Greenberg (1996) argue that Freud’s theory should be evaluated in terms of specific hypotheses rather than as a whole.

55. 1.8 Critical Evaluation They concluded that there is evidence to support Freud’s concepts of oral and anal personalities and some aspects of his ideas on depression and paranoia. They found little evidence of the Oedipal conflict and no support for Freud’s views on women’s sexuality and how their development differs from men'.

56. Conclusion The unconscious can influence our behaviors and our personality, things that happen in childhood plant the seeds for adult personality development, traumatic events in childhood can have lasting effects on our personalities, and the sexual drive is an important factor in our lives that can influence our personality.

57. Part 2. Carl Jung Presented by: Lyndy G. Pantao

58. Topic Outline of Part 2 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Freud vs Jung 2.3 Theory of the Libido 2.4 Theory of the Unconscious 2.5 Archetypes 2.6 Critical Evaluation

59. 2.1 Carl Jung was an early supporter of Freud because of their shared interest in the unconscious was an active member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (formerly known as the Wednesday Psychological Society) became president at the request of Freud when the International Psychoanalytical Association formed in 1910

60. 2.1 Carl Jung publicly criticized Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex and his emphasis on infantile sexuality in 1912 while on a lecture tour of America the following year this led to an irrevocable split between him and Freud and he went on to develop his own version of psychoanalytic theory

61. 2.1 Carl Jung most of his assumptions of analytical psychology reflect his theoretical differences with Freud For example , while Jung agreed with Freud that a person’s past and childhood experiences determined future behavior, he also believed that we are shaped by our future (aspirations) too.

62. 2.2 Differences between Jung and Freud

63. 2.3 Theory of the Libido disagreed with Freud regarding the role of sexuality believed the libido was not just sexual energy, but instead generalized psychic energy

64. 2.3 Theory of the Libido For Jung the purpose of psychic energy 1. to motivate the individual in a number of important ways , including spiritually, intellectually, and creatively 2. an individual's motivational source for seeking pleasure and reducing conflict

65. 2.4 Theory of the Unconscious Like Freud (and Erikson), he regarded the psyche as made up of a number of separate but interacting systems. The three main ones were the ego , the personal unconscious , and the collective unconscious .

66. 2.4 Theory of the Unconscious According to Jung, the ego represents the conscious mind as it comprises the thoughts, memories, and emotions a person is aware of . The ego is largely responsible for feelings of identity and continuity .

67. 2.4 Theory of the Unconscious Like Freud, Jung (1921, 1933) emphasized the importance of the unconscious in relation to personality . However, he proposed that the unconscious consists of two layers . 1. personal unconscious 2. collective unconscious

68. 2.4 Theory of the Unconscious personal unconscious - essentially the same as Freud’s version of the unconscious - contains temporality forgotten information and well as repressed memories

69. 2.4 Theory of the Unconscious personal unconscious - he (1933) outlined an important feature of the personal unconscious called complexes (collection of thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and memories that focus on a single concept)

70. 2.4 Theory of the Unconscious personal unconscious - the more elements attached to the complex, the greater its influence on the individual

71. 2.4 Theory of the Unconscious personal unconscious - the personal unconscious was much nearer the surface than Freud suggested and Jungian therapy is less concerned with repressed childhood experiences - It is the present and the future , which in his view was the key to both the analysis of neurosis and its treatment.

72. 2.4 Theory of the Unconscious collective (or transpersonal) unconscious - his most original and controversial contribution to personality theory

73. 2.4 Theory of the Unconscious collective (or transpersonal) unconscious - this is a level of unconscious shared with other members of the human species comprising latent memories from our ancestral and evolutionary past - The form of the world into which [a person] is born is already inborn in him , as a virtual image’ (Jung, 1953, p. 188).

74. 2.4 Theory of the Unconscious collective (or transpersonal) unconscious - the human mind has innate characteristics “imprinted” on it as a result of evolution - these universal predispositions stem from our ancestral past (e.g. fear of the dark, or of snakes and spiders)

75. 2.4 Theory of the Unconscious collective (or transpersonal) unconscious - However more important than isolated tendencies are those aspects of the collective unconscious that have developed into separate sub-systems of the personality. Jung called these ancestral memories and images archetypes .

76. 2.5 Archetypes are images and thoughts which have universal meanings across cultures which may show up in dreams, literature, art or religion Jung believes symbols from different cultures are often very similar because they have emerged from archetypes shared by the whole human race. 

77. 2.5 Archetypes For Jung, our primitive past becomes the basis of the human psyche, directing and influencing present behavior. Jung claimed to identify a large number of archetypes but paid special attention to four: persona anima/animus shadow self

78. 2.5.1 “Persona” (or mask) the outward face we present to the world conceals our real self and Jung describes it as the “conformity” archetype the public face or role a person presents to others as someone different to who we really are (like an actor)

79. 2.5.2 “anima/animus” the mirror image of our biological sex, that is, the unconscious feminine side in males and the masculine tendencies in women Each sex manifests attitudes and behavior of the other by virtue of centuries of living together.

80. 2.5.2 “anima/animus” The psyche of a woman contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype), and the psyche of a man contains feminine aspects (the anima archetype).

81. 2.5.3 shadow the animal side of our personality (like the id in Freud) the source of both our creative and destructive energies In line with evolutionary theory, it may be that Jung’s archetypes reflect predispositions that once had survival value.

82. 2.5.4 self provides a sense of unity in experience For Jung, the ultimate aim of every individual is to achieve a state of selfhood (similar to self- actualisation ), and in this respect, Jung (like Erikson) is moving in the direction of a more humanist orientation.

83. That was certainly Jung’s belief and in his book “The Undiscovered Self” he argued that many of the problems of modern life are caused by “man’s progressive alienation from his instinctual foundation”. One aspect of this is his views on the significance of the anima and the animus.

84. Jung argues that these archetypes are products of the collective experience of men and women living together .

85. Together with the prevailing patriarchal culture of Western civilization this has led to the devaluation of feminine qualities altogether, and the predominance of the persona (the mask) has elevated insincerity to a way of life which goes unquestioned by millions in their everyday life.

86. 2.6 Critical Evaluation Jung’s ideas have not been as popular as Freud’s This might be because he did not write from the layman and as such his ideas were not a greatly disseminated as Freud’s. It may also be because his ideas were a little more mystical and obscure, and less clearly explained.

87. 2.6 Critical Evaluation On the whole modern psychology has not viewed Jung’s theory of archetypes kindly. Ernest Jones (Freud’s biographer) tells that Jung “descended into a pseudo-philosophy out of which he never emerged” and to many his ideas look more like New Age mystical speculation than a scientific contribution to psychology.

88. 2.6 Critical Evaluation However, while Jung’s research into ancient myths and legends, his interest in astrology and fascination with Eastern religion can be seen in that light, it is also worth remembering that the images he was writing about have, as a matter of historical fact, exerted an enduring hold on the human mind.

89. 2.6 Critical Evaluation Furthermore, Jung himself argues that the constant recurrence of symbols from mythology in personal therapy and in the fantasies of psychotics support the idea of an innate collective cultural residue . In line with evolutionary theory it may be that Jung’s archetypes reflect predispositions that once had survival value.

90. 2.6 Critical Evaluation However, Jung’s work has also contributed to mainstream psychology in at least one significant respect. He was the first to distinguish the two major attitudes or orientations of personality – extroversion and introversion . He also identified four basic functions ( thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting ) which in a cross-classification yield eight pure personality types.

91. Part 3. Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Presented by: Lyndy G. Pantao

92. Topic Outline of Part 3 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Psychosocial Stages 3.2.1 Trust vs. Mistrust 3.2.2 Autonomy vs. Shame 3.2.3 Initiative vs. Guilt 3.2.4 Industry vs. Inferiority 3.2.5 Identity vs. Role Confusion 3.2.6 Intimacy vs Isolation 3.2.7 Generativity vs. Stagnation 3.2.8 Ego Integrity vs. Despair 3.3 Critical Evaluation 3.4 References

93. 3.1 Introduction Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood.

94. 3.1 Introduction For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho), and conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).

95. 3.2 Psychosocial Stages According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues . Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

96. 3.2 Psychosocial Stages Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self .  These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

97. Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age 1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½ 2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3 3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3 - 5 4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+

98. 3.2.1 Trust vs. Mistrust (0 – 18 mos ) The infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve these feelings of uncertainty, the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care . If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.

99. 3.2.1 Trust vs. Mistrust (0 – 18 mos ) Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of  hope . By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support.

100. 3.2.1Trust vs. Mistrust (0 – 18 mos ) Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear . T his infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.

101. 3.2.2 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 mos – 3 yo ) The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy.

102. 3.2.2 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 mos – 3 yo ) For example, during this stage children begin to assert their independence by - walking away from their mother, - picking which toy to play with, and - - making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

103. 3.2.2 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 mos – 3 yo ) Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.

104. 3.2.2 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 mos – 3 yo ) For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance . So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.

105. 3.2.2 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 mos – 3 yo ) A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training). The aim has to be “self control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992). Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of  will .

106. 3.2.2 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 mos – 3 yo ) If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

107. 3.2.2 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 mos – 3 yo ) If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities .

108. 3.2.3 Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 5 yo ) These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive“.

109. 3.2.3 Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 5 yo ) During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play , as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities .

110. 3.2.3 Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 5 yo ) Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.

111. 3.2.3 Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 5 yo ) Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt . They may feel like a nuisance to others and will, therefore, remain followers, lacking in self-initiative.

112. 3.2.3 Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 5 yo ) The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in order to protect the child. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much.

113. 3.2.3 Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 5 yo ) It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows . If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”.

114. 3.2.3 Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 5 yo ) Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience .

115. 3.2.3 Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 5 yo ) A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of  purpose .

116. 3.2.4 Industry vs. Inferiority (5 - 12 yo ) Children are at the stage where they - will be learning to read and write, - to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills.

117. 3.2.4 Industry vs. Inferiority (5 - 12 yo ) It is at this stage that - the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and - will become a major source of the child’s self-esteem. - feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and - begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.

118. 3.2.4 Industry vs. Inferiority (5 - 12 yo ) If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior , doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential .

119. 3.2.4 Industry vs. Inferiority (5 - 12 yo ) If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic) then they may develop a sense of inferiority .

120. 3.2.4 Industry vs. Inferiority (5 - 12 yo ) Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty . Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of  competence .

121. 3.2.5 Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 – 18 yo) Occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity , through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

122. 3.2.5 Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 – 18 yo) The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium , - a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood , and - between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245)

123. 3.2.5 Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 – 18 yo) This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles  he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational .

124. 3.2.5 Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 – 18 yo) According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role” . During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes.

125. 3.2.5 Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 – 18 yo) Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of  fidelity .

126. 3.2.5 Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 – 18 yo) Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.

127. 3.2.5 Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 – 18 yo) During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations . Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion ( the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society )

128. 3.2.5 Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 – 18 yo) In response to role confusion or  identity crisis , an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness .

129. 3.2.6 Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 – 40 yo ) During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people . During this period, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.

130. 3.2.6 Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 – 40 yo ) Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of  love .

131. 3.2.7 Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 – 65 yo ) Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual.

132. 3.2.7 Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 – 65 yo ) People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them , often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people. We give back to society through - raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture

133. 3.2.7 Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 – 65 yo ) Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment , while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

134. 3.2.7 Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 – 65 yo ) By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of  care .

135. 3.2.8 Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65 yo – death) As we grow older (65+ yrs ) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person . It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

136. 3.2.8 Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65 yo – death) Erikson described ego integrity - as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be” (1950, p. 268) and later - as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65)

137. 3.2.8 Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65 yo – death) Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness .

138. 3.2.8 Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65 yo – death) Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of  wisdom . Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear .

139. 3.2.8 Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65 yo – death) Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego integrity and despair . Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as alternating states that need to be balanced .

140. 3.3 Critical Evaluation By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development (McAdams, 2001).

141. 3.3 Critical Evaluation Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has reconceptualized the way the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now considered active and significant times of personal growth.

142. 3.3 Critical Evaluation Erikson’s theory has good face validity . Many people find that they can relate to his theories about various stages of the life cycle through their own experiences.

143. 3.3 Critical Evaluation However, Erikson is rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of experiences must people have to successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and move from one stage to another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism for crisis resolution.

144. 3.3 Critical Evaluation Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this development occurs . For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage .

145. 3.3 Critical Evaluation However, Erikson stressed his work was a ‘tool to think with rather than a factual analysis’ . Its purpose then is to provide a framework within which development can be considered rather than testable theory.

146. 3.3 Critical Evaluation One of the strengths of Erikson's theory is its ability to tie together important psychosocial development across the entire lifespan.

147. 3.3 Critical Evaluation Although support for Erikson's stages of personality development exists (McAdams, 1999), critics of his theory provide evidence suggesting a lack of discrete stages of personality development (McCrae & Costa, 1997).

148. 3.4 References McLeod, S. A. (2018, April 05). What are the most interesting ideas of Sigmund Freud?. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html McLeod, S. A. (2014). Carl Jung. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-jung.html McLeod, S. A. (2018, May 03). Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html