REPORTS ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
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About This Presentation
Summer Trainning Report
Slide Content
A TRAINING REPORT
ON
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Submitted to Kurukshetra University in partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of
degree of
Bachelor of Technology in civil engineering
B.tech Civil engineering 7
th
semster
Batch 2014-2018
Submitted to : Submitted by :
Name : Mr.Sarvjeet Singh Name : Sher Bahadur
A.P. Civil Department Roll No. : 4914768
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
NAULTHA VILLAGE, PANIPAT
ON
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Submitted to Kurukshetra University in partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of
degree of
Bachelor of Technology in civil engineering
B.tech Civil engineering 7
th
semster
Batch 2014-2018
Submitted to : Submitted by :
Name : Mr.Sarvjeet Singh Name : Sher Bahadur
A.P. Civil Department Roll No. : 4914768
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
NAULTHA VILLAGE, PANIPAT
PREFACE
Excellence is an attitude that the whole of human race is born with. It is the environment that
makes sure that whether the result of this attitude is visible or otherwise. The well planned,
properly executed and evaluated industrial training help a lot in including the good culture. It
provides linkage between industry in order to develop the awareness of industrial approach to
problem solving based on broad understanding of process and mode of an organization. During
this period, the student gets their real firsthand experience on working in the actual environment.
Most of the theoretical knowledge that they have gained during the course of their studies is to
put to test here. Apart from this the student gets the opportunity to learn the latest technology,
which immensely help them in their career. This also benefits the organization as many students
doing their report perform very well and are here forth offered job in same organization.
I had the opportunity to have the real practical experience, which has increased my sphere of
knowledge to a great extent. Now I am better equipped to handle the real thing than anyone else
that has not undergone such training. During the training period, I learned how an actual report
progresses, what sort of problem actually occurs during the development of such reports. And
being in such a reputed organization, I had but the best exposure.
Excellence is an attitude that the whole of human race is born with. It is the environment that
makes sure that whether the result of this attitude is visible or otherwise. The well planned,
properly executed and evaluated industrial training help a lot in including the good culture. It
provides linkage between industry in order to develop the awareness of industrial approach to
problem solving based on broad understanding of process and mode of an organization. During
this period, the student gets their real firsthand experience on working in the actual environment.
Most of the theoretical knowledge that they have gained during the course of their studies is to
put to test here. Apart from this the student gets the opportunity to learn the latest technology,
which immensely help them in their career. This also benefits the organization as many students
doing their report perform very well and are here forth offered job in same organization.
I had the opportunity to have the real practical experience, which has increased my sphere of
knowledge to a great extent. Now I am better equipped to handle the real thing than anyone else
that has not undergone such training. During the training period, I learned how an actual report
progresses, what sort of problem actually occurs during the development of such reports. And
being in such a reputed organization, I had but the best exposure.
II
ACKNOLEDGEMENT
I express my deep gratitude to Mr. Arjun Chaudhary, Managing Director of
PMC Global Engineering Pvt. Ltd. for his valuable suggestions and guidance
rendered in giving shape and coherence to this endeavor. I am also thankful to his
team members for their support and guidance throughout the period of project.
Furthermore, I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial
role of the staff of PMC Global Engineering Consultancy, who gave us the
permission to use all required equipment and the necessary materials to complete
the task “BUILDING CONSTRUTION”. Special thanks to my team mate, who
had help me assemble the parts and gave suggestion about the task
“BUILDIN CONSTRUTION”. Last but not least, many thanks go to the head of
the project, Mr. Arjun Chaudhary whose have invested his full effort in guiding the
team in achieving the goal. I have to appreciate the guidance given by other
supervisor as well as the panels especially in our project presentation that has
improved our presentation skills thanks to their comment and advices.
ACKNOLEDGEMENT
I express my deep gratitude to Mr. Arjun Chaudhary, Managing Director of
PMC Global Engineering Pvt. Ltd. for his valuable suggestions and guidance
rendered in giving shape and coherence to this endeavor. I am also thankful to his
team members for their support and guidance throughout the period of project.
Furthermore, I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial
role of the staff of PMC Global Engineering Consultancy, who gave us the
permission to use all required equipment and the necessary materials to complete
the task “BUILDING CONSTRUTION”. Special thanks to my team mate, who
had help me assemble the parts and gave suggestion about the task
“BUILDIN CONSTRUTION”. Last but not least, many thanks go to the head of
the project, Mr. Arjun Chaudhary whose have invested his full effort in guiding the
team in achieving the goal. I have to appreciate the guidance given by other
supervisor as well as the panels especially in our project presentation that has
improved our presentation skills thanks to their comment and advices.
III
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this training report entitled “A Training Report on Building
Construction” at PMC GLOBAL Engineering Consultancy Pvt. Ltd. has been
undertaken by me. This training report has been prepared with respect to a part of
B.Tech Civil Curriculum of Kurukshetra university in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree in final year. It is my original work and
has not been submitted by any other person.
I also declare that this report is the result of my own effort and that the same has
not been submitted to any other university, institution for the award of any degree
or diploma
SHER BAHADUR BUDHA
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this training report entitled “A Training Report on Building
Construction” at PMC GLOBAL Engineering Consultancy Pvt. Ltd. has been
undertaken by me. This training report has been prepared with respect to a part of
B.Tech Civil Curriculum of Kurukshetra university in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree in final year. It is my original work and
has not been submitted by any other person.
I also declare that this report is the result of my own effort and that the same has
not been submitted to any other university, institution for the award of any degree
or diploma
SHER BAHADUR BUDHA
IV
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.N. CONTENTS PAGE NO.
1. About Site 1
2. Introduction 2
3. Introduction to Building 3
4. Different Types Of Building 3
5. Types Of Loads 5
6. Common Building Component 6
7. Superstructure 6
8. Foundation 8
9. Types Of Foundation 8
10. Building components 9
11. Elements of Building Construction 12
12. The General Principle 12
13. Aspects 13
14. Building by Laws 16
15. Limitation of Built up Area 16
16. Minimum Floor and Height of Rooms 17
17. Sizes of Rooms 18
18. Materials Used 20
19. Quality Control 22
20. Test for Bricks 22
21. Test for cement 23
22. Test for Aggregates 23
23. Test for Concrete 26
24. Conclusion 28
TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.N. CONTENTS PAGE NO.
1. About Site 1
2. Introduction 2
3. Introduction to Building 3
4. Different Types Of Building 3
5. Types Of Loads 5
6. Common Building Component 6
7. Superstructure 6
8. Foundation 8
9. Types Of Foundation 8
10. Building components 9
11. Elements of Building Construction 12
12. The General Principle 12
13. Aspects 13
14. Building by Laws 16
15. Limitation of Built up Area 16
16. Minimum Floor and Height of Rooms 17
17. Sizes of Rooms 18
18. Materials Used 20
19. Quality Control 22
20. Test for Bricks 22
21. Test for cement 23
22. Test for Aggregates 23
23. Test for Concrete 26
24. Conclusion 28
VI
INDEX OF FIGURES
S.N. PARTICULAR PAGE NO
1 Foundation 8
2 Component of Building 10
3 Beam 11
4 Stair 12
5 Patan Durbar Square, Kathmandu 15
6 Bricks 21
7 Steel 21
8 Wall 21
9 Cement 21
10 Wood 21
11 Compressive Strength Testing Machine 26
12 Slump Test 27
INDEX OF FIGURES
S.N. PARTICULAR PAGE NO
1 Foundation 8
2 Component of Building 10
3 Beam 11
4 Stair 12
5 Patan Durbar Square, Kathmandu 15
6 Bricks 21
7 Steel 21
8 Wall 21
9 Cement 21
10 Wood 21
11 Compressive Strength Testing Machine 26
12 Slump Test 27
1
ABOUT THE SITE
Our proposed site is located at Shora Khutte, Kathmandu, Nepal. The road which
is near to site leads to new Baneshwor. A branch road of 10m which is near is
existing wbm road connected very near to the plot. The total area of the site is
about 729.75 sq. ft. the residential building consists of three bed room, one
bathroom and a living room.
ABOUT THE SITE
Our proposed site is located at Shora Khutte, Kathmandu, Nepal. The road which
is near to site leads to new Baneshwor. A branch road of 10m which is near is
existing wbm road connected very near to the plot. The total area of the site is
about 729.75 sq. ft. the residential building consists of three bed room, one
bathroom and a living room.
2
INTRODUCTION
Building construction is the engineering deals with the construction of building such as
residential houses. In a simple building can be define as an enclose space by walls with roof,
food, cloth and the basic needs of human beings. In the early ancient times humans lived in
caves, over trees or under trees, to protect themselves from wild animals, rain, sun, etc. as the
times passed as humans being started living in huts made of timber branches. The shelters of
those old have been developed nowadays into beautiful houses. Rich people live in sophisticated
condition houses. Buildings are the important indicator of social progress of the county. Every
human has desire to own comfortable homes on an average generally one spends his two-third
life times in the houses. The security civic sense of the responsibility. These are the few reasons
which are responsible that the person do utmost effort and spend hard earned saving in owning
houses. Nowadays the house building is major work of the social progress of the county. Daily
new techniques are being developed for the construction of houses economically, quickly and
fulfilling the requirements of the community engineers and architects do the design work,
planning and layout, etc., of the buildings. Draughtsman are responsible for doing the drawing
works of building as for the direction of engineers and architects. The draughtsman must know
his job and should be able to follow the instruction of the engineer and should be able to draw
the required drawing of the building, site plans and layout plans etc., as for the requirements.
INTRODUCTION
Building construction is the engineering deals with the construction of building such as
residential houses. In a simple building can be define as an enclose space by walls with roof,
food, cloth and the basic needs of human beings. In the early ancient times humans lived in
caves, over trees or under trees, to protect themselves from wild animals, rain, sun, etc. as the
times passed as humans being started living in huts made of timber branches. The shelters of
those old have been developed nowadays into beautiful houses. Rich people live in sophisticated
condition houses. Buildings are the important indicator of social progress of the county. Every
human has desire to own comfortable homes on an average generally one spends his two-third
life times in the houses. The security civic sense of the responsibility. These are the few reasons
which are responsible that the person do utmost effort and spend hard earned saving in owning
houses. Nowadays the house building is major work of the social progress of the county. Daily
new techniques are being developed for the construction of houses economically, quickly and
fulfilling the requirements of the community engineers and architects do the design work,
planning and layout, etc., of the buildings. Draughtsman are responsible for doing the drawing
works of building as for the direction of engineers and architects. The draughtsman must know
his job and should be able to follow the instruction of the engineer and should be able to draw
the required drawing of the building, site plans and layout plans etc., as for the requirements.
3
INTRODUCTION TO BUILDINGS
A building is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place,
such as a house or factory. Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes and functions, and have
been adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials available,
to weather conditions, to land prices, ground conditions, specific uses and aesthetic reasons.
Buildings serve several needs of society – primarily as shelter from weather, security, living
space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter
represents a physical division of the human habitat (a place of comfort and safety) and
the outside (a place that at times may be harsh and harmful).
Different types of buildings
Buildings are classified based upon its occupancy and structure
• Residential Building
• Educational Building
• Institutional Building
• Assembly building
• Business buildings
• Mercantile buildings
• Industrial Buildings
• Storage buildings
• Hazardous buildings
• Residential Building: Buildings in which sleeping arrangements are provided with or without
cooking arrangement. It includes single or multifamily dwelling, apartments, lodgings,
restaurants, hostels, dormitories and hotels
• Educational building: These Include any building used for school, college, education
purposes.
• Institutional Building: these buildings used for different purposes, such as medical or other
treatment. They include hospitals, sanatorium, jails, and asylum
• Assembly Buildings: These are the buildings where group of peoples meet or gather for
amusement, social, religious, political, civil, travel and similar purposes. E.g. theatres, motion
pictures, houses, assembly halls, restaurants assembly halls.
• Business buildings: These buildings are used for transactions of business, for keeping accounts
and for similar other purposes.
• Mercantile building: These building are used as shops, stores, market for display and sale of
merchandise either wholesale or retail, office, shops, and storage services.
INTRODUCTION TO BUILDINGS
A building is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place,
such as a house or factory. Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes and functions, and have
been adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials available,
to weather conditions, to land prices, ground conditions, specific uses and aesthetic reasons.
Buildings serve several needs of society – primarily as shelter from weather, security, living
space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter
represents a physical division of the human habitat (a place of comfort and safety) and
the outside (a place that at times may be harsh and harmful).
Different types of buildings
Buildings are classified based upon its occupancy and structure
• Residential Building
• Educational Building
• Institutional Building
• Assembly building
• Business buildings
• Mercantile buildings
• Industrial Buildings
• Storage buildings
• Hazardous buildings
• Residential Building: Buildings in which sleeping arrangements are provided with or without
cooking arrangement. It includes single or multifamily dwelling, apartments, lodgings,
restaurants, hostels, dormitories and hotels
• Educational building: These Include any building used for school, college, education
purposes.
• Institutional Building: these buildings used for different purposes, such as medical or other
treatment. They include hospitals, sanatorium, jails, and asylum
• Assembly Buildings: These are the buildings where group of peoples meet or gather for
amusement, social, religious, political, civil, travel and similar purposes. E.g. theatres, motion
pictures, houses, assembly halls, restaurants assembly halls.
• Business buildings: These buildings are used for transactions of business, for keeping accounts
and for similar other purposes.
• Mercantile building: These building are used as shops, stores, market for display and sale of
merchandise either wholesale or retail, office, shops, and storage services.
4
• Industrial Buildings: These are buildings where products or materials of all kinds and
properties are fabricated, assembled, manufactured or processed
• Storage buildings: these buildings are used primarily for the storage or sheltering of goods,
wares or merchandise, vehicles and animals, grains
• Hazardous buildings: These buildings are used for the storage, handling, manufacturing or
processing of highly combustible or explosive materials or products
Classification based on structure
1. Load bearing Structure
2. Framed structure
• Load Bearing Structures: In this type of structures loads from roof slab or trusses and floors
are transmitted through walls to the firm soil below the ground .This type of structures are
adopted where hard strata are available at shallow depth. The structural elements like beams,
slabs rests directly on the walls.
• Framed Structures: Reinforced cement concrete structures are the most common type of
construction today. They consist of a skeleton of beams & columns. The load is transferred from
beams to the columns and column intern transfer the load directly to the sub soil through footing.
Framed structures are suitable for multi-story building subjected to variety of extreme loads like
compressive, tensile torsion, shear along with moment. • The open spaces in the skeleton are to
be filled with brick walls or glass panels.
• Industrial Buildings: These are buildings where products or materials of all kinds and
properties are fabricated, assembled, manufactured or processed
• Storage buildings: these buildings are used primarily for the storage or sheltering of goods,
wares or merchandise, vehicles and animals, grains
• Hazardous buildings: These buildings are used for the storage, handling, manufacturing or
processing of highly combustible or explosive materials or products
Classification based on structure
1. Load bearing Structure
2. Framed structure
• Load Bearing Structures: In this type of structures loads from roof slab or trusses and floors
are transmitted through walls to the firm soil below the ground .This type of structures are
adopted where hard strata are available at shallow depth. The structural elements like beams,
slabs rests directly on the walls.
• Framed Structures: Reinforced cement concrete structures are the most common type of
construction today. They consist of a skeleton of beams & columns. The load is transferred from
beams to the columns and column intern transfer the load directly to the sub soil through footing.
Framed structures are suitable for multi-story building subjected to variety of extreme loads like
compressive, tensile torsion, shear along with moment. • The open spaces in the skeleton are to
be filled with brick walls or glass panels.
5
Types of Loads
Various loads are taken into account while designing the foundation of a structure.
1. Dead loads
2. Live loads
3. Wind loads
4. Earthquake loads
5. Erection loads
Dead Load: Dead load comprises of the weight of all walls, partitions, floors and roofs
including all other permanent construction in the building
Wind load: It is considered as basic wind pressure which is equivalent static pressure in the
direction of the wind • Wind pressure= k v2 • Where k= co-efficient, 0.006 • V= wind velocity •
Wind pressure always acts in the vertically exposed surface of the walls and columns.
Snow load: Actual load due to snow depends upon the shape of the roof and its capacity to
retain the snow. The load due to snow may be assumed to be 2.5 kg/m3 per cm depth of snow
Earthquake load: an earthquake load produced waves in every possible direction below
ground. As per intensity or scale of earthquake, jerks and shocks are acting on the earth. As per
the location of the building in the prescribed zone of earthquake coefficients of earthquake loads
are decided.
Live Load: Live Loads consist of moving or variable loads due to people or occupants, their
furniture, temporary stores, machineries.
Erection Load: All loads required to be carried by the structure or any part of it due to storage
or positioning of construction material and erection equipment including all loads due to
operation of such equipment, shall be considered as ‘erection loads
Types of Loads
Various loads are taken into account while designing the foundation of a structure.
1. Dead loads
2. Live loads
3. Wind loads
4. Earthquake loads
5. Erection loads
Dead Load: Dead load comprises of the weight of all walls, partitions, floors and roofs
including all other permanent construction in the building
Wind load: It is considered as basic wind pressure which is equivalent static pressure in the
direction of the wind • Wind pressure= k v2 • Where k= co-efficient, 0.006 • V= wind velocity •
Wind pressure always acts in the vertically exposed surface of the walls and columns.
Snow load: Actual load due to snow depends upon the shape of the roof and its capacity to
retain the snow. The load due to snow may be assumed to be 2.5 kg/m3 per cm depth of snow
Earthquake load: an earthquake load produced waves in every possible direction below
ground. As per intensity or scale of earthquake, jerks and shocks are acting on the earth. As per
the location of the building in the prescribed zone of earthquake coefficients of earthquake loads
are decided.
Live Load: Live Loads consist of moving or variable loads due to people or occupants, their
furniture, temporary stores, machineries.
Erection Load: All loads required to be carried by the structure or any part of it due to storage
or positioning of construction material and erection equipment including all loads due to
operation of such equipment, shall be considered as ‘erection loads
6
Common Building Components
Super Structure
• The superstructure is that part of the building which is above the ground and which serves the
purpose of building’s intended use.
• Plinth
• Wall and columns
• Beams
• Arches
• Roofs and slabs
• Lintel and arches
• Chajjas
• Parapet
• Steps and stairs
Common Building Components
Super Structure
• The superstructure is that part of the building which is above the ground and which serves the
purpose of building’s intended use.
• Plinth
• Wall and columns
• Beams
• Arches
• Roofs and slabs
• Lintel and arches
• Chajjas
• Parapet
• Steps and stairs
7
Substructure
• The substructure is the lower portion of the building, which is located below ground level
which transmits the load of the superstructure to the sub soil.
• Foundations
Nominal Dimensions of building components
Building component Nominal Dimension
Plinth (Height) 30,45,60,75,90 cm
Wall thickness Partition wall Load bearing wall 10 cm 20, 30,40 cm
Lintel (thickness)
15 cm
Chajja Projections 30,45,60,75,90 cm
Slab thickness 0,1 to 0.15 m
Parapet wall thickness 10 cm
Parapet height 1 m
Door width 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2 m
Door height 1.8, 2.0, 2.1 m
Sill height 0.07 to 0.1 m
Lintel height 2.0 m from floor level
Substructure
• The substructure is the lower portion of the building, which is located below ground level
which transmits the load of the superstructure to the sub soil.
• Foundations
Nominal Dimensions of building components
Building component Nominal Dimension
Plinth (Height) 30,45,60,75,90 cm
Wall thickness Partition wall Load bearing wall 10 cm 20, 30,40 cm
Lintel (thickness)
15 cm
Chajja Projections 30,45,60,75,90 cm
Slab thickness 0,1 to 0.15 m
Parapet wall thickness 10 cm
Parapet height 1 m
Door width 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2 m
Door height 1.8, 2.0, 2.1 m
Sill height 0.07 to 0.1 m
Lintel height 2.0 m from floor level
8
Foundation
Types of foundation
• Foundations may be broadly classified as
(a) Shallow Foundation
(b) Deep foundation •
(a) Shallow Foundation
Spread footing
Combined footing
Strap Footing
Mat Foundation or Raft Foundation
Fig.1.FOUNDATION
Types of Foundation
• Spread Footing: - Spread footings are those which spread the super-imposed load of wall or
column over larger area. Spread footing support either column or wall
• It may of following kinds
• Single footing for column
• Stepped footing for a column
• Sloped footing for a column
• Wall footing without step
• Grillage foundation
Grillage Foundation
• Combined Footing: A spread footing which supports 2 or more columns is termed as combined
footing. The combined may be of following kinds
• Rectangular combined footing
• Trapezoidal combined footing
• Combined wall footing
Foundation
Types of foundation
• Foundations may be broadly classified as
(a) Shallow Foundation
(b) Deep foundation •
(a) Shallow Foundation
Spread footing
Combined footing
Strap Footing
Mat Foundation or Raft Foundation
Fig.1.FOUNDATION
Types of Foundation
• Spread Footing: - Spread footings are those which spread the super-imposed load of wall or
column over larger area. Spread footing support either column or wall
• It may of following kinds
• Single footing for column
• Stepped footing for a column
• Sloped footing for a column
• Wall footing without step
• Grillage foundation
Grillage Foundation
• Combined Footing: A spread footing which supports 2 or more columns is termed as combined
footing. The combined may be of following kinds
• Rectangular combined footing
• Trapezoidal combined footing
• Combined wall footing
9
Building Components
• Plinth: Plinth is that part of the building between surrounding ground surface and floor space
immediately above the ground. Plinth resists the entry of rain water entry inside the building,
entry of animals, insects & Rodents. General plinth height is 45, 60, 75, 90, 120 cm
• Wall: The walls are building blocks of bricks or stones. They divide the building space into
various space into various rooms. They support slabs and beams. They safely transmits the loads
coming on them from beams and slabs to the foundation. They provide privacy and protection
against heat, cold, rain, noise, dust winds. They offer resistant to firewalls may be of
• Brick masonry
• Stone masonry
• Columns: are vertical members along which beams and slab /roof is supported They are
square, rectangular and circular in shape in C/S
• Floor: A floor is a plane area to support occupants, furniture's, and equipment’s.
• Roof: The upper most part of the building constitutes the roof. The Slab and roof encloses the
space and offers protection from rain, heat, snow, wind, sound, fire. Slabs are 10, 12, 15 cm.
Building Components
• Plinth: Plinth is that part of the building between surrounding ground surface and floor space
immediately above the ground. Plinth resists the entry of rain water entry inside the building,
entry of animals, insects & Rodents. General plinth height is 45, 60, 75, 90, 120 cm
• Wall: The walls are building blocks of bricks or stones. They divide the building space into
various space into various rooms. They support slabs and beams. They safely transmits the loads
coming on them from beams and slabs to the foundation. They provide privacy and protection
against heat, cold, rain, noise, dust winds. They offer resistant to firewalls may be of
• Brick masonry
• Stone masonry
• Columns: are vertical members along which beams and slab /roof is supported They are
square, rectangular and circular in shape in C/S
• Floor: A floor is a plane area to support occupants, furniture's, and equipment’s.
• Roof: The upper most part of the building constitutes the roof. The Slab and roof encloses the
space and offers protection from rain, heat, snow, wind, sound, fire. Slabs are 10, 12, 15 cm.
10
Fig.2.COMPONENT OF BUILDING
Doors and windows:-A door provides a connecting link between rooms, allowing easy free
movement in the building. Window are opening provided in walls. Doors and windows provide
lighting and ventilation. The provide resistance to weather, sound and heat. They provide
security and privacy.
Sills:
Sills are lower portion of window and ventilator opening.
Steps and Stairs:
• Steps and stairs are meant to provide access between different levels. Stairs should be properly
located to provide easy access and fast services to the building.
In one flight maximum 8 steps should be provided for more than 8 steps it is recommended to
provide them with lending.
Fig.2.COMPONENT OF BUILDING
Doors and windows:-A door provides a connecting link between rooms, allowing easy free
movement in the building. Window are opening provided in walls. Doors and windows provide
lighting and ventilation. The provide resistance to weather, sound and heat. They provide
security and privacy.
Sills:
Sills are lower portion of window and ventilator opening.
Steps and Stairs:
• Steps and stairs are meant to provide access between different levels. Stairs should be properly
located to provide easy access and fast services to the building.
In one flight maximum 8 steps should be provided for more than 8 steps it is recommended to
provide them with lending.
11
• Generally for residential building width of stair is 1.0 m and 1.2 m
• No of risers= Total height of floor/ Height of riser
• No of tread= Number of riser-1
Beams
• Beams are horizontal members above which the slabs are provided. The beams are instead
supported on walls and columns
• They are generally 20, 39, and 45, 60 cm thick and deep members as per structural design.
Lintels and arch:
• Lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across the opening. • An arch is normally a
curved member comprising of wedge shaped building blocks holding each other with mutual
pressure.
Chajjas:
• Chajjas are provided on external wall opening to get protection from rain, snow and heat. They
are weather sheds. Their thickness tapers from 100 to 75 mm and projection is 30, 45, 60, 75, 90
cm
Parapet:
• Parapet: Parapet is generally 10 cm thick partition wall constructed above slab to enclose the
terrace open to sky. Thickness is 10 to 15 cm height is 1.0 m to 1.2 m
Fig.3.BEAM
• Generally for residential building width of stair is 1.0 m and 1.2 m
• No of risers= Total height of floor/ Height of riser
• No of tread= Number of riser-1
Beams
• Beams are horizontal members above which the slabs are provided. The beams are instead
supported on walls and columns
• They are generally 20, 39, and 45, 60 cm thick and deep members as per structural design.
Lintels and arch:
• Lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across the opening. • An arch is normally a
curved member comprising of wedge shaped building blocks holding each other with mutual
pressure.
Chajjas:
• Chajjas are provided on external wall opening to get protection from rain, snow and heat. They
are weather sheds. Their thickness tapers from 100 to 75 mm and projection is 30, 45, 60, 75, 90
cm
Parapet:
• Parapet: Parapet is generally 10 cm thick partition wall constructed above slab to enclose the
terrace open to sky. Thickness is 10 to 15 cm height is 1.0 m to 1.2 m
Fig.3.BEAM
12
Elements of Building Construction Planning
Elementary Principles and basics of a building planning, layout of residential and industrial
buildings
Principles and building planning
• The term planning of a building refers to mean the arrangement of all the units of a building on
all the floors and at all the levels.
• There are certain general principles which as a engineer should bear in mind while planning a
building.
The general principles are
• Aspect
• Prospect
• Privacy
• Grouping
• Roominess
• Flexibility
• Furniture requirements
• Circulation
• Elegance
• Economy
• Sanitation
Fig.4.STAIR
Elements of Building Construction Planning
Elementary Principles and basics of a building planning, layout of residential and industrial
buildings
Principles and building planning
• The term planning of a building refers to mean the arrangement of all the units of a building on
all the floors and at all the levels.
• There are certain general principles which as a engineer should bear in mind while planning a
building.
The general principles are
• Aspect
• Prospect
• Privacy
• Grouping
• Roominess
• Flexibility
• Furniture requirements
• Circulation
• Elegance
• Economy
• Sanitation
Fig.4.STAIR
13
Aspect
• Aspect: different rooms of the buildings are placed and located accordingly to the functional
utility in such a way that maximum advantage of natural elements like sun, wind, can be
obtained. To obtain sufficient sunlight inside the room windows are placed in external walls
• Kitchen aspect: Kitchen should have window in east, because morning sun kills the germs. So
kitchen should have eastern aspect.
• Bed room aspect: Bed room is a unit of residential building generally used in night time, for
sleeping so evening sun rays, which are cool in nature should enter the bed room to create
cheerful atmosphere. So bed room should have western aspect, south-western or north-western
aspect.
• Drawing room aspect: It is a room which is used by the occupants for maximum hours of the
day. To achieve good sunlight it should be placed in south or southeast or north-east. Windows
should be provided in external walls
• Study room aspect: Windows in this room should be in northern side to obtain sufficient light
throughout the day. So aspect of this room is north.
• Verandah: there should be sufficient light in the above unit throughout the day so they should
be placed with opening in north-direction.
Prospect It is related with the views as seen of the outside from doors and windows in the
external wall. For pleasant atmosphere view of a garden, hill and a river, etc. is a good prospect.
Towards these objective doors and windows should be provided in the external wall of the
building. Undesirable views like a small nallah, slum area, drainage disposal unit, garbage
collection centers should be concealed by not providing windows in that direction
• Prospect of living room should be toward the main road to keep control on the plot. Prospects
of bed should be on the rear side of the building so that to avoid disturbance due to noise.
Privacy This is very important factor to be considered while planning both residential as well as
public building Privacy of one room from another in a building as well as privacy of the whole
building with other building should be achieved.
• The privacy of residential building as a whole can be achieved by planting trees, and by
providing entrance. Even the compound wall of required height can be constructed to provide
privacy of trespassers.
• Privacy in different rooms can be achieved by providing doors in such a way that minimum
view of room is seen when shutter is opened. Privacy is very important in bed rooms and wick.
And the view of bed room should not be visible from any other room.
Grouping: t is the arrangement of various rooms with respect to their functions, In case of
residential building to achieve maximum efficiency of the plan the grouping should be done as
Aspect
• Aspect: different rooms of the buildings are placed and located accordingly to the functional
utility in such a way that maximum advantage of natural elements like sun, wind, can be
obtained. To obtain sufficient sunlight inside the room windows are placed in external walls
• Kitchen aspect: Kitchen should have window in east, because morning sun kills the germs. So
kitchen should have eastern aspect.
• Bed room aspect: Bed room is a unit of residential building generally used in night time, for
sleeping so evening sun rays, which are cool in nature should enter the bed room to create
cheerful atmosphere. So bed room should have western aspect, south-western or north-western
aspect.
• Drawing room aspect: It is a room which is used by the occupants for maximum hours of the
day. To achieve good sunlight it should be placed in south or southeast or north-east. Windows
should be provided in external walls
• Study room aspect: Windows in this room should be in northern side to obtain sufficient light
throughout the day. So aspect of this room is north.
• Verandah: there should be sufficient light in the above unit throughout the day so they should
be placed with opening in north-direction.
Prospect It is related with the views as seen of the outside from doors and windows in the
external wall. For pleasant atmosphere view of a garden, hill and a river, etc. is a good prospect.
Towards these objective doors and windows should be provided in the external wall of the
building. Undesirable views like a small nallah, slum area, drainage disposal unit, garbage
collection centers should be concealed by not providing windows in that direction
• Prospect of living room should be toward the main road to keep control on the plot. Prospects
of bed should be on the rear side of the building so that to avoid disturbance due to noise.
Privacy This is very important factor to be considered while planning both residential as well as
public building Privacy of one room from another in a building as well as privacy of the whole
building with other building should be achieved.
• The privacy of residential building as a whole can be achieved by planting trees, and by
providing entrance. Even the compound wall of required height can be constructed to provide
privacy of trespassers.
• Privacy in different rooms can be achieved by providing doors in such a way that minimum
view of room is seen when shutter is opened. Privacy is very important in bed rooms and wick.
And the view of bed room should not be visible from any other room.
Grouping: t is the arrangement of various rooms with respect to their functions, In case of
residential building to achieve maximum efficiency of the plan the grouping should be done as
14
follows • Verandah should be the first unit after the entrance of the house • Living room and
dining room should be close next to verandah • Kitchen and dining should be close to each other
• Sanitary arrangements should be close to bed rooms. • Staircase should be approachable from
each room • Passages connecting various rooms should be well lighted and ventilated
Roominess This principle of planning is directly related to dimensions of the room. A
rectangular room is found more convenient as compared to a square room of the same size.
Hence length to width ratio should be 1.2 to 1 or 1.5 to 1 if the ratio is greater it will give a
tunnel effect to the room. Height of doors and windows, ceilings, floorings, color treatment also
affect the roominess of the building unit. Light color give effect of more space whereas dark
color makes the room look smaller. Height of ceiling should be low as more height gives a
feeling of a cave.
Flexibility Flexibility means a room which was planned for one function can be used for other, if
so required. If rooms are big enough and are having a minimum width of 3m are more flexible
and even the activities of various rooms can be exchanged.
Furniture requirement one of the most important requirement of a building planner, is to know
how much space is needed by each function in a particular building. The room sizes for a
particular function can be completed on the basis of permanent furniture's to be used in the room.
Hence while planning a building furniture arrangement must be shown.
Circulation: Circulation is the access into or out of a room. It is the internal movement inside
the building and the area earmarked for it.
• Circulation area should be straight, short, bright, lighted.
• Circulation should not affect the privacy of a room nor interfere with the utility space
• Circulation in a building is of two types
• Horizontal circulation and vertical circulation
• Circulation within a floor is called horizontal circulation
• And circulation between different floors is called vertical communication
Lighting It can be natural light as that obtained from the sun during the day or artificial light.
Adequate illumination is essential in day to day activities to execute the safety and comfort and
efficiency
• Good visibility is a must for accident prevention, comfortable watching and reading to reduce
fatigue, avert confusion, and efficient security.
Elegance Elegance refers to the planning of elevation and layout of the plan to give an
impressive appearance to the building. The proper width, height, location of doors and windows,
follows • Verandah should be the first unit after the entrance of the house • Living room and
dining room should be close next to verandah • Kitchen and dining should be close to each other
• Sanitary arrangements should be close to bed rooms. • Staircase should be approachable from
each room • Passages connecting various rooms should be well lighted and ventilated
Roominess This principle of planning is directly related to dimensions of the room. A
rectangular room is found more convenient as compared to a square room of the same size.
Hence length to width ratio should be 1.2 to 1 or 1.5 to 1 if the ratio is greater it will give a
tunnel effect to the room. Height of doors and windows, ceilings, floorings, color treatment also
affect the roominess of the building unit. Light color give effect of more space whereas dark
color makes the room look smaller. Height of ceiling should be low as more height gives a
feeling of a cave.
Flexibility Flexibility means a room which was planned for one function can be used for other, if
so required. If rooms are big enough and are having a minimum width of 3m are more flexible
and even the activities of various rooms can be exchanged.
Furniture requirement one of the most important requirement of a building planner, is to know
how much space is needed by each function in a particular building. The room sizes for a
particular function can be completed on the basis of permanent furniture's to be used in the room.
Hence while planning a building furniture arrangement must be shown.
Circulation: Circulation is the access into or out of a room. It is the internal movement inside
the building and the area earmarked for it.
• Circulation area should be straight, short, bright, lighted.
• Circulation should not affect the privacy of a room nor interfere with the utility space
• Circulation in a building is of two types
• Horizontal circulation and vertical circulation
• Circulation within a floor is called horizontal circulation
• And circulation between different floors is called vertical communication
Lighting It can be natural light as that obtained from the sun during the day or artificial light.
Adequate illumination is essential in day to day activities to execute the safety and comfort and
efficiency
• Good visibility is a must for accident prevention, comfortable watching and reading to reduce
fatigue, avert confusion, and efficient security.
Elegance Elegance refers to the planning of elevation and layout of the plan to give an
impressive appearance to the building. The proper width, height, location of doors and windows,
15
materials employed in construction of exterior walls etc. create elegance. The result of elegance
is aesthetics of building.
Economy Building planning should be carried out in the financial limit of the client. An engineer
should know in advance, the client intends to spend for the building and accordingly material of
construction, finishing items, stage of construction should be suggested. By estimation proposed
amount should be derived and as per that progress should be followed to avoid delay in work
progress.
Sanitation: Provision for cleanliness, lighting and ventilation in sanitary units avoid growing of
bacteria's, and spread of diseases and give hygienic condition. In bath and w.c. glazed tiles and
dado should be provided on wall to maintain clean condition. The ventilator in bath, w.c. permit
sunlight and air collation to maintain hygienic condition. The flooring material s should be easy
to clean, skirting's should be provided in rooms. Bath tubs, w.c. , kitchen sink should be made of
ceramic material to maintain clean easily.
Fig.5.PATAAN DURBAR SQUARE KATHMANDU
materials employed in construction of exterior walls etc. create elegance. The result of elegance
is aesthetics of building.
Economy Building planning should be carried out in the financial limit of the client. An engineer
should know in advance, the client intends to spend for the building and accordingly material of
construction, finishing items, stage of construction should be suggested. By estimation proposed
amount should be derived and as per that progress should be followed to avoid delay in work
progress.
Sanitation: Provision for cleanliness, lighting and ventilation in sanitary units avoid growing of
bacteria's, and spread of diseases and give hygienic condition. In bath and w.c. glazed tiles and
dado should be provided on wall to maintain clean condition. The ventilator in bath, w.c. permit
sunlight and air collation to maintain hygienic condition. The flooring material s should be easy
to clean, skirting's should be provided in rooms. Bath tubs, w.c. , kitchen sink should be made of
ceramic material to maintain clean easily.
Fig.5.PATAAN DURBAR SQUARE KATHMANDU
16
Building bylaws
• During planning and construction of any building, certain regulations are laid by Municipal
bodies, authorities, and other government departments as town planning so as to prevent
haphazard development of city such rules and regulations are called as building bylaws.
Objectives of Building bylaws
Building bylaws allow disciplined and systematic growth of buildings and towns and prevent
haphazard development
• Building bye-laws protect safety of public against fire, noise, health and structural failure.
• They provide proper utilization of space, hence maximum efficiency in planning
• They provide health, safety, and comfort to peoples living in the building.
LIMITATION OF BUILT UP AREA
Area of plot up to 200sq.m (240sq.yd) ---- maximum permissible built up area
Ground and first ---- 70% of site area on floor only.
201 to 500sq.m (241to 600sq.yd) ---- 50% of the site area.
501 to 1000sq.m (601 to 1200sq.yd) ---- 40% of the site area
More than 1000sq.m ---- 33% of the site area.
Building bylaws
• During planning and construction of any building, certain regulations are laid by Municipal
bodies, authorities, and other government departments as town planning so as to prevent
haphazard development of city such rules and regulations are called as building bylaws.
Objectives of Building bylaws
Building bylaws allow disciplined and systematic growth of buildings and towns and prevent
haphazard development
• Building bye-laws protect safety of public against fire, noise, health and structural failure.
• They provide proper utilization of space, hence maximum efficiency in planning
• They provide health, safety, and comfort to peoples living in the building.
LIMITATION OF BUILT UP AREA
Area of plot up to 200sq.m (240sq.yd) ---- maximum permissible built up area
Ground and first ---- 70% of site area on floor only.
201 to 500sq.m (241to 600sq.yd) ---- 50% of the site area.
501 to 1000sq.m (601 to 1200sq.yd) ---- 40% of the site area
More than 1000sq.m ---- 33% of the site area.
17
MINIMUM FLOOR AREA & HEIGHT OF ROOMS
FLOOR AREA HIEGHT (m)
LIVING 10sqm (100sqft)
(Breadth min 2.7 m or 9’) 3.3 (11’)
KITCHEN 6sqm (60sqft) 3.0 (10’)
BATH 2sqm (20sqft) 2.7 (9’)
LATTRINE 1.6sqm (16sqft) 2.7 (9’)
BATH & WATER CLOSET 3.6sqm (36sqft) 2.7 (9’)
SERVANT ROOM 10sqm (100sqft) 3.0 (10’)
GARAGE 2.5*4.8 m (8’*16’) 3.0 (10’)
MIN. HIEGHT OF PLINTH
FOR MAIN BUILDING ------- 0.6 (2’)
MIN. HIEGHT OF PLINTH FOR
SERVANT QUARTES ------- 0.3 (1’)
MIN. DEPTH OF FOUNDATION ------- 0.9 (3’)
THICKNESS OF WALL 20cms to 30cms ------
(9” to13.5”)
DAMP PROOF COURSE 2cms to 2.5cms thick full width of
(3/4” to1”) plinth wall
MINIMUM FLOOR AREA & HEIGHT OF ROOMS
FLOOR AREA HIEGHT (m)
LIVING 10sqm (100sqft)
(Breadth min 2.7 m or 9’) 3.3 (11’)
KITCHEN 6sqm (60sqft) 3.0 (10’)
BATH 2sqm (20sqft) 2.7 (9’)
LATTRINE 1.6sqm (16sqft) 2.7 (9’)
BATH & WATER CLOSET 3.6sqm (36sqft) 2.7 (9’)
SERVANT ROOM 10sqm (100sqft) 3.0 (10’)
GARAGE 2.5*4.8 m (8’*16’) 3.0 (10’)
MIN. HIEGHT OF PLINTH
FOR MAIN BUILDING ------- 0.6 (2’)
MIN. HIEGHT OF PLINTH FOR
SERVANT QUARTES ------- 0.3 (1’)
MIN. DEPTH OF FOUNDATION ------- 0.9 (3’)
THICKNESS OF WALL 20cms to 30cms ------
(9” to13.5”)
DAMP PROOF COURSE 2cms to 2.5cms thick full width of
(3/4” to1”) plinth wall
18
Sizes of rooms
Drawing room: Drawing room should be the very first room of a house as we enter
• The minimum area should be 15 to 20 sq. m
• General sizes: 3.5m x 5.5 m
• 5m x 6 m
• 7 m x 9 m
• Ventilation in Drawing rooms: Minimum window area should never be less than 10 % of floor
area but 20 % is preferred
• Dining room: It is a place where families take their breakfast, lunch, dinner
• Size: 4 m x 3 m
• 4m x 5 m
• 5 m x 6 m
• Kitchen: A Kitchen is a place where food is prepared and stored for consumption
• Sizes: 1.5 m x 3m
• 3 m x 5 m
• 4 m x 6 m
• Ventilation in kitchen: window area should be at least 15 % of floor area
• Bed room: A man spends major part of the day in the bed room either sleeping or relaxing.
• A minimum floor area 0f 10 sq. m should be provided
• Sizes: 4 m x 3 m
• 5 m x 4 m
• 3 m x 3m
• 4 m x 4 m
• Ventilation: Minimum window area of 10 % of floor area.
• Bath and W.C.: Bathroom is a place where inmates take bath and the waste water is collected
and conveyed off
• Water Closet is the place of collection of human discharge
• A minimum floor area of 1.8 sq. m
Sizes of rooms
Drawing room: Drawing room should be the very first room of a house as we enter
• The minimum area should be 15 to 20 sq. m
• General sizes: 3.5m x 5.5 m
• 5m x 6 m
• 7 m x 9 m
• Ventilation in Drawing rooms: Minimum window area should never be less than 10 % of floor
area but 20 % is preferred
• Dining room: It is a place where families take their breakfast, lunch, dinner
• Size: 4 m x 3 m
• 4m x 5 m
• 5 m x 6 m
• Kitchen: A Kitchen is a place where food is prepared and stored for consumption
• Sizes: 1.5 m x 3m
• 3 m x 5 m
• 4 m x 6 m
• Ventilation in kitchen: window area should be at least 15 % of floor area
• Bed room: A man spends major part of the day in the bed room either sleeping or relaxing.
• A minimum floor area 0f 10 sq. m should be provided
• Sizes: 4 m x 3 m
• 5 m x 4 m
• 3 m x 3m
• 4 m x 4 m
• Ventilation: Minimum window area of 10 % of floor area.
• Bath and W.C.: Bathroom is a place where inmates take bath and the waste water is collected
and conveyed off
• Water Closet is the place of collection of human discharge
• A minimum floor area of 1.8 sq. m
19
• Floor are of Bath and w.c should not be less than 2.8 m2 with minimum width of 1.2 m
• W.C should have a minimum width of 0.9 m and minimum length of 1.2 m
• A minimum floor area of 1.1 sq. m is to be provided for w.c
• Ventilator of 500 mm x 300 mm is to be provided at a height of 1.8 from floor area. • Sizes:
1.5m x 2 m • 2m x 3 m • 3m x 4m
• Store Room: It is to store Items like food grains cylinders, utensils etc. • Floor area 15 sq. m to
20 sq. m
• Verandah: It is area open on 1 side, 2 sides or 3 sides.
• Minimum width 1.5 m not greater than 4m
• Minimum Height of verandah 2.1 m
• Puja Room: Many people perform puja in houses. It is quite calm space to perform puja.
• It should be located in N-E corner of the building
• Sizes: 2.1 m x 2.1 m
• Roughly 4 m2 in area
• Study room: It is place where study material are stocked and read
• Area of study room should be 10 m2 to 12 m.
• Floor are of Bath and w.c should not be less than 2.8 m2 with minimum width of 1.2 m
• W.C should have a minimum width of 0.9 m and minimum length of 1.2 m
• A minimum floor area of 1.1 sq. m is to be provided for w.c
• Ventilator of 500 mm x 300 mm is to be provided at a height of 1.8 from floor area. • Sizes:
1.5m x 2 m • 2m x 3 m • 3m x 4m
• Store Room: It is to store Items like food grains cylinders, utensils etc. • Floor area 15 sq. m to
20 sq. m
• Verandah: It is area open on 1 side, 2 sides or 3 sides.
• Minimum width 1.5 m not greater than 4m
• Minimum Height of verandah 2.1 m
• Puja Room: Many people perform puja in houses. It is quite calm space to perform puja.
• It should be located in N-E corner of the building
• Sizes: 2.1 m x 2.1 m
• Roughly 4 m2 in area
• Study room: It is place where study material are stocked and read
• Area of study room should be 10 m2 to 12 m.
20
MATERIALS USED
Stone: - The stone is always obtained from rock. The rock quarried from quarries is called stone.
Quarried stone may be in the form of stone blocks, stone aggregate, stone slabs, and stone lintels.
Here to be used as impact test, water absorption test, hardness test and crushing strength. It is
preferred according to SP27-1987.
Brick: - Brick is made up of soil and it is used to make the masonry structure Absorption test,
Shape and size test, Crushing strength test, Soundness test, Hardness test. The bricks be table-
molded, well burnt in kilns, copper- colored, free from cracks and with sharp and square edges.
Aggregate:- Aggregates shall comply with the requirements of IS 383. As far as possible
reference shall be given to natural aggregate. Aggregates are the important constituents in
concrete. They give body to the concrete, reduce shrinkage and effect economy. One of the most
important factors for producing workable concrete is good gradation of aggregates. For most
work, 20 mm aggregates are suitable.
Specific gravity of fine aggregate = 2.38
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate = 2.71
Cement:- The most common cement used is Ordinary Portland Cement. The type I is preferred
according to IS: 269-1976, which is used for general concrete structures. 53 Grade ordinary
Portland cement is confirming to 12269. Out of the total production, Ordinary Portland Cement
accounts for about 80-90 percent.
Fineness of cement = 8%
Standard consistency of cement = 31%
Initial setting time of cement = 36 min
Specific gravity of cement = 3.46
Water: - Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actually participates in the chemical
reaction with cement. Since it helps to form the strength giving cement gel, the quantity and
quality of water is required to be looked into very carefully. Water used for mixing and curing
shall be clean and free from materials like oils, acids, alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials or
other materials that may be harmful to concrete or steel. PH value of the water used in concreting
shall not be less than 6
Steel: - Steel is important ingredient of qualify structure and it is used to carry out the load
easily from the structure to column and it is having high tensile strength. It is preferred according
IS 800-2007
MATERIALS USED
Stone: - The stone is always obtained from rock. The rock quarried from quarries is called stone.
Quarried stone may be in the form of stone blocks, stone aggregate, stone slabs, and stone lintels.
Here to be used as impact test, water absorption test, hardness test and crushing strength. It is
preferred according to SP27-1987.
Brick: - Brick is made up of soil and it is used to make the masonry structure Absorption test,
Shape and size test, Crushing strength test, Soundness test, Hardness test. The bricks be table-
molded, well burnt in kilns, copper- colored, free from cracks and with sharp and square edges.
Aggregate:- Aggregates shall comply with the requirements of IS 383. As far as possible
reference shall be given to natural aggregate. Aggregates are the important constituents in
concrete. They give body to the concrete, reduce shrinkage and effect economy. One of the most
important factors for producing workable concrete is good gradation of aggregates. For most
work, 20 mm aggregates are suitable.
Specific gravity of fine aggregate = 2.38
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate = 2.71
Cement:- The most common cement used is Ordinary Portland Cement. The type I is preferred
according to IS: 269-1976, which is used for general concrete structures. 53 Grade ordinary
Portland cement is confirming to 12269. Out of the total production, Ordinary Portland Cement
accounts for about 80-90 percent.
Fineness of cement = 8%
Standard consistency of cement = 31%
Initial setting time of cement = 36 min
Specific gravity of cement = 3.46
Water: - Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actually participates in the chemical
reaction with cement. Since it helps to form the strength giving cement gel, the quantity and
quality of water is required to be looked into very carefully. Water used for mixing and curing
shall be clean and free from materials like oils, acids, alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials or
other materials that may be harmful to concrete or steel. PH value of the water used in concreting
shall not be less than 6
Steel: - Steel is important ingredient of qualify structure and it is used to carry out the load
easily from the structure to column and it is having high tensile strength. It is preferred according
IS 800-2007
21
Fig.6.BRICKS Fig.7.STEEL
Fig.8.WALL
Fig.10.Woods
Fig.9.CEMENT
Fig.6.BRICKS Fig.7.STEEL
Fig.8.WALL
Fig.10.Woods
Fig.9.CEMENT
22
Quality Control Tests
Tests for bricks:
A brick is generally subjected to following tests to find out its suitability of the construction
work.
ii. Absorption
iii. Crushing strength or compression strength
iv. Hardness
v. Presence soluble salts
vi. Shape and size
vii. Soundness
viii. Structure
1) Absorption: A good should not absorb not more than 20 percent of weight of dry brick
2) Compressive strength: crushing or compressive strength of brick is found out by placing it in
compression testing machine. It is pressed till it breaks. Minimum crushing strength of brick is
Bricks
35kg/cm2 and for superior bricks, it may vary from 70 to 140 kg/cm2.
3) Hardness: No impression is left on the surface the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard
4) Presence of soluble salts: The bricks should not show any grey or white deposits after
immersed in water for 24 hours
5) Shape and size: It should be standard size and shape with sharp edges
6) Soundness: The brick should give clear ringing sound struck each other
7) Structure: The structure should be homogeneous, compact and free from any defects
2.6 Grading of Bricks
As per IS10719557 and 1970 code specifications,
a. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 140kg/cm2 – Grade A-A class.
b. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 105kg/cm2 – First class bricks - Grade A.
c. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 70kg/cm2 – Second class bricks – Grade B.
Quality Control Tests
Tests for bricks:
A brick is generally subjected to following tests to find out its suitability of the construction
work.
ii. Absorption
iii. Crushing strength or compression strength
iv. Hardness
v. Presence soluble salts
vi. Shape and size
vii. Soundness
viii. Structure
1) Absorption: A good should not absorb not more than 20 percent of weight of dry brick
2) Compressive strength: crushing or compressive strength of brick is found out by placing it in
compression testing machine. It is pressed till it breaks. Minimum crushing strength of brick is
Bricks
35kg/cm2 and for superior bricks, it may vary from 70 to 140 kg/cm2.
3) Hardness: No impression is left on the surface the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard
4) Presence of soluble salts: The bricks should not show any grey or white deposits after
immersed in water for 24 hours
5) Shape and size: It should be standard size and shape with sharp edges
6) Soundness: The brick should give clear ringing sound struck each other
7) Structure: The structure should be homogeneous, compact and free from any defects
2.6 Grading of Bricks
As per IS10719557 and 1970 code specifications,
a. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 140kg/cm2 – Grade A-A class.
b. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 105kg/cm2 – First class bricks - Grade A.
c. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 70kg/cm2 – Second class bricks – Grade B.
23
d. Bricks with compressive strength not less than the average value 35kg/cm2 – class III bricks –
Grade C.
Tests on cement:-
Colour Test:-The color of the cement should be uniform. It should be grey color with a light
greenish shade.
Strength test:-A block of cement 25 mm ×25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared and it is
immersed for 7 days in water. It is then placed on supports 15cm apart and it is loaded with a
weight of about 34 kg. The block should not show signs of failure. If cement is of sound quality
such block will not be broken easily.
Setting test:-A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate and it is kept
under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
Tests on aggregates:-
Silt Content for Aggregate:-The permissible silt content in sand (fine aggregate) must not
exceed the values as specified in the standards. However, this method can only be used for
natural sand, it should not be used for crushed rock sand.
The apparatus required for this test is only 250 ml glass measuring cylinder.
The silt content determination by volume is done in the following manner:
The glass cylinder is filled with salt-water solution (concentration of the solution will
teaspoon full of common salt for every 570 ml) up to 50 ml mark.
Add sand until the level of the sand is up to 100 ml mark.
d. Bricks with compressive strength not less than the average value 35kg/cm2 – class III bricks –
Grade C.
Tests on cement:-
Colour Test:-The color of the cement should be uniform. It should be grey color with a light
greenish shade.
Strength test:-A block of cement 25 mm ×25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared and it is
immersed for 7 days in water. It is then placed on supports 15cm apart and it is loaded with a
weight of about 34 kg. The block should not show signs of failure. If cement is of sound quality
such block will not be broken easily.
Setting test:-A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate and it is kept
under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
Tests on aggregates:-
Silt Content for Aggregate:-The permissible silt content in sand (fine aggregate) must not
exceed the values as specified in the standards. However, this method can only be used for
natural sand, it should not be used for crushed rock sand.
The apparatus required for this test is only 250 ml glass measuring cylinder.
The silt content determination by volume is done in the following manner:
The glass cylinder is filled with salt-water solution (concentration of the solution will
teaspoon full of common salt for every 570 ml) up to 50 ml mark.
Add sand until the level of the sand is up to 100 ml mark.
24
Add further salt-water solution till 150 ml mark is reached.
Place the palm on the mouth of the glass cylinder and shake it vigorously.
Place the cylinder on hard levelled surface and tap it all round so that sand is leveled.
Wait for three hours for silt to settle on top of sand.
Measure the thickness of the silt layer and the height of the sand. The silt content can be
calculated as follows:
Silt (%) by volume = [(Thickness of silt layer/ Height of sand + Silt) x 100 %]
Sieve Analysis:-Sieve analysis is done to check the gradation of aggregate.
The test is done as follow.
Take required amount of aggregate sample (for coarse aggregate take approx. 2.5 kg and
for fine aggregate take 0.5 kg)
Arrange the required no of sieves as per the contract or job requirement in a descending
manner. (i.e. keep the sieve having largest size opening at the top and the smallest size
opening at the bottom)
Shake vigorously the sieve set for at least 2 minute.
Then measure the weight of aggregate on each sieve and express it as the percentage of
passing.
Now compare these values with the recommended values to know whether it falls within the
range or not. If not falling within the desired gradation then take necessary action.
Fineness Modulus:-Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine the
aggregate is. More fineness modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser and small value
of fineness modulus indicates that the aggregate is finer.
Sieve the aggregate using the appropriate sieves (80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm,
4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron & 150 micron).
Record the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
Calculate the cumulative weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
Add further salt-water solution till 150 ml mark is reached.
Place the palm on the mouth of the glass cylinder and shake it vigorously.
Place the cylinder on hard levelled surface and tap it all round so that sand is leveled.
Wait for three hours for silt to settle on top of sand.
Measure the thickness of the silt layer and the height of the sand. The silt content can be
calculated as follows:
Silt (%) by volume = [(Thickness of silt layer/ Height of sand + Silt) x 100 %]
Sieve Analysis:-Sieve analysis is done to check the gradation of aggregate.
The test is done as follow.
Take required amount of aggregate sample (for coarse aggregate take approx. 2.5 kg and
for fine aggregate take 0.5 kg)
Arrange the required no of sieves as per the contract or job requirement in a descending
manner. (i.e. keep the sieve having largest size opening at the top and the smallest size
opening at the bottom)
Shake vigorously the sieve set for at least 2 minute.
Then measure the weight of aggregate on each sieve and express it as the percentage of
passing.
Now compare these values with the recommended values to know whether it falls within the
range or not. If not falling within the desired gradation then take necessary action.
Fineness Modulus:-Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine the
aggregate is. More fineness modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser and small value
of fineness modulus indicates that the aggregate is finer.
Sieve the aggregate using the appropriate sieves (80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm,
4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron & 150 micron).
Record the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
Calculate the cumulative weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
25
Calculate the cumulative percentage of aggregate retained.
Add the cumulative weight of aggregate retained and divide the sum by 100. This
value is termed as fineness modulus.
Compare the test value with the values given in the following table and you can get an idea about
how coarse or fine the sand is.
Only sand between FM 2.6 to 2.9 is considered suitable for nominal mix proportion.
Type of Sand Fineness Modulus Value
Very fine sand Below 2.2
Fine sand 2.2 to 2.6
Medium sand 2.6 to 2.9
Coarse sand 2.9 to 3.2
Very coarse sand Above 3.2
Calculate the cumulative percentage of aggregate retained.
Add the cumulative weight of aggregate retained and divide the sum by 100. This
value is termed as fineness modulus.
Compare the test value with the values given in the following table and you can get an idea about
how coarse or fine the sand is.
Only sand between FM 2.6 to 2.9 is considered suitable for nominal mix proportion.
Type of Sand Fineness Modulus Value
Very fine sand Below 2.2
Fine sand 2.2 to 2.6
Medium sand 2.6 to 2.9
Coarse sand 2.9 to 3.2
Very coarse sand Above 3.2
26
Tests on concrete:
Compressive strength of concrete:-The compression test shows the compressive strength of
hardened concrete. The compression test shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in
perfect conditions. The compression test measures concrete strength in the hardened state.
Testing should always be done carefully. Wrong test results can be costly.
The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a concrete
cubes for the compression test. The strength is measured in Mega pascals (MPa) and is
commonly specified as a characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing.
The compressive strength is a measure of the concrete’s ability to resist loads which tend to
crush it.
Procedure of slump test for concrete:
Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should
be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum
test.
Stand firmly on the foot pieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample.
Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out
of the concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite
pattern, working from outside into the middle.
Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up
the cone till it overflows.
Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpaces.
Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
Fig.11.Compressive Testing Machine
Tests on concrete:
Compressive strength of concrete:-The compression test shows the compressive strength of
hardened concrete. The compression test shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in
perfect conditions. The compression test measures concrete strength in the hardened state.
Testing should always be done carefully. Wrong test results can be costly.
The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a concrete
cubes for the compression test. The strength is measured in Mega pascals (MPa) and is
commonly specified as a characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing.
The compressive strength is a measure of the concrete’s ability to resist loads which tend to
crush it.
Procedure of slump test for concrete:
Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should
be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum
test.
Stand firmly on the foot pieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample.
Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out
of the concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite
pattern, working from outside into the middle.
Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up
the cone till it overflows.
Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpaces.
Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
Fig.11.Compressive Testing Machine
27
Workability Tests of concrete:-This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made
concrete. The slump test is done to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The measured slump
must be within a set range, or tolerance, from the target slump.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more
workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. It can
also be defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its workability.
Procedure of slump test for concrete:
Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should
be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum
test.
Stand firmly on the foot pieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample.
Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out
of the concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite
pattern, working from outside into the middle.
Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up
the cone till it overflows.
Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpaces.
Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample. If the
sample fails by being outside the tolerance (i.e. the slump is too high or too low), another must
be taken. If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.
Fig.12.SLUMP TEST
Workability Tests of concrete:-This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made
concrete. The slump test is done to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The measured slump
must be within a set range, or tolerance, from the target slump.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more
workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. It can
also be defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its workability.
Procedure of slump test for concrete:
Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should
be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum
test.
Stand firmly on the foot pieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample.
Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out
of the concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite
pattern, working from outside into the middle.
Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up
the cone till it overflows.
Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpaces.
Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample. If the
sample fails by being outside the tolerance (i.e. the slump is too high or too low), another must
be taken. If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.
Fig.12.SLUMP TEST
28
CONCLUSION
We can conclude that there is difference between the theoretical and practical work done. As the
scope of understanding will be much more when practical work is done. As we get more knowledge in
such a situation where we have great experience doing the practical work.
Knowing the loads we have designed the slabs depending upon the ratio of longer to shorter span of
panel. In this project we have designed slabs as two way slabs depending upon the end condition,
corresponding bending moment. The coefficients have been calculated as per I.S. code methods for
corresponding lx/ly ratio. The calculations have been done for loads on beams and columns and designed
frame analysis by moment distribution method. Here we have a very low bearing capacity, hard soil and
isolated footing done.
CONCLUSION
We can conclude that there is difference between the theoretical and practical work done. As the
scope of understanding will be much more when practical work is done. As we get more knowledge in
such a situation where we have great experience doing the practical work.
Knowing the loads we have designed the slabs depending upon the ratio of longer to shorter span of
panel. In this project we have designed slabs as two way slabs depending upon the end condition,
corresponding bending moment. The coefficients have been calculated as per I.S. code methods for
corresponding lx/ly ratio. The calculations have been done for loads on beams and columns and designed
frame analysis by moment distribution method. Here we have a very low bearing capacity, hard soil and
isolated footing done.
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