safety in construction of enginering material

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1. Definitions
Safety: The absence of danger or a state of protection.
Incident: An unplanned, unwanted event that disrupts the work process and may
cause injury or damage.
Near Miss: An incident where no property was damaged or personal injury was
sustained, but a slight change in time or position would have resulted in injury or
damage. It's a close call.
Accident: Defined by the National Safety Council as an undesired event that results
in personnel injury, loss of business opportunity, or property damage. The slide notes
that an accident is an incident plus its consequences, and that construction accidents
are often the result of negligence and are therefore avoidable.
Injury: Refers to harm like a cut, fracture, or sprain.
Hazard
A hazard is defined as the inherent property or ability of something to cause harm.
The slide argues that the real issue in safety isn't a lack of knowledge about
preventing hazards, but rather that traditional systems allow known hazards to exist
unchecked.
When an injury occurs, the victim is often blamed first, with the assumption they were
at fault or that equipment was misused. However, courts have shown that these
assumptions are often incorrect. Injuries are frequently caused by hazards that could
have been discovered and controlled through proper safety planning.
Based on the image of the presentation slide, here are the top hazards in a typical building,
presented in a list format:
Top Hazards in a Typical Building
Fire
Unsafe scaffolds
Unsafe working platforms
Open shafts & edges
Unsafe electrical equipment & connections
Unsafe excavations
Unsafe cantilever loading platforms
Struck by foreign body
Falling objects
Unstable/unsafe structural membrane
Overloaded vehicle and forklifts
Unstable mobile crane
Unsafe lifting operations
Unsafe working at height
Unguarded machinery
Unsafe access/egress
When Do Injuries Occur?

2. Injuries show patterns based on time:
Hour of the day: A greater number of injuries occur in the morning than in the
afternoon.
Day of the week: The greatest number of injuries is expected on a Wednesday.
Morning peaks tend to occur on Monday as workers transition from the weekend.
Friday afternoons can have a peak if work is planned in weekly cycles.
Season of the year: Injury occurrence is lowest in December and February and
highest during the summer months, peaking in August. Weather extremes like heat,
cold, and rainfall are major factors.
Contract Clauses
A project isn't safe just because you hire a good contractor. Safety must be an integral part
of the contract. Contracts should require bidders to submit safety documents. Once the
project begins, safety is ensured by:
Mandatory reporting of accidents and safety inspections.
Creating a job hazard analysis and a project-specific safety plan.
Appointing a designated safety representative from the owner's side.
Conducting regular safety audits and meetings.
Disability Classification & Types of Injury
The slides categorize injuries and disabilities based on their severity and impact on work:
Short absence: Less than 5 days off work. This is also called a minor injury or lost
workday case.
Long absence: More than 5 days off work before returning to full duties.
Partial incapacity: 5 or more days off work and a return to work on reduced duties.
This is also referred to as a major injury or restricted work case.
Full incapacity: Permanently incapacitated with no return to work.
Total permanent disability (TPD/PTD): A condition where an individual cannot
work due to injuries, such as total paralysis, brain injury, amputation of both hands, or
mental incapacity.
Partial permanent disability (PPD): An injury that impacts day-to-day functioning
at work. The worker may return but not at full capacity. Examples include hearing
loss, blindness, carpal tunnel syndrome, or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).
Total temporary disability (TTD): Injuries that completely disable a person from
their normal duties but for a temporary period. Examples include broken bones,
surgery, or serious knee injuries.
Temporary partial disability: Injuries that will heal over time and do not completely
keep a person from work, such as pulled muscles.
Fatality: A death resulting from an accident.
Illnesses & Well-being
This slide highlights common injuries and illnesses in the construction industry:
Top 5 common workers' compensation injuries:

3. o30% Sprains and strains
o19% Cuts or punctures
o12% Contusions
o5% Inflammations
o5% Broken legs and arms or fractures
Statistics from Britain:
o1 in 3 fatal slips or falls involve a construction worker.
o29% of all fatal injuries are from slips, trips, and falls.
The slide also mentions that there are 31,000 new cases of work-related ill health
per year in the construction industry and that cancer can arise from exposure to dust
and asbestos.
Causes of Construction Accidents
The causes of accidents are divided into several categories:
Human factors:
oHuman error, misjudgments, and unsafe acts.
oPoor relationships with colleagues.
oCultural and language differences among immigrant workers.
oInsufficient safety training and education, as "common sense" is not a
substitute for formal safety education.
oWorkers' motives to derive short-term benefits.
oFatigue from hectic schedules.
Organizational factors:
oSubcontracting.
oThe size of the company, as small and medium firms may lack proper
facilities.
oTemporary or seasonal workforce.
oDesigners and contractors working in isolated "silos" with poor
communication.
Other factors:
oInsufficient data.
oPoor site conditions and ergonomics.
oStructural failures.
oLack of protective measures.
oWeather conditions.
oEconomic considerations, such as payment methods in both developed and
developing countries.
Whose Responsibility Is Safety?
The primary concern regarding safety is to prevent personal injuries. The lecture
points out an ironic statement: "Injuries are generally sustained by persons who do not
want to be injured." This highlights that accidents happen even to those who take
steps to avoid them.

4. Combination Theory of Causation
This theory suggests that a single theory or model may not be enough to explain all
circumstances of accidents. While some theories are better at addressing specific problems,
the optimal approach is to use a combination of different theories and models to find
comprehensive solutions to problems. The images also show some common reasons for
accidents, such as "I didn't see," "I didn't think," and "I didn't know."
Designer and Construction Safety
Designers play a crucial role in safety by identifying and eliminating potential hazards during
the design phase. This proactive approach, known as Prevention through Design (PtD),
involves anticipating and designing out occupational hazards. The goal is to avoid litigation
and ensure a safer construction process. Some examples of PtD are:
Designing pre-fabricated units that can be assembled on the ground to reduce fall
risks.
Using trenchless technologies for underground utilities to avoid excavation hazards.
Including permanent anchorage points on roofs for fall protection.
Safety Signs and Their Categories
Signs, signals, and barricades are essential for worker safety on a construction site. They are
placed where hazards exist to warn workers and visitors.
Mandatory Signs: These signs prescribe specific behavior and are easily
recognizable by their round shape with a white pictogram on a blue background.
The blue part makes up at least 50% of the sign's area. Examples include:
oSafety gloves must be worn.
oEye protection must be worn.
oHead protection must be worn.
Warning Signs: These signs warn of a hazard or danger. Their key features are a
triangular shape with a black pictogram on a yellow background and a black
edging. The yellow part takes up at least 50% of the sign's area. Examples include:
oDanger: Electric shock risk.
oCaution: Mind the step.
oDanger: Toxic.
Prohibition Signs: These signs prohibit certain actions. They feature a red circle
with a diagonal line over a black pictogram on a white background. Examples
include a "do not enter" or "do not walk" sign.
Safety Signs and Their Categories
Signs, signals, and barricades are essential for worker safety on a construction site. They are
placed where hazards exist to warn workers and visitors.
Mandatory Signs: These signs prescribe specific behavior and are easily
recognizable by their round shape with a white pictogram on a blue background.
The blue part makes up at least 50% of the sign's area. Examples include:

5. oSafety gloves must be worn.
oEye protection must be worn.
oHead protection must be worn.
Warning Signs: These signs warn of a hazard or danger. Their key features are a
triangular shape with a black pictogram on a yellow background and a black
edging. The yellow part takes up at least 50% of the sign's area. Examples include:
oDanger: Electric shock risk.
oCaution: Mind the step.
oDanger: Toxic.
Prohibition Signs: These signs prohibit certain actions. They feature a red circle
with a diagonal line over a black pictogram on a white background. Examples
include a "do not enter" or "do not walk" sign.
Fire Fighting & First Aid Signs
These signs are crucial for emergency situations and have distinct color schemes:
Fire Fighting Signs: These are rectangular or square with a white pictogram on a
red background. The red part makes up at least 50% of the area. Examples include
signs for a fire hose reel, fire hydrant, or fire extinguisher.
First Aid or Emergency Escape Signs: These signs are also rectangular or square,
but they feature a white pictogram on a green background. The green part covers at
least 50% of the sign's area. They indicate locations for first aid kits, emergency
assembly points, and escape routes.
Barricades
Barricades are obstructions used to protect employees. The color of the barricade tape
indicates the level of danger:
Yellow/Black Barricade Tape: This tape serves as a caution to indicate a potential
hazard. Employees can enter the area, but only with permission from the person in
charge. This tape is used for situations like excavations less than 1.2 meters (4 feet) in
depth or for identifying tripping hazards.
Red Barricade Tape: This tape indicates DANGER and that a serious hazard is
present. No employee may enter this area without obtaining permission. This tape is
used for more critical hazards like overhead work, live electrical components, and
scaffolding under construction.

Based on the images provided, here is an explanation of the text from the lecture slides.
The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) outlines a moral and legal obligation
for employers to provide a safe working environment. An employer's duty of care includes:
Providing a safe system and place of work.
Ensuring plant and machinery are safe to use.
Providing competent supervision and suitable training.
Caring for the selection of fellow employees.

6. The slide's motto, "Safety is everyone's responsibility," reinforces that safety is a
shared duty.
Who is responsible for Worker’s Safety?
If an owner is responsible for a contractor’s workers’ safety on their worksite, what is
the contractor responsible for?
oContractor’s workers are performing work on your worksite.
oIn principle, you therefore owe the same duties to contractors and their
workers as you do to your own workers.
Due to this, it is not acceptable to say that you relied on a contractor to identify
hazards or adopt a safe system of work during their time in your workplace.
BUT contractors still have their own duty of care to comply with when working in
your workplace.
A contractor must take positive steps to ensure the worksite its workers are sent to
does not pose risks to their health and safety.
oThis may require the contractor to make enquiries and implement processes to
ensure that its workers are not instructed to, and do not carry out work in a
manner that is unsafe while at the host employer’s worksite.
Concurrent liability – If a worker of a contractor is injured in your workplace, both
the client and the contractor can be held liable under health and safety legislation.
oIn concurrent liability, two or more parties are independently liable for the
same incident.
Although the host employer has a duty of care for the health and safety of a
contractor’s workers, the contractor cannot simply rely on the host employer to ensure
The Contractor’s Role in Safety
The contractor is a person or company engaged in construction-related work.
oThey may manage or carry out the work, or supply workers/materials for a
project.
Responsibilities of the Contractor:
oResponsible for safety at the construction site.
oMust prepare a safety plan and carry it out.
oProvide knowledgeable, skilled, and experienced workers with sufficient
resources.
oEvaluate the effectiveness of orientation or trade-specific training periodically.
oReview safety plans and job safety analyses before starting work.
oCommunicate safety improvement progress regularly.
oMonitor site conditions, introduce necessary changes, and update safety
metrics.
oInvestigate incidents, injuries, and near-misses to improve safety management.
Other Points:
oA written safety policy is not enough; success depends on how workers are
treated.
oNew workers are hazards due to inexperience and unknown risks.
oWorking in groups (friends/gangs) can also create risks.
oJob satisfaction plays a major role in safety culture.

7. oWorkers should be treated with respect and appreciated for their contributions.
Who is Responsible for Worker's Safety?
The responsibility for worker safety is a shared one. An owner is responsible for the safety of
a contractor's workers on their worksite. However, contractors still have their own duty to
ensure the safety of their employees.
The concept of concurrent liability means that if a contractor's worker is injured, both the
client (owner) and the contractor can be held legally liable. The contractor cannot simply rely
on the host employer to ensure the safety of their own workers.
Designer and Construction Safety
Designers have a key role in construction safety. While many designers are not involved in
the safety of the workers, they should identify any hazards in their design that could affect
safety during construction or maintenance. The motivation for this involvement is to avoid
litigation.
Decisions made during the design phase can directly affect construction safety. New design
concepts are sometimes rejected because they are perceived as dangerous. "Prevention
through Design" (PtD) is a process where engineers and architects actively anticipate and
design out potential occupational safety and health hazards. This includes considering all
project stages, from design and construction to maintenance, decommissioning, and even the
disposal of waste material.
DFCS (Design for Construction Safety) Design Details
This slide provides suggestions for designing for construction safety and the purpose behind
each suggestion:
Design prefab units that can be built on the ground and erected in place: This
reduces worker exposure to falls and being struck by falling objects.
Design underground utilities using trenchless technologies: This eliminates safety
hazards associated with trenching.
Allow adequate clearance between the structure and power lines: This is crucial
because overhead power lines are hazardous when operating cranes.
Design 42" parapet walls: This eliminates the need for fall protection or guard rails.
Design permanent anchorage points on roofs: This provides fall protection during
construction and future maintenance.
Design a cable lifeline system for tower structures: This allows workers to safely
hook onto the structure and move up and down during future maintenance.
Design window sills to be 42 inches above the floor: This eliminates the need for
fall protection during construction and future maintenance.
Construct a permanent stairway in the beginning of the construction process:
This avoids the use of temporary stairs, ladders, and scaffolding for lifting materials.

8. Owners and Construction Safety
A "Client" is defined as the person or company for whom a project is being carried out, with
the controlling interest. HSA research has shown that in many cases, clients are failing in
their duties related to safety. For example:
45% of sites had a fatality because the clients failed to appoint a Project Supervisor
Design Stage or a Project Supervisor Construction Stage.
25% of construction accidents were related to omissions or failures to address health
and safety issues before the start of construction.
Historically, owners have often stayed away from construction projects and safety. However,
their role in construction safety began developing in developed countries from the 1980s. A
key step for owners is to establish a clear objective concerning safety and communicate this
position effectively. This can be achieved through:
Selecting safe designers.
Prequalifying and selecting safe contractors during the bidding and contract process.
Measures to Select Safe Contractors
When selecting a contractor, it is important to evaluate their safety record. Key measures
include:
Previous injury and damage experience: Review data from the past five years,
including:
oStatistics like injury incident rates, OSHA recordable injury rates, and loss
ratios.
oResults of job site safety inspections.
oProject safety plans.
oRecords of OSHA citations and fines.
oLitigation related to injuries.
Behavior-based worker observations.
Experience with similar works.
Training of staff.
Enforcement actions.
Health and safety policy.
Maintenance of equipment and control of sub-contractors.
Contract Clauses
A construction project cannot be started safely by simply selecting a contractor based on past
performance. Safety must be an integral part of the construction contract itself. Construction
contracts are considered defective if they do not address safety issues in specific terms.
To ensure a safe project, the contract should require all bidders to submit safety documents
with their bids. Key contract clauses and measures to ensure safety is addressed throughout
the project include:

9. Mandatory reports on accident investigations, safety inspections, and safety meetings.
Mandatory development of a job hazard analysis.
Submitting a project-specific safety plan and emergency plans.
Designating a safety representative who is an employee of the owner.
Conducting regular safety meetings with supervisory personnel.
Conducting regular audits of contractor safety performance.
Enforcing that contractors adhere to owner-developed safety practices.
Providing contractor safety training.
Establishing an effective worker orientation program for all contractors.
OSHA Violations and Penalties
Different types of violations and their corresponding penalties under the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA).
Least serious: No penalty.
Other than serious: Up to $7,000 per violation.
Serious: $1,500 - $7,000 per violation.
Wilful, no death: Up to $70,000 per violation (minimum $5,000).
Wilful, repeat violations: Up to $70,000 per violation (minimum $5,000).
Wilful, death results: Up to $250,000 or $500,000 for a corporation and 6 months in
jail.
Wilful, death results, second violation: $250,000 and 1 year in jail.
Failure to correct a cited violation: $7,000 per day until abated.
Failure to post official documents: $7,000 per poster.
Falsification of documents: $10,000 and 6 months in jail.
Assaulting a compliance officer: Not more than $5,000 and not more than 3 years of
imprisonment.
OSHA Agencies
There are three main agencies related to occupational safety and health:
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA): This is the primary
agency that promulgates new regulations, enforces compliance with regulations, and
gathers statistics on injuries and job-related illnesses.
Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC): This agency
conducts hearings when OSHA citations and penalties are contested and reviews
appeals of fines or abatement periods.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH): Although
NIOSH was a requirement of the OSHA Act of 1970, it is not part of OSHA. It serves
as the research arm for OSHA. Its functions include recommending new safety and
health standards, conducting research on various safety and health problems, and
publishing an annual listing of known toxic substances.
29 CFR 1926 Regulations for Construction

10. This slide lists the subparts of the 29 CFR 1926 regulations, which are specific to
construction. The subparts cover a wide range of topics, including:
General provisions (Subpart A)
Occupational Health & Environmental Controls (Subpart D)
Fire protection and prevention (Subpart F)
Signs, signals and barricades (Subpart G)
Personal protective and life saving equipment (Subpart E)
Fall protection (Subpart M)
Helicopters, hoists, elevators, and conveyors (Subpart N)
Motor vehicles, mechanized equipment, and marine operations (Subpart O)
Excavations (Subpart P)
Concrete & masonry construction (Subpart Q)
Steel erection (Subpart R)
Scaffolds (Subpart L)
Demolition (Subpart T)
Toxic and hazardous substances (Subpart Z)
Cranes & derricks in construction (Subpart CC)
OHSAS 18001:2007
This refers to the Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series, also known as BS
OHSAS 18001. The British Standards Institution (BSI) adopted it as a British standard. The
2007 update gave greater emphasis to the "health" component of "health and safety." OHSAS
can be aligned with other management systems like ISO 9001 and ISO 14001. Compliance
with this standard allows organizations to demonstrate they have a system in place for
occupational health and safety.
Based on the images, here is an explanation of the text from the lecture slides.
OHSAS 18001:2007
This slide provides information on the Occupational Health and Safety Assessment
Series (BS OHSAS 18001). The British Standards Institution (BSI) adopted this as a British
standard. The 2007 update gave more emphasis to the "health" component of "health and
safety" to better reflect ILO-OSH guidelines. OHSAS can be aligned with other management
systems like ISO 9001 and ISO 14001. Compliance with this standard allows organizations
to show they have a proper system in place for managing occupational health and safety.
Based on the images, here is an explanation of the text from the lecture slides.
Heinrich/Bird Safety Pyramid
Herbert W. Heinrich, working for an insurance company, studied around 75,000
accident records and proposed a consistent ratio:
o1 major injury
o29 minor injuries

11. o300 no-injury accidents (near-misses or unsafe acts)
(Wikipedia, myweb)
The pyramid illustrates how serious injuries are typically preceded by many smaller
incidents, emphasizing the importance of addressing these early signs to prevent
major accidents.
Here’s a structured summary of the main theories of accident causation, as
commonly taught in Construction Safety (Prentice Hall) and traditional safety
management courses.
This pyramid illustrates the relationship between the number of accidents and their severity.
At the base, a large number of unsafe acts and conditions occur.
These are often un documented and represent the root cause of most incidents. Above this
are a smaller number of near misses, followed by minor injuries. As you move up the
pyramid, the number of incidents decreases, but the severity increases, leading to major
injuries and, at the very top, a fatality.
The pyramid shows that to prevent serious outcomes like major injuries or fatalities, you
must address the much larger number of unsafe acts and conditions at the base.
Unsafe Acts & Conditions
These are the underlying factors that lead to accidents.
An unsafe act is an activity that violates safety standards. Examples include:
oFailing to wear personal protective equipment (PPE).
oIgnoring defective tools or equipment.
oViolating established safety and health rules.
Unsafe conditions are hazards within the environment that could cause injury,
property damage, or death. Examples include:
oCongested workspaces.
oDangerous soil conditions.
oExcessive noise on a construction site.
Based on the provided images, here is a detailed explanation of the text from the lecture
slides.
Growth of the Construction Industry (1960 - present)
The industry has evolved significantly over the past decades:
From low-rise buildings to massive infrastructure projects: Iconic and challenging
structures have been built primarily after the 1980s.
From traditional procurement to integrated procurement: The 1990s saw the rise
of "design-build" and integrated project delivery, where time, cost, quality, and safety
became central goals.
From conventional methods to digital and prefabricated construction: The
industry has transitioned from being purely labor-intensive to embracing off-site

12. construction, particularly since the 1980s. The digital era has had a tremendous
influence on construction methods.
Based on the provided images, here is a detailed explanation of the text from the lecture
slides.
Contract Clauses
A construction project cannot be considered safe just by selecting a good contractor. Safety
must be an integral part of the contract itself. Contracts should require bidders to submit
safety documents and include clauses that enforce safety throughout the project, such as:
Mandatory accident reports and safety meetings.
Requiring a project-specific safety plan.
Conducting regular safety audits.
Providing contractor safety training and orientation.
OSHA Violations and Penalties
Lists the penalties for various OSHA violations:
Serious: Up to $7,000 per violation.
Willful (with or without death): Up to $70,000 per violation, with a minimum fine
of $5,000. If death results, it can lead to fines up to $500,000 and imprisonment.
Failure to correct a cited violation: $7,000 per day.
Falsification of documents: $10,000 and 6 months in jail.
OSHA Agencies
Three key agencies are involved in occupational safety and health:
OSHA: Promulgates and enforces regulations and gathers injury statistics.
OSHRC (Review Commission): Conducts hearings for contested citations and
penalties.
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health): The research
arm for OSHA, which recommends new standards and conducts research on safety
problems.
29 CFR 1926 Regulations for Construction
This is a list of regulations specific to the construction industry, covering various subparts
such as:

13. Subpart E: Personal protective and life-saving equipment.
Subpart F: Fire protection and prevention.
Subpart M: Fall protection.
Subpart P: Excavations.
Subpart R: Steel erection.
Subpart L: Scaffolds.
Subpart CC: Cranes and derricks.
OHSAS 18001:2007
This is the Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series (BS OHSAS 18001),
adopted by the British Standards Institution. The 2007 update emphasized the "health"
component of "health and safety." Compliance with this standard allows organizations to
demonstrate they have a robust system in place for occupational safety. It can be aligned with
other management systems like ISO 9001 and ISO 14001.
Based on the provided images, here is an explanation of the key concepts from the lecture
slides.
Responsibility for Worker's Safety
Safety is a shared responsibility. While an owner is responsible for a contractor's workers on
their worksite, the contractor still has their own legal duty of care. This concept is called
concurrent liability, meaning if a contractor's worker is injured, both the client and the
contractor can be held legally liable. The contractor can't simply rely on the owner for their
workers' safety.
Why Prevent Accidents?
The slide outlines several reasons to prevent accidents:
Humanitarian reasons: To prevent human suffering, physical pain, and the hardship
resulting from death or disability.
Moral reasons: To raise the quality of life at work. Worker morale is strengthened by
motivation but severely weakened by accidents.
Legal reasons: Civil law allows injured workers to seek compensation if an employer
failed to provide a reasonable standard of care and protection.
Financial reasons: The cost of accidents and a damaged reputation can negatively
affect new projects.
Management reasons: A good safety record enhances a company's reputation and
can bring rewards.
Combination Theory of Causation

14. This theory states that a single theory or model isn't enough to explain all accidents. The
optimal approach is to use a combination of different theories and models to find
comprehensive solutions. The slide humorously depicts "3 Causes of Accidents" as "I didn't
see," "I didn't think," and "I didn't know."
OSHA Agencies
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration): The primary agency that
creates and enforces safety regulations and collects statistics.
OSHRC (Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission): Conducts
hearings for contested citations and reviews appeals.
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health): The research
arm for OSHA, which recommends new standards and researches safety and health
problems.
Design for Construction Safety (DFCS)
Designers have a key role in safety. Prevention through Design (PtD) is a proactive process
where designers identify and eliminate hazards. This helps to avoid litigation. For instance,
designers can:
Design prefabricated units for ground-level assembly.
Specify trenchless technology to avoid open trenches.
Ensure adequate clearance between structures and power lines.
Design permanent anchorage points on roofs for fall protection.
Safety Signs and Barricades
Mandatory Signs: Prescribe specific behavior. They are round with a white
pictogram on a blue background. Examples: "Safety gloves must be worn."
Warning Signs: Warn of hazards. They are triangular with a black pictogram on a
yellow background and a black border. Example: "Danger: Electric shock risk."
Barricades:
oYellow/Black Tape: Indicates a potential hazard (caution). Entry requires
permission. Used for minor hazards like shallow excavations or tripping
hazards.
oRed Tape: Indicates DANGER and a serious hazard. No entry without
explicit permission. Used for major hazards like overhead work or live
electrical components.

15. OHSAS 18001:2007
This slide provides information on the Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series
(BS OHSAS 18001). The British Standards Institution (BSI) adopted this as a British
standard. The 2007 update gave more emphasis to the "health" component of "health and
safety" to better reflect ILO-OSH guidelines. OHSAS can be aligned with other management
systems like ISO 9001 and ISO 14001. Compliance with this standard allows organizations
to show they have a proper system in place for managing occupational health and safety.
Based on the images provided, here is an explanation of the text from the lecture slides.
Whose Responsibility Is Safety?
The primary concern regarding safety is to prevent personal injuries. The lecture points out
an ironic statement: "Injuries are generally sustained by persons who do not want to be
injured." This highlights that accidents happen even to those who take steps to avoid them.
The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) outlines a moral and legal obligation
for employers to provide a safe working environment. An employer's duty of care includes:
Providing a safe system and place of work.
Ensuring plant and machinery are safe to use.
Providing competent supervision and suitable training.
Caring for the selection of fellow employees.
The slide's motto, "Safety is everyone's responsibility," reinforces that safety is a
shared duty.
Combination Theory of Causation
This theory suggests that a single theory or model may not be enough to explain all
circumstances of accidents. While some theories are better at addressing specific problems,
the optimal approach is to use a combination of different theories and models to find
comprehensive solutions to problems. The images also show some common reasons for
accidents, such as "I didn't see," "I didn't think," and "I didn't know."
Statistics
This slide provides formulas for calculating different safety metrics, which are based on the
IS 3764-1966 standard for industrial injuries.
Frequency rate for lost-time injury:

16. Man-hours workednumber of lost-time injury×1,000,000
Frequency rate for reportable lost-time injury:
Man-hours workednumber of reportable lost-time injury×1,000,000
Severity rate for lost-time injury:
Man-hours workedman-days lost due to lost-time injury×1,000,000
Severity rate for reportable lost-time injury:
Man-hours workedman-days lost due to reportable lost-time injury×1,000,000
Incidence rate for lost-time injury:
avg number of persons employednumber of lost-time injury×1,000
Incidence rate for reportable lost-time injury:
avg number of persons employednumber of reportable lost-time injury×1,000
Sure—here’s a selection of basic safety terminology commonly used in Construction Safety (Prentice
Hall), structured in a traditional and foundational way, drawing from trusted industry sources (like
OSHA and recognized safety management references):
Key Construction Safety Terms
From OSHA’s Construction Glossary (Prentice Hall–aligned foundational terms)
Competent Person
Someone capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards on a jobsite and authorized
to take corrective action (OSHA).
Qualified Person
An individual with recognized degrees, certificates, or extensive experience who can solve
specific safety issues .
Authorized Person (Designated Person)
A person assigned by the employer to perform specific duties or be present in certain
locations on the jobsite (OSHA).
Defect
Any condition that weakens or reduces the strength of tools, objects, or structures (OSHA).

17. Hazardous Substance
A substance likely to cause injury due to being explosive, flammable, poisonous, corrosive,
oxidizing, irritating, etc. (OSHA).
Safety Factor
The ratio of a material's breaking strength to the actual working load; represents built-in
structural safety (Wikipedia).
Fall Protection & Fall Hazards
Fall Protection
Systems (guardrails, safety nets, personal fall arrest systems) designed to prevent or arrest
worker falls (Wikipedia, HQSuite).
Anchorage
A secure point where fall protection components (like lanyards or lifelines) are attached
(OSHA).
Body Harness
Straps distributed around the worker’s body to evenly distribute fall arrest forces and attach
to other protection components (OSHA).
Controlled Access Zone (CAZ)
A designated work area where certain high-risk activities take place—entry is controlled, and
standard fall protection may be relaxed under strict conditions (OSHA).
Hazard Identification & Incident Terms
Hazard
Any potential source of harm or adverse health effect .
Incident
An event or condition that resulted—or could have resulted—in injury, illness, or damage
(Onsite Safety).
Near-Miss
An incident in which no injury or damage occurred, but had the potential to do so
(bssukhse.com).
Risk Control & Analysis
Job Safety Analysis (JSA)
A systematic method for identifying hazards and implementing controls for specific job tasks.
Often organized into columns: job step, hazard, control, and sometimes responsibility
(Wikipedia).
Hard Controls vs. Soft Controls
oHard Controls: Physical barriers—guards, fencing, restraint devices.

18. oSoft Controls: Non-physical controls—signage, procedures, permits, verbal
instructions (Wikipedia).
Emergency & Response Planning
Emergency Action Plan (EAP)
A document outlining procedures for emergencies at the jobsite, including evacuation and
response protocols (HQSuite).
Emergency Response Plan (ERP) / Emergency Preparedness and Response Program (EPR)
Officially mandated plans detailing how to respond during emergencies or natural disasters
(HQSuite).
First Aid
Immediate care given at the jobsite before professional medical treatment is available
(HQSuite).
They guide the documentation and analysis of risks, enabling safer task planning through
JSAs.
They ensure clear communication—essential in traditional safety teaching and legacy
practices.
Term Meaning
Competent Person Recognizes hazards, authorized to act
Qualified Person Technically skilled authority
Body Harness Worn safety equipment distributing fall forces
Fall Protection Measures to prevent or stop falls
Hazardous Substance Material that is potentially harmful
Job Safety Analysis (JSA)Systematic task hazard analysis and control planning
Emergency Action Plan (EAP)Procedures to follow during jobsite emergencies
Incident / Near-Miss Events causing or nearly causing harm
When you ask about the “safety pyramid” in the context of Construction Safety (Prentice
Hall), the term refers to a foundational concept in safety science—commonly known as
Heinrich’s Safety Pyramid or Heinrich's Triangle, which has long influenced traditional
industrial and construction safety teachings.

19. Overview of the Safety Pyramid
1. Domino Theory – H. W. Heinrich (1931)
Concept:
Accidents result from a chain of sequential events. If one domino in the sequence is
removed, the accident can be prevented.
Five Dominoes:
Ancestry & Social Environment – Unsafe traits or attitudes passed down or learned.
Fault of Person – Unsafe habits, recklessness, or lack of knowledge.
Unsafe Act/Condition – Hazardous behavior or environment.
Accident – The event causing harm.
Injury – Physical harm resulting from the accident.
Key Point: Remove the unsafe act or condition to stop the chain.
(Traditional, behavior-focused approach.)
2. Human Factors Theory
Concept:
Accidents are caused by human error, which can be traced to:
Overload – Task demands exceed the worker’s capacity.
Inappropriate Response – Ignoring safety procedures or misjudging risks.
Inappropriate Activities – Doing tasks one is not trained or authorized for.
Key Point: Matches work demands to worker capability and training.
3. Accident/Incident Theory – Updated Human Factors Theory
Concept:
Adds management failures and ergonomics to the human factors model.
Poor safety policies, inadequate training, or mismatched tools increase risk.
4. Epidemiological Theory
Concept:
Accidents are like diseases — caused by a mix of agent, host, and environment.
Agent – The hazard (e.g., a falling object, toxic gas).
Host – The person exposed.
Environment – The work setting.
Key Point: Focuses on studying patterns to find preventive measures.
5. Systems Theory

20. Concept:
Accidents happen when the interaction between humans, machines, and the
environment fails.
Uses feedback loops and systems thinking to identify weak points.
6. Combination Theory
Concept:
No single theory explains all accidents — often, multiple causes interact.
For example, a worker’s fatigue (human factor) + poor lighting (environment) +
unsafe ladder (mechanical fault).
7. Energy Release Theory – Haddon (1960s)
Concept:
Accidents occur when there is uncontrolled release of energy (mechanical,
electrical, thermal, chemical, etc.).
Prevention is about controlling energy: barriers, insulation, containment.