Scientific principles

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1. Guiding Principles of Guiding Principles of
Scientific ResearchScientific Research
G. Reid Lyon, PhD
President and CEO
Synergistic Education Solutions
Dallas, TX

2. Scientific ResearchScientific Research
A process of rigorous reasoning based on interactions among theories
methods, and findings;
Builds on understanding derived from the objective testing of models
or theories;
Accumulation of scientific knowledge is laborious, plodding,
circuitous, and indirect;
Scientific knowledge is developed and honed through critique
contested findings, replication, and convergence;
Scientific knowledge is developed through sustained efforts;
Scientific inquiry must be guided by fundamental principles.

3. Fundamental Principles Fundamental Principles (NRC, 2002)(NRC, 2002)
I.Ask significant questions that can be answered
empirically.
•“The formulation of a problem is often more
essential than it’s solution, which may be merely a
matter of mathematical or experimental skill. To
raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old
questions from a new angle, requires creative
imagination and marks real advance in science”
(Einstein & Infeld, 1938);
•The research questions must be asked in a way that
allows for empirical investigation.

4. Fundamental Principles Fundamental Principles (cont’d)(cont’d)
II.Link research to relevant theory.
•Scientific research can be guided by a
conceptual framework model, or theory that
generates questions to be asked or answers to
the questions posed;
•Theory drives the research question, the use of
methods, and the interpretation of results.

5. Fundamental Principles Fundamental Principles (cont’d)(cont’d)
III.Select and apply research designs and methods that
permit direct investigation of the question.
•The trustworthiness of any research study is
predicated initially on several major elements:
oThe suitability of the proposed research design or
methodology to address the specific questions posed by
the study;
oThe scientific rigor by which the methodology is
applied;

6. Fundamental Principles Fundamental Principles (cont’d)(cont’d)
•The trustworthiness of any research study is
predicated initially on several major elements (cont’d):
oThe link between question and methodology must

be clear and justified;
oDetailed description of the method, measures, data
collection procedures, data analyses, and subjects
must be available to permit replication.

7. Fundamental Principles Fundamental Principles (cont’d)(cont’d)
IV.Provide a coherent and explicit chain of reasoning that
can be replicated.
•What assumptions underlying the inferences were
made? Were they clearly stated and justified?
•How was evidence judged to be relevant?
•How were alternative, competing hypotheses, and
explanations identified, considered, and accounted for
(accepted or discarded)?

8. Fundamental Principles Fundamental Principles (cont’d)(cont’d)
IV.Provide a coherent and explicit chain of reasoning that
can be replicated (cont’d).
•How were the links between data and the conceptual or
theoretical framework made?
•The chain of reasoning depends upon the design which
depends on the type of question:
oDescription – what is happening?
oCause – is there a systematic effect?
oProcess/mechanism- why or how does the effect
occur?

9. Fundamental Principles Fundamental Principles (cont’d)(cont’d)
V.Replicate and generalize across studies.
•Internal Validity: The observations made are consistent an
generalize from one observer to another, from one task to a
parallel task from one measurement occasion to anther
occasion.
oStatistical methods – e.g. correlation;
oNon-statistical methods – e.g. triangulation,
comparative analysis.
•External Validity: The extent to which the treatment
conditions and participant population reflect the “world”
to which generalization is desired.

10. Fundamental Principles Fundamental Principles (cont’d)(cont’d)
VI. Report research publicly to encourage
professional scrutiny, critique and replication.
•Criticism is essential to scientific progress;
•The extent to which new findings can be reviewed
contested, and accepted or rejected by scientific peers
depends upon accurate, comprehensive, and accessible
records of:
oData
oMethods
oInferential reasoning

11. Common Conceptions/Misconceptions About Common Conceptions/Misconceptions About
Scientific Quality and RigorScientific Quality and Rigor
Experimental research is more “scientific” than
descriptive or qualitative research…
oNOT TRUE: The type of design/method does not
render the study scientific.

12. Common Conceptions/Misconceptions About Common Conceptions/Misconceptions About
Scientific Quality and Rigor Scientific Quality and Rigor (cont’d)(cont’d)
A study is deemed to be “scientific” when:
oThere are a clear set of testable questions underlying the
design;
oThe methods are appropriate to answer the questions and
falsify competing hypotheses and answers;
oThe study is explicitly linked to theory and previous
research;
oThe data are analyzed systematically and with the
appropriate tools;
oThe data are made available for review and criticism.

13. Common Conceptions/MisconceptionsCommon Conceptions/Misconceptions
Research in education is fundamentally different than in
the “hard” sciences.
oNOT TRUE: Scientific research in education, psychology,
biochemistry, astrophysics, cultural anthropology,
mathematics, etc., all:
oSeek conceptual/theoretical understanding;
oPose empirical and testable and refutable hypotheses;
oDesign studies that test and rule out competing counter
hypotheses;
oUse observational methods that are linked to theory and can
be publicly assessed for accuracy;
oRecognize the importance of independent replication and
generalization.

14. Features Common To Educational ResearchFeatures Common To Educational Research
It is a challenge to design and implement randomized treatments
and repeated measures under highly controlled conditions;
“Double-blind” controls are not feasible when using particular
designs;
The level of certainty of research conclusions is lower than in the
physical sciences;
Error limits associated with scientific inferences are larger in
social, behavioral, and educational research than in the physical
sciences;
The influential role of context makes interpretation of data
“messy”;
Converging evidence is critical.

15. Some Reasons Why Educational Practices and Policies Are Some Reasons Why Educational Practices and Policies Are
Not Guided and Informed by ScienceNot Guided and Informed by Science
Education Research is young – 100 year history;
Battered by different epistomological perspectives;
Skepticism Concerning the value of a science of education:
oNIE should conduct an evaluation on effectiveness of
instructional programs emphasizing an ethnographic or
descriptive case study approach because the audience for
follow through evaluations is an audience of teachers that
doesn’t need statistical findings of experiments to decide
how best to teach children. They decide such matters on the
basis of complicated public and private understandings,
beliefs, motives, and wishes”. (Gene Glass, 1981)

16. Some Reasons Why Educational Practices and Policies Are Some Reasons Why Educational Practices and Policies Are
Not Guided and Informed by ScienceNot Guided and Informed by Science
Lack of Federal financial support for educational research;
Lack of public support for education research
Inadequate translation of trustworthy research findings
into applied classroom practices;
Teacher reliance on practical experience rather than data;
Expertise based on subjective judgments of the individual
professional rather than student learning and
achievement;

17. Some Reasons Why Educational Practices and Policies Are Some Reasons Why Educational Practices and Policies Are
Not Guided and Informed by Science Not Guided and Informed by Science (cont’d)(cont’d)
Tendency to embrace “fads” in instruction rather than identify
and implement policies and instructional practices based on
data;
“DAP was never seen as needing to be exclusively or even
primarily based on research literature…Folklore and personal
accounts of best practices passed on from one generation of
teachers to the next counted a great deal…The types of citations
used to reference the NAEYC publications of DAP guidelines
clearly indicate a reliance on sources other than articles
reporting original empirical data (i.e. bona fide research)…only
13 of 25 references cited in the DAP report were original reports
of research”. (Kontos, 1989)
Limitations in research training.

18. Principals For Fostering Science In Education: What The Principals For Fostering Science In Education: What The
Federal Government Can DoFederal Government Can Do
Provide highly experienced research leadership and research
management;
Develop rigorous and transparent peer-review processes;
Insulate the program from political interference;
Develop and manage coherent research programs/portfolios
that incorporate agency-initiated programs, investigator/field-
initiated programs, and multiple funding mechanisms;
Adequately fund the agency;
Stress trans-agency initiatives to increase community of
researchers.