Secondary tillage implements

Secondary tillage implements

1. Secondary Tillage Implements

2. Tillage operations following primary tillage are…… Performed to create proper soil tilth for seeding and planting . These are lighter and finer operations , performed on the soil after primary tillage operations. These operations consume less power per unit area. Secondary tillage implements may be tractor drawn or bullock drawn implements.

3. Harrowing Secondary tillage operation. Which pulverizes, smoothens and packs the soil in seed bed preparation and/or to control weeds.

4. Harrows- A secondary tillage implement Intended to cuts the soil to a shallow depth for smoothening and pulverizing the soil as well as to cut the weeds and to mix the materials with the soil. Harrow is used To break the clods after ploughing, To collect trash from the ploughed land, To level the seed bed. Types of harrow used in India: Disc harrow , Blade harrow , Drag harrow: Two types 1. Spike tooth harrow 2.Spring harrow

5. Disc harrow Performs the harrowing operations by set (or a number of sets) of rotating steel discs . Each set being mounted on a common shaft . Disc harrows are of two types depending upon the sources of power : 1. Tractor drawn 2. Animal drawn.

6. Tractor drawn disc harrow: Suitable for hard ground with stalks and grasses . Cuts the lumps of soil, clods and roots . Discs are mounted on one, two or more axles may be set at a variable angle to the line of motion. As the harrow is pulled ahead, the discs rotate on the ground. Depending upon the disc arrangements , disc harrows are divided into two classes ( i ) single action, and (ii) double action.

7. Single action disc harrow A harrow with two gangs placed end to end , which throw the soil in opposite directions . The discs are arranged in such a way that Right side gang throws the soil towards right , and Left side gang throws the soil towards left .

8. Double action disc harrow : A disc harrow consisting of two or more gangs , In which a set of one or two gangs follow behind the set of the other one or two , arranged in such a way that the front and back gangs throw the soil in opposite directions. The entire field is worked twice in each trip . It may be of two types: ( i ) Tandem, and (ii) Off-set.

9. Tandem disc harrow A disc harrow comprising of four gangs in which each gang can be angled in opposite direction. Off-set disc harrow A disc harrow with two gangs in tandem , capable of being off-set to either side of the centre line of pull. T wo gangs are fitted one behind the other. The soil is thrown in both directions because discs of both gangs face in opposite directions. Very useful for orchards and gardens . It travels left or right of the tractor . The line of pull is not in the middle, that’s why it is called off-set disc harrow. An orchard is an area of land on which fruit trees are grown.

10. Components of disc harrow A disc harrow consists of: Disc, Gang, Gang bolt, Gang angle, Gang control lever, Spools or spacer, Bearings, Transport wheels, Scraper and Weight box.

11. 1.Disc is a circular, concave revolving steel plate used for cutting and inverting the soil . Disc is made of high grade heat treated hardened steel . Tractor drawn disc harrows have concave discs of size varying from 35 to 70 cm diameter. Concavity of the disc affects penetration and pulverization of soil. Usually two types of disc are used in disc harrows : (a) Plain disc (b) Cut-away disc.

12. Plain discs have plain edges-used for normal works. Most of the harrows are fitted with plain discs only. Cut-away discs have serrated edges Cut stalks, grasses and other vegetative matter better than plain discs . Cut-away discs are not very effective for pulverization of soil Very useful for pudding the field especially for paddy cultivation.

13. 1.Disc is a circular, concave revolving steel plate used for cutting and inverting the soil . 2.Gang: It is an assembly of concave discs mounted on a common shaft with spools in between . 3. Gang axle: A shaft on which a set of discs are mounted . The spacing between the discs on the gang bolt ranges from 15cm to 23cm for light duty harrows and 25 to 30 cm for heavy duty harrows. 4. Gang angle: The angle between the axis of the gang and the line perpendicular to the direction of travel. 5. Gang control lever: A lever which operates the angling mechanism of disc harrow. 6.Spool or Spacer: The flanged tube, mounted on the gang axle between every two discs to retain them at fixed position laterally on the shaft is called spool or spacer(a device for keeping the discs at equal spacing on the axle ).

14. 7. Bearing : is essential to counteract the end thrust of the gangs due to soil thrust . Disc harrow bearings are subjected to heavy radial and thrust loads. (Chilled cast iron bearings, ball bearings or tapered roller bearings may be used on disc harrows). Oil soaked wooden bearings are very common for disc harrows.. Chilled cast iron bearings are also used due to their durability. 8. Transport wheel : In trailing type discs harrows, transport wheels are provided for transport work on roads and for preventing the damage of the roads and helps in protecting the edges of the discs. 9. Scraper : P revents the discs from clogging . It removes the soil that may stick to the concave side of the disc. 10.Weight box : A box like frame is provided on the main frame of the harrow for putting additional weight on the implement. Additional weight helps in increasing the penetration of the discs in the soil.

15. Penetration of disc harrow: Factors affect the penetration of disc harrow in the field. If the disc gangs are set perpendicular to the line of draft, the penetration is not adequate . Penetration can be increased by adding some additional weight on the frame of the harrow. To obtain maximum penetration, the gangs should be set with the forward edges of the disc parallel to the direction of motion . If the hitch point is lowered, better penetration is achieved . Sharp edged disc has more effective penetration than blunt edged disc. Penetration is better in low speed. Few adjustments for obtaining higher penetration. 1 . By increasing the disc angle. 2. By adding additional weight on the harrow. 3. By lowering the hitch point. 4. By using sharp edged discs of small diameter and lesser concavity and 5. By regulating the optimum speed.

16. Care and maintenance of disc harrow Bearing must be thoroughly greased at regular intervals. Nuts and bolts must be checked daily before taking the implement to the field. Blunt edges of the discs - sharpened regularly . During slack season , the worn parts including bearings should be fully replaced . Better to coat the outer and inner surfaces of the discs when the harrow is lying without use in slack season.

17. Animal drawn disc harrow: It consists of: Disc, Gang frame, Beam, Gang angle mechanism, Scraper, Spacer(spool), Clevis, Axle, Middle tyne, Bearings

18. 1. Disc: Disc is the main part of the harrow which cuts and pulverizes the soil. Discs are arranged in two gangs. The disc has a square opening in the centre to allow the passage of the axle. 2. Gang frame: All the gangs are mounted on a frame, called Gang frame and is made of sturdy mild steel structure. The gang frame is bolted to the beam of the implement. 3. Beam: Part of the harrow which connects the implement with the yoke. The rear end of the beam has a clevis to fix its height of hitching to suit the size of animals(made of wood ). 4. Gang angle mechanism : It is a mechanism by means of which the gang angles are adjusted. Arranged of adjusted the width and depth of cuts of the implement, is done by gang mechanism. The lever of the gang angle is usually made of mild steel flat with a wooden handle. The gang angle can be adjusted approximately in the range from 0º to 27 º only. 5. Scraper : It is that part of the harrow which scrapes the soil from the concave side of the disc and keeps it clean for effective working of the harrow in the field.

19. Spacer (spool) : Spacer is used to separate the two adjacent discs and to keep them in position. It is usually made of cast iron. The spacer has a suitable square opening in the middle to allow the passage of the axle. 7. Clevis : Clevis is the part fitted to the beam and the frame which permits vertical hitching of the harrow. 8 . Axle : The axle is usually 20 × 20 mm square section. The length of axis depends upon the size of the harrow. 9. Middle tyne : The tyne which breaks the unbroken strip of soil left in between two gangs of the harrow during operation is called middle tyne. This tyne is suitable fixed to the rear end of the gang frame in such a way that it is replaced easily. 10. Bearing : There is one or two bearings, made of cast iron or wood fitted at each end of the gang.

20. Drag harrows Used since ancient times; early farmers used to cut branches from the trees for use in leveling the soil. Drag harrows are used to….. break the clods, stir the soil, uproot the early weeds, level the ground, break the soil crust and cover the seeds. There are two principal kinds of drag harrows, namely…… (1) spike tooth (2) spring type harrow.

21. Peg tooth or triangular harrow

22. Spike tooth harrows are either rigid or flexible . The flexible type tractor drawn can be rolled up for transporting. Animal drawn harrows are always of rigid frame type . Basic frame of the harrow may be triangle . It has pointed steel pegs (teeth) with their pointed ends towards ground . The peg point is tilted backward vertically so that soil is not accumulated in the front. The pegs of the rigid harrows are fixed slightly tilted so that no arrangement is needed to change the angle. The harrow is dragged over the surface by means of a chain or rope tied to the yoke. Animal drawn harrows cover almost 1 to 1.2 m width and are used to stir the soil to a depth of 5 cm. Depth of penetration can be increased by adding weights.

23. Spring tyne tractor drawn harrows have looping, elliptical or spring like tynes. But the animal drawn unit is only provided with elliptical tynes. Used extensively to prepare ploughed land before planting . They penetrate much deeper than spike tooth harrows and are generally used in the soil where obstructions like stones, roots and weeds are hidden a few centimeters below the surface. Basic frame of the harrow is mostly rectangular. Spike tooth and spring tyne harrows do not require lubrication. Teeth may also be removed for sharpening.

24. Blade harrows (bakhar) The most common type of harrow used by Indian farmers. Generally used in clay soils for preparing seedbeds . Used for covering the seed in Kharif sowing. The action of blade harrow is like that of sweep , moving into the top surface of the soil without inverting it . It is used to chisel out the uncut portion left after ploughing by an indigenous plough. Primary function: To Pulverize & create soil mulch . The blade is made of steel. Shisham or Babool wood is used for making the body and the beam. The width cut by the harrow varies from 38 to 105 cm. 18-8-2016

25. Blade harrow

26. Classification and selection of tractors Tractors can be classified into three classes on the basis of structural design : Wheel tractor Crawler tractor (track type or chain type) and Walking tractor (power tiller). Wheel tractor: Tractors, having three of four pneumatic wheels . Four wheel tractors are most popular every where. Crawler tractor ( Track type tractor or Chain type tractor). There is endless chain or track in place of pneumatic wheels. Power tiller: Power tiller is a walking type tractor usually fitted with two wheels only. The direction of travel and its control for field operation is performed by the operator, walking behind the tractor.

27. On the basis of purpose , wheeled tractor is classified into three groups : (a)General purpose (b) Row crop (c) Special purpose. (a) General purpose tractor: Used for major farm operations ( ploughing , harrowing , sowing , harvesting and transporting work). Those tractors have ( i ) low ground clearance (ii) increased engine power (iii) good adhesion and (iv) wide tyres. (b) Row crop tractors: Designed to work in rows like planting , inter-culture etc. Tractor is provided with replaceable driving wheels of different thread widths with high ground clearance to save damage of crops. Wide wheel track can be adjusted to suit inter row distance. Ground clearance: T he space or distance from the lowest point of vehicle to the level surface below it.

28. (c) Orchard tractors: These are special type of tractors mainly used in orchards. Have less weight, less width and no projected parts. (d) Special purpose tractor: Used for definite jobs like cotton fields, marshy land, hill sides, garden etc.

29. Secondary tillage(ST): operations performed to crease proper soil tilth for seeding and planting. These are lighter and finer operations , performed on the soil after primary tillage operations. Consists of conditioning the soil to meet the different tillage objectives of the farm. Ex: Harrow , C ultivators , L evelers , C rushers . Secondary tillage operations do not cause much soil inversion and shifting of soil from one place to other. These operations consume less power per unit area . Secondary tillage implements may be tractor drawn or bullock drawn implements. Bullock drawn implements: harrows, cultivators, hoes etc.

30. Harrow: A n implement consisting of a heavy frame set with teeth or tines Harrow is dragged over ploughed land to break up clods, remove weeds, and cover seed. Harrowing is secondary tillage operation. which pulverizes, smoothens and packs the soil in seed bed preparation and/or to control weeds . Harrow(an implement) cuts the soil to a shallow depth for smoothening and pulverizing the soil as well as to cut the weeds and to mix materials with soil. Used to break the clods after ploughing , to collect trash from the ploughed land and to level the seed bed.

31. Seed drill  is a sowing device that precisely positions seeds in the soil and then covers them . Before the introduction of the seed drill, the common practice was to plant seeds by hand. Besides being wasteful, planting was very imprecise and led to a poor distribution of seeds, leading to low productivity.

32. Leveller In irrigated areas, land leveling is an essential operation for farming. Level fields receive uniform penetration of irrigation water with high efficiency. Water logging and soil erosion is reduced . Land leveling is usually done in the slack season when the field is free from crops . Common type of field levelers used by farmers. Wooden logs or planks . Operated in ploughed land to collect loose soil from high spots and dump it into depressions . Improved type of land leveller : Used on the large farms, is called the leveling karaha (scoop) or scraper.

33. Bund former Used for making bunds or ridges by collecting the soil. Bunds are required to hold water in the soil to conserve moisture and prevent run-off. The size of the bund former is determined by measuring the maximum horizontal distance between the two rear ends of the farming boards . Bund former consists of forming board, beam and handle Bund Former

34. Bund Former

35. Ridger (R idging plough / Double mould board plough) An implement used to form ridges required for sowing row crop seeds and plants in well-tilled soil. Used for forming field or channels, earthing up and similar other operations. The ridger generally has ’V’ shaped or wedge shaped share fitted to the frog . The nose or tip of share penetrates into the soil and breaks the earth. The mould boards lift, invert and cast aside the soil , forming deep channels and ridges of the required size. Ridger consists of beam, clevis, frog, handle, mould boards, share and sliding share .

36. Puddler An implement used for churning the soil with water to prepare paddy fields with standing water ( of 5-10 cm depth) after initial ploughing with country plough. It breaks up the clods and churns the soil. Purpose : To reduce leaching of water or decrease percolation of water , to kill weeds by decomposition and to facilitate transplantation of paddy seedlings by making the soil softer . A common puddler has puddling units each having four straight blades or paddles or fan type blades or squirrel type blade mounted on an axle . Puddler consists of a frame, puddling unit, axle, metal cross beam and handle.

37. Leveller Land leveling : Expected to bring permanent improvement in the value of land. To modify the existing contours of land for efficient agricultural production system. with the following objectives….. ( i ) Efficient application of irrigation water, (ii) Improved surface drainage, (iii) Minimum soil erosion (iv) Increased conservation of rain water (specially on dry lands) . (v) Provision of an adequate field size and even topography for efficient mechanization.

38. CULTIVATORS An implement for inter cultivation with laterally adjustable tines or discs to work between crop rows . Cultivator stirs the soil , and breaks the clods . The tines fitted on the frame of the cultivator comb the soil deeply in the field . Perform functions intermediate between plough and the harrow. Primary function of a cultivator is destruction of weeds . 1. Inter culture the fields. 2. Destroy the weeds in the field. 3. Aerate the soil for proper growth of crops. 4. Conserve moisture by preparing mulch on the surface. 5. To sow seeds when it is provided with sowing attachments. 6. Prevent surface evaporation & encourage infiltration of rain water.

39. Types of cultivators Disc cultivator , Rotary cultivator , Tine cultivator . Disc cultivator : A cultivator fitted with discs. Rotary cultivator : fitted with tines or blades mounted on a power driven horizontal shaft. Tine cultivator : fitted with tines having shovels.

40. Tractor Drawn Cultivator Trailed type cultivator Consists of a main frame which carries a number of cross members fitted with tines. At the forward end of the cultivator, there is a hitch arrangement for hitching purpose. A pair of wheels are provided in the cultivator . The height of the hitch is adjusted- main frame remains horizontal over a range of depth setting. The tines in each row are spaced widely to allow free passage of the soil and trash around them. The tines in subsequent rows are staggered so that the implement can cover the entire width nicely.

41. Mounted Cultivator Tractors fitted with hydraulic lift operate the mounted type cultivators. A rectangular frame of angle iron is mounted on three point hydraulic linkage of the tractor . Depending upon the type of soil and crop, shovels are chosen for use on the cultivators. Tractor drawn cultivators are of two types , depending upon the flexibility and rigidity of tines ( i ) Cultivator with spring loaded tines (ii) Cultivator with rigid tynes.

42. Cultivator with spring loaded tines Spring loaded tine : A tine hinged to the frame and loaded with a spring(S wings back when an obstacle is encountered) . Recommended particularly for soils embedded with stones or stumps. Tractor drawn cultivator

43. Cultivator with rigid tines Fitted with rigid tines. Not deflect during work in the field. The tynes are bolted between angle braces , fastened to the main bars by sturdy clamps and bolts . Spacing of the tines is changed simply by slackening the bolts and sliding the braces to the desired position. A pair of gauge wheel is used for controlling the depth of operation

44. Secondary tillage Surface configuration for seeding and planting are called secondary tillage operations . These are lighter and finer tillage operations performed in the soil after primary tillage to create proper soil tilth . Secondary tillage operations are generally done on the surface soil. Cause less soil inversion and not involved in soil shifting. Consume less power per unit area. Main objectives of secondary tillage: ♦ To break the big clods and make the soil surface uniform and leveled for seed bed prepararation. ♦ To destroy grasses and weeds in the field. ♦ To cut crop residues and mix them with top soil. The implements used for secondary tillage operations are called secondary tillage implements (Ex. harrow, cultivators, sweeps, clod crushers, levellers, bund formers, ridge ploughs etc.) 22-8-2016

45. Tillage systems Consists of sequences of operations to manipulate the soil in order to produce a crop. The operations include tilling , planting , fertilization , pesticide application , harvesting , and residue chopping or shredding . These operations affect the physical and chemical properties of the soil, which in turn affect plant growth. There are two types of tillage systems. a) Conservation tillage system including no-till , ridge till and mulch till systems. b) Other than conservation tillage systems: a) R educed tillage system and b) C onventional tillage system

46. Conservation tillage (30 % or more crop residue left after planting) Any tillage and planting system that covers 30% or more of the soil surface with crop residue, after planting, to reduce soil erosion by water. Conversion tillage systems are further classified as a) No-till, b) Ridge-till, c) Mulch-till.

47. No- till : A system in which the soil is left undisturbed from harvest to planting except for nutrient injection. Planting or drilling is accomplished in a narrow seedbed or slot ( created by coulters, row cleaners, disk openers, in-row chisels, or rototillers) . Weed control is accomplished primarily with herbicides. Ridge-till : S oil is also left undisturbed from harvest to planting except for nutrient injection. Planting is completed in a seedbed prepared on ridges (with sweeps, disk openers, coulters, or row cleaners) . Residue is left on the surface between ridges . Weed control is accomplished with herbicides and/or cultivation. Ridges are rebuilt during cultivation. Mulch-till : The soil is disturbed before planting . Tillage tools-chisels , field cultivators, disks, sweeps or blades are used. Weed control is accomplished with herbicides and/or cultivation. Mulch-till is a category that includes all conservation tillage practices other than no-till and ridge-till. Two tillage practices : are zone-till and strip-till . Both practices involve tilling a strip into which seed and fertilizer are placed .

48. Other tillage systems (less than 30% crop residue left after planting) Tillage systems that leave less than 30% crop residue after planting are not classified as conservation tillage . T hese systems may meet erosion control goals with or without other supporting conservation practices, such as strip cropping, contouring, terracing, etc. 1)Reduced-till : Reduced-till systems leave 15-30% residue cover after planting or (560 to 1,120 kilograms per hectare of small grain residue equivalent throughout the critical wind erosion period). 2)Conventional-till : Conventional-till systems leave less than 15% residue cover after planting , or (less than 560 kilograms per hectare of small grain residue equivalent throughout the critical wind erosion period). These systems involve plowing or some other form of intensive tillage.

49. Another classification of tillage systems There are two types of tillage namely a. Conventional tillage or clean tillage and b. Conservation tillage 1. Conventional tillage or clean tillage: Ploughing the entire field several times to prepare a seed bed. 2. Conservation tillage: Ploughing the field with lesser number of passes over the entire land or ploughing only in the required space of the land and then sowing.

50. Types of conservation tillage are…. a. Minimum Tillage - Minimum soil manipulation necessary to meet tillage requirements. c. Mulch Tillage: Tillage operations in which nearly 30 % of crop residue or other mulching materials are left on or near the soil surface. d. Rotary Tillage: Loosening & inverting of soil to a depth of 20–25 cm. The soil is broken into pieces by blades or teeth attached to the disks of a rotating drum. b. Strip Tillage - I n strip tillage system only isolated bands of soil are tilled (Tillage operations employing rotary action of the tool to cut, break and mix the soil is called rotary tillage). e. Combined Tillage – Tillage operations utilizing simultaneously two or more different types of tillage tools or implements to simplify, control or reduce the number of operations over a field.

51. Nursery raising machinery Potato planter: A  farm implement for sowing seed potatoes. A manual planter is called a  bell planter , It has two farm hands sitting on the back to collect potatoes from a hopper. The length between potatoes is tolled by a bell, at the sound of which potatoes are thrown down tubes. An automatic planter is hitched behind a farm tractor with a three-point linkage and towed. Cups lift seed potatoes from a hopper and drop them in tubes, planting up to eight drills at a time.

52. Multi crop planter (Tractor Drawn ) Is drawn by tractor with an arrangement of boxes to store the seeds separately. Capacity of seed box is 3kg. Characteristics Used for sowing of groundnut , sunflower , safflower , soybean , jowar , maize , wheat , red gram , etc. Fertilizer can also be applied with seeds (25 to 700 kg/hectare) according to crop recommendation. Spacing between rows according to crop 22.5 cm. 30 cm. or 45 cm. can be maintained. Spacing between plants can be maintained with the help of plastic plates for different crops which is supplemented with the planter. 3-3.5 hectare can be sown within 8 hours with palnters . Arrangement of changing the depth of fertilizer application and seeds sowing as per the need .

53. Planter Planter is normally used for - Seeds which are larger in size and can not be used by usual seed drills. A planter consists of: hopper, feed metering device, knock out arrangement, cut-off mechanism, furrow opener and other accessories . A planter has seed hopper for each row. Seed metering device: A planter consist of a rotating plate at the bottom of seed hoppers (horizontal seed plate). The horizontal seed plates have got suitable notches or holes called cell. Depending upon the type of notches on the plates, it is of three types. ( i ) Edge drop (ii) Flat drop (iii) Hill drop . Edge drop carries the seed on edge in the cell of the plate. Flat drop carries the seed on a flat in the cell of the plate. Hill drop , the cells round the edge of the plate are large enough to admit several seeds at a time. Use: Seeds required to be sown at equal intervals between plant to plant.

54. Manual Rice Planter Used for transplanting of paddy seedlings. The unit consists of skid frame , movable tray and seed picking fingers . Mat type seedlings are placed on the inclined trays . When the fingers are pushed downward they pick up the seedlings and place them on puddled soil. Seedlings are left on the ground during return stroke . Plant to plant spacing can be controlled by the opener. It may be 5-6 rows with comb type finger. Its working capacity may be 0.2 – 0.25 ha/8 hrs.

55. Rice Transplanter It consists of ( i ) Air cooled gasoline engine (ii) Main clutch (iii) Running clutch (iv) Planting clutch (v) Seeding table (vi) Float (vii) Star wheel (viii) Accelerator lever (ix) Ground wheel (x) Handle (xi) Four bar linkage mechanism Seedlings : Seedlings are grown in special seedling trays(mat seedling). Mat seedlings are grown by some standard procedure in controlled environment in a nursery. Operation : The mat seedlings are placed on the seeding table of the transplanter in slanting position. When the engine is started, the running clutch and planting clutch are operated. Four bar linkage mechanism facilitate to catch 3 or 4 seedlings at a time and to separate them from the mat and fix in the puddled soil. A float is helpful to support the machine on the water while working in the field. Two ground wheels facilitate the movement of the transplanter. A marker demarcates the transplanting width while in operation. Power from the engine goes to the main clutch from where it is divided into two routes, one goes to planting clutch and the other goes to running clutch. Unless planting clutch is operated, the four bar linkage mechanism does not work. The engine is of about 1.2 to 1.8 HP. Machine maintains row to row spacing of 28-30 cm & plant spacing of 14-16 cm only. Planting capacity of the machine: 0.05 to 0.1 hectare/hour.

56. Compost (Key ingredient in organic farming. ) An organic matter rich in nutrients, decomposed  and recycled as a fertilizer and used for soil amendment. The process of composting requires wetted organic matter (green waste-leaves, food waste) made to break down into humus. Composting is a multi-step process closely monitored with measured inputs of water, air, carbon and nitrogen-rich materials . The decomposition process is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding water and ensuring proper aeration by regularly turning the mixture. Worms and fungi further break up the material. Bacteria requiring oxygen to function and fungi manage the chemical process by converting the inputs into heat, carbon dioxide and ammonium. Used in  gardens, landscaping, horticulture, and agriculture . Benefits : As a soil conditioner, fertilizer, addition of vital humus or humic acids, a natural pesticide for soil. In ecosystems , compost is useful for erosion control , land and stream reclamation , wetland construction , and as landfill cover .

57. Composting organisms require four equally important ingredients to work effectively: Carbon : for energy; the microbial oxidation of carbon produces the heat. High carbon materials tend to be brown and dry. Nitrogen : to grow and reproduce more organisms to oxidize the carbon. High nitrogen materials tend to be green. Oxygen : for oxidizing the carbon, in the decomposition process. Water : To maintain activity without causing anaerobic conditions(right amounts). Efficient composting occurs with an optimal carbon: nitrogen ratio of about 10:1 to 20:1 . 

58. Plant Replacer The plant replacer is a manually operated hand tool for up rooting of saplings with the lump of mother soil along with root system for grafting or planting. It consists of an outer cylinder (auger shaped at the bottom), which is driven into the soil by weight and force applied by the operator, press plate with notch for holding the stem of the sapling and a handle. Components are fabricated from mild steel sheets and tubes of 14 SWG. For operation, the outer cylinder is driven into the soil up to the root zone of the sapling and the topsoil around the sapling is compacted with the press plate having a notch for holding the sapling. After compaction a jerk is given to the cylinder and it is pulled out. The press plate is pushed to remove the sapling along with soil lump.

59. Manual oilseed drill The machine consists of a seed box attached to the main frame of a hand wheel hoe. A fluted roller assembly is provided at the bottom of the seed box. Fluted roller is rotated with the help of chain and sprockets from the ground wheel. The seed rate can be adjusted with the help of a lever provided on the seed box. The fluted roller used for sowing rape seed and mustard. Each flute is 3 mm wide and 2 mm deep. The diameter of the fluted roller is 50 mm and its length, 32mm. For operation, the machine is pulled by rope attached to the hook of machine by one man and other persons steer the machine by holding it by the handle.

60. Manual seed and fertilizer drill A small manually operated single row seed cum fertilizer drill in which fluted roller metering mechanism is provided. A ground wheel is provided to drive the metering rollers. Seed and fertilizer are stored in a small hopper and a long beam is provided by which the implement could be pulled by one operator and another worker guides the machine. Fluted rollers suited for drilling soybean, maize, pigeon pea, sorghum, green gram, Bengal gram, wheat etc. Shoe type furrow openers are provided for easy operation. Suitable for drilling seeds of soybean, wheat along with fertilizer .

61. Manual garlic planter: Multi-crop planter A hand wheel hoe, used for inter-culture operation on which planting mechanism is mounted. It consists of a vertical plate with spoons , and receives drive motion from the ground wheel through chain and sprockets. Upon pulling the planter forward, ground wheel starts rotating transmitting motion to the vertical plate fitted with spoons in the hopper. The hopper is filled with seeds or garlic cloves . As the vertical plate rotates, the spoons pick up the bulb/seed, which is discharged, in the small hopper connected to the furrow opener through a tube. The seed is then dropped in the furrow created by the furrow opener . Markers facilitate row-to-row spacing. Varying the number of spoons on vertical plate can vary plant spacing. Used for sowing of garlic, maize, moong, peas, groundnut etc. Garlic planter is Labor saving equipment and require 90 man-hours to plant one hectare .

62. Manual rice transplanter The manual rice transplanter floats made of marine plywood, seedling tray that accepts the mat type nursery , a tray indexing mechanism and pickers for planting seedlings. When the operator pulls the machine and operates the handle, the picker (six in number), gathers two or three seedlings and place them in the puddled soil. The row to row distance can be maintained at 200 mm. It consists of handle, picker assembly, seedling tray, tray indexing mechanism, mainframe, base frame, seedling pushing lever, feeder link assembly, and wooden skid and pivot arm assembly. Transplanting mat type rice seedlings in puddled soil in six rows

63. Seed drill Seed drill is a machine for placing the seeds in a continuous flow in furrows at uniform rate and at controlled depth with or without the arrangement of covering them with soil. Function of seed drill: i ) To carry the seeds. ii) To open furrow (at an uniform depth) iii) To meter the seeds iv) To place the seed in furrows (acceptable pattern). v) To cover the seeds and compact the soil around the seed. Seed cum fertilizer drill Seed drills fitted with fertilizer dropping attachment, distribute the fertilizer uniformly on the ground. Seed drill has a large seed box which is divided lengthwise into two compartments, one for seed and another for fertilizers. Seed drill may be classified as ( i ) Bullock drawn (ii)Tractor drawn.

64. COMPONENTS OF SEED DRILL A Seed drill device consists of :( i ) Frame (ii) Seed box (iii) Seed metering mechanism (iv) Furrow openers (iv) Covering device (vi) Transport wheels. Frame: is made of angle iron with suitable braces and brackets. Strong enough to withstand all types of loads in working condition. Seed box : made of mild steel sheet or galvanized iron with a suitable cover. A small agitator is also provided to prevent clogging of seeds. Covering device: A device to refill a furrow after the seed has been placed in it. Transport wheel: Two wheels fitted on the main axle. The wheels have suitable attachments to transmit power to operate seed dropping mechanism. SEED METERING MECHANISM The mechanism of a seed drill or fertilizer distributor - delivers seeds or fertilizers from the hopper at selected rates is called seed metering mechanism. Seed metering mechanism may be of several types: (a) Fluted feed type (b) Internal double run type (c) Cup feed type (d) Cell feed mechanism (e) Brush feed mechanism (f) Auger feed mechanism (g) Picker wheel mechanism (h) Star wheel mechanism.

65. Trencher   A  trencher  is an equipment used to dig trenches, for laying pipes or cables, for installing drainage, or in preparation for trench warfare. Trenchers may range in size from walk-behind models, to attachments for a skid loader or tractor, to very heavy tracked equipment. Trenches range in width from 130 mm to 250 mm and can be dug to a depth of 800 mm (depending on soil conditions) Types: Trenchers come in different sizes and may use different digging implements, depending on the required width and depth of the trench and the hardness of the surface to be cut.

66. Portable Trencher Landscapers and lawn care specialist may use a portable trencher to install landscape edging and irrigation lines. Machines are light weight (around 200 pounds) and are easily maneuverable. The cutting implement may be a chain or a blade similar to a rotary lawn mower blade oriented. It rotates in a vertical plane.

67. Under cutter Designed to kill cover crops and leave them on the surface as a mulch. By leaving cover crop residue intact versus mowing them into smaller pieces, growers can get longer weed suppression from the cover crop mulches. The first tool in the under cutter is coulter that cuts through the cover crop. The second part of the under cutter is the cutting blade . It cuts the whole width of the raised bed about 2” below the soil surface. The last tool on the under cutter is this roller , It just rolls the cover crop down nice and flat as it moves through the field. There are several existing implements in agriculture that can be modified to do the same job as this, for example, A beet lifter : Can work well in lighter soils and with good soil moisture. Weed suppression can last about 6 weeks, it depends on the thickness of mulch that’s left on the soil surface.