Semantics and Pragmatics oral com Final.pptx

ppt

1. Let’s talk about rights and lefts. You’re right, so I left . Two silkworms had a race. They ended up in a tie. Diet slogan: Are you going the wrong weigh ? The simple word "on" can have many meanings, such as: on call, on the roof, on cloud nine, on edge, on fire, on purpose, on demand, on top, or on the phone . A barking dog can be good, especially if he is a guard dog, or can be bad because he is untrained and awakens people

2. Semantics

3. Semantics It deals with the level of meaning in language. It attempts to analyze the structure of meaning in a language, e.g., How words are related in meaning; it attempts to show these inter-relationships through forming ‘categories’. Semantics accounts for both word and sentence meaning.

4. 1. Lexical Ambiguity Refers to a characteristic of a word that has more than one sense, e. g. the English word fly is ambiguous because it has more than one meaning: ‘ an insect,’ ‘a zipper on a pair of pants,’ or ‘a baseball hit into the air with a bat.’

5. I saw bats . This short, simple sentence could be interpreted in different ways. I use a tool with a sharp blade to slice through baseball bats. I viewed some nocturnal flying mammals. I viewed baseball bats. It's a rather horrifying thought, but I could be using a tool with a sharp blade to slice through nocturnal flying mammals, perhaps on a regular basis.

6. 2. Syntactic A mbiguity Refers to the characteristic of a phrase that has more than one meaning, e.g . English literature teacher can mean ‘a teacher of English literature’ or ‘a literature teacher who is from England.’

7. The professor said on Monday he would give an exam.   The chicken is ready to eat.

8. 3. Synonymy Refers to words having the same sense; that is, they have the same values for all of their semantic features. happy and glad; reply and respond; hastily and hurriedly are synonymous words in English.

9. 4. Hyponymy Is a characteristic of a word that contains the meaning of another word; the contained word is known as the superordinate . For example, sampaguita contains the meaning of flower ; therefore, sampaguita is a hyponym of the superordinate flower .

10. " Hyponyms   have multiple layers, as in the following examples, :   cook Hyponyms:  bake, boil, grill, fry, steam, roast fry Hyponyms:  stir-fry, pan-fry, sauté, deep-fry "

11. 5. Antonymy Refers to the characteristic of two words which are different both in form as well as meaning. An antonym conveys the opposite sense (binary antonyms ), e.g. rich - poor ; good – bad . They are also words whose meanings differ only in the value for a single semantic feature; e.g. rich – poor ; rich is marked [+wealth] and poor is marked [- wealth]; dead – alive ; dead is marked [- life ] and alive is marked [+life].

12. 6. Homonymy Refers to sense relation in words with the same phonetic form but different in meaning . e.g . bat meaning ‘a nocturnal animal’ and bat meaning ‘an equipment used in baseball or softball.’

13. Gorilla (large ape) and Guerrilla (military soldier) Knead (working bread dough) and Need (must have) Mail (postal delivery) and Male (masculine person) Principle (a basic truth) and Principal (head of a school/sum of money) Scene (visual location) and Seen (past tense of saw) Than (a comparison) and then (shows time) There (a place) and Their (belongs to them) and They're (they are) To (a preposition) and Too (an adverb) and Two (a number) Your (possessive pronoun) and You're (you are)

14. 7. Coreference Refers to the sense relation of two expressions that have the same extralinguistic referent. In the sentence “Mercury is the nearest planet from the sun,” Mercury and the nearest planet from the sun are coreferential because they both refer to the same extralinguistic object – the planet Mercury in the solar system.

15. The project leader  is refusing to help.  The jerk thinks only of himself. Some of our colleagues  are going to be supportive.  These kinds of people  will earn our gratitude. 

16. 8. Anaphora Is a linguistic expression that refers to another linguistic expression. e.g . “The tsunami killed thousands of people. It was devastating.” It in the second sentence is used anaphorically (to point backwards) to refer to ‘ the tsunami’ .

17. a.  The music  was so loud that  it  couldn't be enjoyed.  b.  Our neighbors  dislike the music. If  they  are angry, the cops will show up soon. 

18. 9. Deixis Refers to the characteristic of an expression that has one meaning but can refer to different entities within the same context of utterance. Deictic expressions have a ‘pointing function.’ Examples of deixis are you, I, she ( personal pronouns ); here, there, right, left, ( expressions of place ); this, that, those, these ( demonstratives ); now, yesterday, today, last year ( time expressions ).

19. It is raining  now , but I hope   when  you read this it will be sunny. I am not  here , please leave a message.

20. 10. Entailment Is a proposition (expressed in a sentence) that follows necessarily from another sentence . A sentence entails another if the meaning of the first includes the meaning of the second; it is also called paraphrase . For example, the sentence, ‘ Raul had a fatal accident’ entails that ‘ Raul died ’ since it is impossible to figure in a fatal accident without loss of life. Semantically speaking, fatal means [-life] while died also means [-life].

21. Lee kissed Kim passionately. a.  Lee kissed Kim. b.  Kim was kissed by Lee. c.  Kim was kissed. d.  Lee touched Kim with her lips.

22. 11. Presupposition Refers to a proposition (expressed in a sentence) that is assumed to be true in order to judge the truth or falsity of another sentence. It also refers to the truth relation between two sentences; one sentence presupposes another if the falsity of the second renders the first without a truth value;

23. e.g. The sentence ‘ The King of Canada is dead. ’ presupposes that ‘ There exists (is) a King of Canada. ’ The first sentence presupposes the second sentence because if the second sentence is false, then the first sentence has no truth value.

24. Mary saw/didn't see  the horse with two heads  >> There exists a horse with two heads. Kepler  died/didn't die in misery >> There is some individual named Kepler.

25. 'I just met the old Irishman and his son, coming out of the toilet .‘ 'I wouldn't have thought there was room for the two of them .‘ 'No silly, I mean  I  was coming out of the toilet. They were waiting.'

26. Pragmatics

27. Pragmatics It deals with the contextual aspects of meaning in particular situations. Pragmatics is the study of how language is used in real communication. As distinct from the study of sentences, pragmatics considers utterances – those sentences which are actually uttered or said by speakers of a language.

28. 1. Speech act theory. Every utterance of speech constitutes some sort of act (promising, apologizing, threatening, warning, etc.).

29. Every speech act consists of three separate acts: a . Locutionary Force an act of saying something; it is a description of what a speaker says. e.g ., I promise to return your book tomorrow.

30. b . Illocutionary Act/Force is the act of doing something; it is what the speaker intends to do by uttering a sentence. e.g ., by saying “ I promise to return your book tomorrow,” the speaker has made an act of promising.

31. c . Elocutionary Act is an act of affecting someone (i.e., the listener); it is the effect on the hearer of what a speaker says. e.g., by saying “I will return your book tomorrow,” the hearer may feel happy or relieved that s/he will get the book back

32. 2. Categories of Illocutionary Acts are categories proposed by John Searle to group together closely related intentions for saying something.

33. a. Declaration . A declaration is an utterance used to change the status of some entity – for example, Foul! uttered by a referee at a basketball game. This class includes acts of appointing, naming, resigning, baptizing, surrendering, excommunicating, arresting, and so on.

34. b. Representative . A representative is an utterance used to describe some state of affairs – for example, Recession will worsen in Europe in the next five years. This class includes acts of stating, asserting, denying, confessing, admitting, notifying, concluding, predicting, and so on.

35. c. Commissive . A commissive is an utterance used to commit the speaker to do something – for example, I’ll meet you at the library at 10:00 a.m. This class includes acts of promising, vowing, volunteering, offering, guaranteeing, pledging, betting, and so on .

36. d. Directive . A directive is an utterance used to try to get the hearer to do something – for example, Review thoroughly for the exams. This class includes acts of requesting, ordering, forbidding, warning, advising, suggesting, insisting, recommending, and so on.

37.   e. Expressive . An expressive is an utterance used to express the emotional state of the speaker – for example, Congratulations for topping the bar exam!. This class includes acts of apologizing, thanking, congratulating, condoling, welcoming, deploring, objecting, and so on.  

38. f. Question . A question is an utterance used to get the hearer to provide information – for example, Who won the presidential election? This class includes acts of asking, inquiring, and so on. (Note: Searle treated questions as a subcategory of directives; however, it is more useful to treat them as a separate category.)

39. 3. Conversational Maxims are rules that are observed when communication takes place in a situation where people are co-operative. When people communicate, they assume that the other person will be cooperative and they themselves wish to cooperate.

40. In the “Cooperative Principle,” the following maxims or rules govern oral interactions:   a . Maxim of quantity – a participant’s contribution should be as informative as possible – “Give the right amount of information, neither less nor more than what is required.” e.g . A: Are you attending the seminar? B : Yes, I am.

41. b . Maxim of quality – a participant should not say that which is false or that which the participant lacks evidence - “Make your contribution such that it is true; do not say what you know is false or for which you do not have adequate evidence.” e.g . A : Who did you see enter the room last? B : The janitor.

42. c . Maxim of Relation – a participant’s contribution should be related to the subject of the conversation – “Be relevant.” e.g . A : Why did you come late? B: I had to take my son to school.  

43. d . Maxim of Manner – a participant’s contribution should be direct, not obscure, ambiguous, or wordy – “Avoid obscurity and ambiguity; be brief and orderly.” e.g. A: Are you accepting the position? B : Yes , I am. Thank you for your trust in me .

44. 4. Implicatures refer to statements that imply a proposition that is not part of the utterance and does not follow as a necessary consequence of the utterance. For example: Dan says to his wife Nitz , “Uncle Ernie is driving us to Tagaytay ” to which Nitz responds, “I guess I’d better take tranquilizers.” Nitz’s utterance raises the implicature that Uncle Ernie must be a fast, reckless driver.

45. Directions: Write your own Semantic interpretation about the following: Paying a child for chores- A female- A barking dog- The door is open- A flower-