SLIDE FOR AFRICAN CULTURAL INSTITUTION.pptx

AFRICAN CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS

1. AFRICAN CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS AUCL 106 DARKO PRINCE OFEI

2. Food for thought Self-knowledge is the basis of all forms of knowledge. Man, know thyself The most educated people tend to know the least about themselves and their environment. How can educated people contribute to their society when they are disconnected from themselves?

3. Concept of Culture Understand the concept of culture and its features . Examine the Theory of environmental determinism as a basis for explaining culture. Explain the concept of development. Study the interrelationships between culture and development.

4. THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE The term ‘culture’ defies definition. - No consensus on what it means. Learned behaviour/ abstraction from behaviour Material objects/ non-material objects Exists in the mind/ things we can see in the world.

5. Concept of Culture (Cont’d) Degree of uniformity and understanding of the concept of culture among anthropologists by the end of the 19 th Century. E.B Tylor (1871), in his work: Primitive Culture.

6. Definition of culture ‘Complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’. Q. Why complex whole?

7. Cont… The notion of a ‘complex whole’ suggests that the various aspects of culture, whether in the sphere of politics, economics, religion, art, technology and kinship are in constant interaction and are not exclusively independent of each other.

8. OTHER DEFINITIONS OF CULTURE Ember and Ember (1981) define culture as, ‘ a set of learned beliefs, values and behaviours generally shared by the members of a community or society ’. Clyde Kluckholn views culture as ‘ a way of thinking, feeling, and believing, and observes that it is the main factor permitting people to live together as a society’ .

9. Cont’d D efinitions of culture often place it within the context of society. Thus culture is seen to pertain to a particular group or society collectively. A society may be defined as a group of people ( men, women and children ) living and working together in order to provide for their material and psychological needs.

10. CULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT Physical environment provides the material base of culture. - Environmental Determinism PE often influences people’s way of life in all spheres. It is not uncommon for people to engage in activities and occupations that relate to their physical environment.

11. Culture & Environment (Cont’d) Direction of influence and dynamism of culture CULTURE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

12. Cont… In certain instances, settlement patterns, technology and population densities may be related to the physical environment. In like manner, certain cultural practices can positively or negatively affect the environment. NB : Although the physical and material environment may not necessarily determine the culture of a people, it can have an influential role.

13. TRANSMISSION OF CULTURE Culture is transmitted from older members to new members or children. Thus culture is learnt. Formal instruction Informal instruction through participant observation

14. Cont… Transmission of culture is accompanied by sanctions both ritual and non-ritual. For example, the violation of a taboo may invite supernatural retribution as well as other non-ritual sanctions. Physical (e.g. corporal punishment, exile ) Non-physical (e.g. rebukes, insults, gossip )

15. SUB-CULTURE It is possible to find in a wider society identifiable social groups more or less unified by a certain ethos and way of life. This is referred to as sub-culture. For example, urban-sub culture, ghetto sub-culture, teenage sub-culture. For example, among the Ewe, you will find distinct categories such as the Anlo Ewe, Tongu Ewe , etc.

16. FEATURES OF AFRICAN CULTURE(S) It is man-made- It is created by people and centres on people (e.g. the food they eat, the clothes they wear, their way of farming, the way they construct their buildings, etc ). It is dynamic, and not cast in stone . This may be due to the following: Changes in demographic profile of the society Environmental changes Contact with other societies Globalisation Changes in technology and scientific knowledge

17. DISCUSS

18. DISCUSS 18 © IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013

19. Assignment ‘The theory of environmental determinism has often been relied on by scholars to explain culture’. With reference to Freilich's (1967) article, and using three (3) African societies as examples, examine the above statement.

20. INTERACTIVE SESSION What do you understand by the term development? Would you say development was unknown to Africans until their contact with Europeans? Do African languages have terms for Development?

21. Misconceptions about Development Westernization/modernization? Economic growth?

22. Definitions of Development Amartya Sen ( 1999:3 ) Economist &Nobel Laureate : D evelopment can be seen as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy. Focusing on human freedoms contrasts with the narrow views of development, such as identifying development with the growth of gross national product , or with the rise in personal incomes, or with industrialisation or with technological advancement, or with social modernisation .

23. Cont… Ake C. (1996): Development is a process by which people create and recreate themselves and their life circumstances to realize higher levels of ‘civilization’ in accordance with their own choices and values.

24. Cont… Development is a Process. It should be people-oriented. A people’s wellbeing should be central. It should be about freedoms and informed choices. It should include equity - gender equality.

25. QUESTION “African culture(s) is inimical to our development”. With reference to three(3) institutions of culture, from specific African societies, critically assess the above statement.

26. READINGS Awedoba , A.K. 2005. Culture and Development in Africa: With Special Reference to Ghana. Historical Society of Ghana, Accra: Ghana. Ake Claude, (1996). Democracy and development in Africa . Washington DC; Brookings Institute. Sen, Amartya. (1999). Development as Freedom , Oxford, Oxford University Press.

27. ASSIGNMENT “The way of life of a group of people leans heavily on the physical environment”. Using any one society you are familiar with, critically examine the above statement. Support your argument(s) with concrete examples. Video documentary- 20 minutes Slide presentation Hard copy- not less than ten pages

28. FAMILY, KINSHIP AND DEVELOPMENT

29. Con’t Different manifestations with regard to the family reflect the cultural circumstances (environmental factors, economy, residential patterns, etc.) Notions of the family are not static, but keep changing as a result of globalization and associated factors.

30. FAMILY, KINSHIP & DEVELOPMENT Irrespective of its form or where it is found, the family is viewed as the basic unit of society. Decisions (political, economic, religious, etc.) often emanate from the family, and therefore may have implications on a societies development.

31. Cont… Main institution for socializing children (values, beliefs, attitudes) “the downfall of a nation begins from the home ” Provides the framework for the production of persons (biologically) and reproduction: Material substances (food, shelter, clothing). Giving and receiving care and nurture, jural rights and obligations, etc .

32. Cont… Identity through family name (social status ) What is in a name? (Rawlings’, Mahama’s, Akuffo-Addo’s).

33. Cont… The family is the primary source of influence behind the formation of personality and the growth of an individual (Aldersey, 2012).

34. DEFINITION (S) The concept, ‘family’, has no consistent definition. Different manifestations in several societies: COMMUNITY NATION HUMANITY RACE IDEA OF LIVING TOGETHER ALTERNATIVE VIEWS

35. Cont… Generally viewed as constituting a group made up of sexually interacting adults and their children (biological or adopted). Members occupy different status and perform roles (economic, social, political, religious) Common goal of improving their welfare . Q. STATUS + ROLES= FIXED/ CHANGING?

36. Definition (Cont…) A group of people related by consanguinity (from same blood), and affinity (by marriage) with a common purpose of improving their welfare.

37. SEXUAL REGULATIONS Sexual relations among prohibited members are regulated by rules of incest. Goes beyond sexual relations among prohibited family members: Close contact Irregular visits by mothers’ in law S exual impurity

38. Cont… Endogamy- choose partners within (societies where they practice dowry system and caste system). Exogamy- choose partners outside (biological and genetic reasons)

39. Functions of the family RELIGIOUS FUNCTION: The elderly are repositories of indigenous knowledge on health, herbs, and general life skills. P reside over rites of passage (child naming, puberty, marriage and funerals).

40. Cont… Among the Ga, selected elderly women of the lineage, kotsa yei (sponge women) still perform burial rituals, including bathing and preparing the family corpses.  

41. Cont… Beyond older women’s function as traditional birth attendants, Asante older women perform a ritual bath, awuo mre , for pregnant women to facilitate smooth delivery.

42. Nurturing & care O lder women guide new mothers in issues regarding nurturing and care of the new born.

43. Cont… Among the Ewe, women ‘retire’ from marriage and sex the moment their children commence childbirth, to care for their grandchildren. They foster in their grandchildren when they are weaned, and provide relief for extremely large families.

44. Emotional support O lder persons in the family provide emotional warmth, and support and relief for distressed members, such as orphaned children. - E.g. victims of the HIV/AIDS epidemic who may be their own children or grandchildren (Cohen and Menken, 2006).

45. Counselling - Young married couples would usually present their personal and marital problems to older persons for advice (e.g. relate to in-laws). - Young pregnant mothers usually consulted elderly women to share intimate feelings with them to find out if their experiences were normal or otherwise.

46. Cont… Older men acted as family heads, resolving conflicts and disputes within the family and in the community. - E.g. in Ohafia, Nigeria, the senior men’s society, Akpan , is responsible for settling legal disputes and policing the village.

47. KINSHIP Two persons are kin when one is descended from the other, or both are descended from a common ancestor. E.g. mother + daughter = common ancestor Idea that kinship transcends blood relations: historical ties, friendship & classificatory ties

48. Patrilineal/ Agnatic Kinship Kinship system in which an individual’s membership of a family is traced through his or her father’s lineage. It involves inheritance of rights, property, names or titles

49. Matrilineal Kinship I ndividual’s family membership derives from and is traced through his or her mother’s lineage. It involves inheritance of property and titles

50. Bilateral/ Cognatic Kinship K inship system where individual’s family membership derives from and is traced through both parents. Relatives on mother and father’s side are important for emotional ties, transfer of property or titles. Father’s side- immovable property (land, economic trees) and movable on mother’s side (cattle).

51. Cont… Descent is traced through parents simultaneously and recognize multiple ancestors Connected to idea of survival, especially in extreme environments. Found among some groups in West Africa (Yako of Nigeria, Dagaaba of Northern Ghana), India, Malaysia , Indonesia and Australia.

52. Characteristics of the African family (extended family) Respect for seniority/ elders- experience/ care/ social control/ curse/ burial rights/ economic assets. Rights and obligations- ritual & political office, physical and spiritual protection, finance and funeral contributions, participation in social events, etc.

53. Cont… Solidarity- collective labour, insurance, emotional support, care, etc. Corporate nature- clear head and joint ownership of property Reciprocity- I scratch your back, and you do same

54. GROUP ASSIGNMENT According to some European scholars and development experts, the characteristics of the African family (extended family) impede development in the society. To what extent is this true?

55. Words of wisdom “ What do you have that God did not give you? If all you have was given to you by God, why do you boast as if you have achieved anything on your own.”

56. Words of Wisdom ANYTIME YOU QUESTION ANY PART OF YOUR BODY, IT MEANS YOU’RE CHALLENGING THE WISDOM OF THE ONE WHO CREATED YOU. HOW CAN THE POT CHALLENGE THE POTTER? EVERYONE OF US IS FEARFULLY AND WONDERFULLY MADE.

57. INDIGENOUS AFRICAN MARRIAGES Objectives of the study: Explore African notions of marriage in relation to western notions Identify various indigenous forms of marriages in Africa before the introduction of “western” marriage Examine the rationale/ reasons for establishing indigenous forms of marriages in African societies

58. MARRIAGE AND DEVELOPMENT Universal institution although nature and form may differ as a result of cultural diversity. In Africa, marriage is viewed as a transition from the stage of immaturity to that of responsibility (Why?). This places societal pressure on adults who refuse to marry.

59. Cont… - Marriage is a key social institution in many, if not all, societies. - In some societies, marriage is seen as a defining marker in the transition from childhood to adulthood. - Defines how relationships and kin networks are formed. - Cultural norms, beliefs and values set the rules for all aspects of marriage .

60. YOUR TIME WILL COME

61. Cont…

62. THE TWO SHALL BECOME ONE- WE ALL LOVE THIS ONE

63. You know our love is meant to be Your wedding vows! What does it mean to you?

64. Cont… Polygamy- polygyny and polyandry Woman to woman marriage Infant or betrothal marriage Ghost marriage Marriage by levirate Sororate marriage Marriage to two sisters Marriage by elopement Marriage by abduction

65. Woman-to-woman marriage Straight women in Tanzania marry each other in order to keep their houses

66. Cont… Ms. Juma told the magazine her previous husband treated her “like a slave” when she was married at the age of 13. - “ I didn’t trust men after that,” she said. “I certainly didn’t want another husband. Marrying a woman seemed the best solution.

67. Cont… Ethnograhic studies reveal the presence of woman-to-woman marriage/ woman marriage or marriage involving a female husband in many African societies (Krige, 1974; Oboler, 1977). It is a marriage institution whereby a woman marries another woman and assumes control over her and her offspring (Krige, 1974).

68. Cont… Kevane (2004) estimates that approximately 5–10 percent of the women in Africa are involved in woman-to-woman marriages. All ceremonial aspects of marriage are observed, including the payment of bride wealth to the girl’s father. All the rules of divorce in the society apply.

69. Cont… Similar to ways in which senior men controlled the labour and produce of women through their control of marriage, - A venue through which women exercise social influence in societies where inheritance and succession passes through the male line. - Female Husbands gained social status as heads of the household.

70. Cont… Nandi people of Western Kenya, women who are older (beyond child-bearing age), never married and have no children are prime candidates to become female husbands. H eir to inherit their name, wealth and property. Pays the bride wealth of a younger woman. She will become a female husband by giving bride-wealth and observing all the other the rituals asked of a suitor by the bride’s family.

71. Cont… The wife may have children with any man she wishes, or a man chosen by the female husband, but the legal and social ‘father’ of the children will be the female husband. As the social and legal father of the children, the female husband support the children, regardless of who the biological father may be.

72. Cont… Oboler (1980) found that the Nandi female husband is considered culturally male and thus allowed to take on male roles. - Political roles that women are typically prevented from. - A female husband is also unlikely to carry things on her head and so forth.

73. “When women become men” “When a visitor comes, I sit with him outside and converse with him. My wife brings out maize-porridge, vegetables and milk. When we have finished eating I say, ‘wife, come and take the dishes’. Then I go for a walk with the visitor.” (1980, p. 77).

74. TYPE 2 Abagusii people of Western Kenya - Mother with only female children marries a woman for a fictitious son (Oboler, 1980). - In patriarchal societies, daughters or their offspring cannot carry on the family line – that is the preserve of sons. - Absence of male heirs to perpetuate the family name and inherit the family wealth.

75. Cont… - Dilemma resolved by marrying a young woman with the expectation that she will bear a son for the family. - The purpose of the union is therefore to provide a male heir for the family. - The woman that gives bride-wealth takes responsibility for, and has rights over, any children born by the bride. - The biological father will have no rights over the children.

76. Type 3 A woman is simultaneously wife and female husband (Sacks, 1982). independently wealthy- can choose to set up a compound of her own that is separate from her husband’s compound by marrying one or more women to be her wives and bear her children, a female-husband in her own compound and a wife in her husband’s compound.

77. Cont… Practiced among the Lovedu of South Africa (Sacks, 1982) and the Igbo of Benin and Nigeria (Eskeridge, 1993).

78. Cont… Ifeyenwa Olinke, an Igbo woman who lived in the 19 th Century, was a famously enterprising woman, who socially overshadowed her less prosperous male husband. As a symbol of her prosperity and social standing, she married nine wives (Eskeridge, 1993). Her husband did not have as many wives.

79. Where did all the men go? Oboler ( 1980) - It is a viable option for young women who have children out of wedlock in societies that shun single mothers. Avenue to attain social acceptance and economic stability. G reater sexual and social freedom as compared to those with male husbands since they are not limited to one sexual partner.

80. Cont… There is also less possibility of abuse in woman marriage models. female husbands are often likely to give bride wealth of higher value than men because they are more anxious to marry.

81. Man happily married to 3 wives urges husbands to embrace polygamy Photo : James Wainaina, September 28, 2015 (The Star Kenya Website)

82. Case Study: King Solomon Why did King Solomon marry 300 women, with an additional 700 concubines?

83. Polygyny Common in patriarchal societies: Made up of monogamous marriages contracted at different times. - Prestige & social status- “small boy” - Biological- pregnancy & child birth related issues - Ritual sanctions - Wealth & labour

84. Polyandry Source : Mwangi, February 6, 2016

85. Cont… Common among the Lele people of Congo. - Young girls tended to be betrothed to older men. The younger men (who would still be in waiting for their own betrothed brides to reach their teens) could make a request to the village elders that they be given a "common wife“ - shared by all the men in a given age group. This woman is called a "wife of the village".

86. Cont… Daughter or granddaughter of an older "wife of the village" would be assigned to fulfill this role. - The young men are required to work for their "village wife's" parents, and provide a payment to her parents for her. In addition, they have to provide her with her own dwelling place.

87. Cont… - The village wife can choose five or six of the men to live in her house with her. Within her home, she functioned as a traditional wife to each of these men but she was still considered a village wife- which means that any of the other men could have marital relations with her and not be infringing on anyone else's rights.

88. Cont… - Househusbands eventually moved out and married the girls to whom they were betrothed. - Still responsible for taking care of the children of the village wife . - The village took responsibility for paying the bride wealth for future wives on behalf of the sons of the village wife.

89. Cont.… Environmental challenges: Scarcity of land - Sustainable use of land to ensure survival of current & future generations Biological brothers acquire one wife. All are regarded as social fathers of the children.

90. WORDS OF WISDOM To be a human being is to be a purposive agent, who both has reasons for his or her activities and is able, if asked, to elaborate discursively upon those reasons (including lying about them ) [Giddens, 1984].

91. AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

92. Objectives of the Study Early European views of African Traditional Religion Some misconceptions about ATR Sources of ATR Major beliefs in ATR Features of ATR

93. Concept of religion Concept can be examined from different perspectives: - biology Sociology Anthropology philosophy theology .

94. Broad definition Religion consists of a ‘theory of being and a theory of meaning’.

95. Concept of religion Definitions & theories of religion have originated from a western background. - Religion is seen as a Eurocentric term. - Christian theology of religions: - hierarchical structure of religions.

96. Cont… Evolutionistic development of religion Categorization of religion according to levels of development. Underdeveloped religions were labelled: primal , traditional or primitive/ tribal religion .

97. Cont… Scholars have ‘abstracted African religions from their cultural and historical contexts’ (Westerlund 1993:59). - Tendency to “Westernize” African religions’ (Westerlund 1993:59).

98. Misconceptions about ATR Animism- spirits reside in objects, plants & animals. Pagan- apart from Christianity, Islam & Judaism Fetish- any work of art/ man-made religious object Ancestor worship Polytheism

99. African Traditional Religion Professor Idowu: - ‘Africans are notoriously religious in all they do’

100. African Traditional Religion A close observation of African societies shows that religion pervades every aspect of social life. Discuss and support your assertions with relevant examples in your community.

101. Con’t… In African societies, one does not need any special instruction in religion. A person picks it up once he begins to participate in communal rituals and ceremonies.

102. Con’t… The Akan of Ghana for example say : “One does not show a child where God is”.

103. Con’t… In African societies, man’s membership in a group is emphasized more than his individuality. I exist because we exist

104. Con’t… This view is echoed by John Mbiti, “ to be human is to belong to the whole community, and to do so involves participating in the beliefs, ceremonies, rituals and festivals of that community ”.

105. Con’t… Religion is therefore the essence of life in the African society, because it gives meaning to people’s lives. It is therefore not wrong to say that the best way to understand Africans is to examine the influence of religion on their lives.

106. African Traditional religion(s) Indigenous religious beliefs and practices of Africans . Born out of the experience and deep reflection of our African forebears. based on the resources of Africa’s own cultural heritage and insight (Opoku 1993:67)

107. Unity & Diversity There are as many African religions as there are African peoples . great variety of rituals, myths, beliefs, and deities . Common goal of guiding individuals safely through the passages of life, from birth and puberty, marriage and maturity, to death and ancestorhood.

108. Cont… Irrespective of diversities/ where it is practiced: the belief in a Supreme Being superhuman beings- spirits honouring ancestors.

109. Cont… Omosade Awolalu, in his work ' Sin and its Removal in African Traditional Religion ' writes: When we speak of African Traditional Religion, we mean the indigenous religion of the Africans. It is the religion that has been handed down from generation to generation by the forbears of the present generation of Africans. It is not a fossil religion (a thing of the past) but a religion that Africans today have made theirs by living it and practicing it.

110. Cont… This is a religion that has no written literature, yet it is 'written' everywhere for those who care to see and read. It is largely written in the peoples' myths and folktales, in their songs and dances, in their liturgies and Shrines and in their proverbs and pithy sayings.

111. Cont… It is a religion whose historical founder is neither known nor worshipped. It is a religion that has no zeal for membership drive, yet it offers persistent fascination for Africans, young and old (1976: 275).

112. EARLY EUROPEAN VIEWS Robert Moffatt Africans do not have any form of religion. “Satan has erased every vestige of religious impression from their minds ” ( this justified the need to evangelize Africans to ensure their salvation).

113. Cont… Stanley: Africa is a “ place governed by insensible fetish ”.

114. Cont… Berlin journal which Leo Frobenius read before he ever visited Africa to see things for himself . Before the introduction of genuine faith and higher standards of culture by the Arabs , ……..we confine ourselves to the description of their crude fetishism, their brutal and often cannibal customs, their vulgar and repulsive idols and their squalid homes.

115. Cont… Ellis , the author of, The Twi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast , stated emphatically that the notion of the Supreme Being ( Onyame ) among the Akan was a “ loan-god ”, introduced by the missionaries.

116. Con’t… Mary Kingsley: “ When I say juju or fetish, I mean the religion of the natives of West Africa ”. Akan for example, Suman (man-made charms) is different from ↄbosom (deity).

117. Do Africans have a religion? According to Mbonu Ojike , “If religion consists in deifying one character and crusading around the world to make him acceptable to all mankind, then the African has no religion. However, if religion means doing rather than talking, then the African has a religion ” .

118. WHERE DID AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION EMERGE FROM? Similar to other religions, African Traditional Religion emerged from man’s determination to understand the universe (death, birth, earthquakes, rain, thunder, celestial bodies, sickness, famine, misfortune, etc.) and to come to terms with the forces that control his inner being.

119. Where can we find African Traditional Religion? Art and symbols, music and dance, proverbs, riddles, names of people and places, rituals, ceremonies, festivals, beliefs, customs and all aspects of life.

120. African concept of monotheism O ne of a hierarchy with a Supreme Being at its head. rules over a vast number of divinities who are considered to be the associates of the God

121. Con’t… R eligion of the Fon people of Benin and the Ga’s : God is two beings, male and female. Bambara people of West Africa: God expresses Himself in four aspects/ persons, with each playing a different role in the creation of the universe. - multiple nature is similar to the Christian doctrine of God as a trinity .

122. Features of Traditional African Religion It is not a revealed religion. Divine truth is not revealed to an individual who becomes the founder. In revealed religion, all must know the truths about God through the founder. The history of African religion is the history of the people that practice it.

123. Cont… Belief in mystical power that can be tapped by humans who have the knowledge to do so. It is common for Africans to believe in spiritual agents whose powers can be used for beneficial or evil ends.

124. Cont… God is the Supreme Being but not the object of direct “worship”. Worship is directed to trees, rocks, rivers, mountains, etc. because objects of nature are believed by Africans to be inhabited by spiritual beings or deities.

125. Cont… It is however important to state that African religion is not nature worship because it is the spiritual beings that are worshipped and not the objects.

126. MAN AND SOCIETY Man is a biological (material) being as well as a spiritual (immaterial) being. The material part of man dies while the spiritual (soul) continues to live. Thus, in African societies, death is viewed as an extension of life.

127. AFRICAN IDEAS OF IMMORTALITY All humans are the children of God; no one is a child of the earth. The soul is an immaterial part of the human being that survives death, and in the afterlife, will give an account to God.

128. Maxims about God No one shows the Supreme Being to a child If you want to say something to God, say it to the wind. Goodness is the prime characteristic of God. Because God does not like evil, he gave each person a name God drives away the insects from the tailess animal

129. Con’t… The Earth is wide, but Nyame is chief. All Nyame did is good. God “is good, for he has never withdrawn from us the good things which he gave us ”. There is no by-pass to Nyame’s destiny. God will outlive eternity

130. Some African names and titles for God GET READY

131. REFERENCES Gyekye, K. (2003). African Cultural Values . Sankofa Publishing Company. Accra, Ghana Mbiti , J. (1977). Introduction to African Religion . Heinemann Opoku , A.K. (1978). West African Traditional Religion . FEP

132. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Examine the concept of African Traditional Medicine Compare African Traditional Medicine with Western Medicine Examine the various types of Traditional medicinal practitioners and what distinguishes them from each other Examine the feasibility of traditional medicinal practice in our modern health care system within the context of the challenges facing healthcare in Ghana, and by extension, Africa.

133. AFRICAN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE African Traditional medicine is a holistic discipline involving indigenous herbs and spirituality. Diagnosis is reached through spiritual means and a treatment is prescribed, usually consisting of herbal remedy that has not only healing abilities, but has spiritual underpinnings.

134. THE NOTION OF ILLNESS IN AFRICAN SOCIETIES In African societies, there is the belief that illness is not derived from chance occurrences, but through spiritual or social imbalance. In African culture(s), it is believed that "nobody becomes sick without sufficient reason."

135. Traditional vrs. Western Medicine Traditionalism is often wrongly associated with the stagnant and unchanging. Considerable changes have occurred in traditional healing and that all medical traditions like everything else have been changing throughout time. Traditional healers do not reject opportunities to acquire new knowledge.

136. How were sicknesses diagnosed? The diagnoses and chosen methods of treatment relied heavily on spiritual aspects . Traditional practitioners look at the ultimate "who" rather than the "what" when locating the cause and cure of an illness, and the answers given come from the cosmological beliefs of the people.

137. Cont… Illness is believed to stem from a lack of balance between the patient and his or her social environment or the spiritual world, not by natural causes. For example, sickness is sometimes said to be attributed to guilt by the person, family, or village for a sin or moral infringement. The illness, therefore, would stem from the displeasure of the gods or God, due to an infraction of universal moral law.

138. TREATMENT Traditional practitioners use a wide variety of treatments ranging from "magic" to biomedical methods such as fasting and dieting, herbal therapies, bathing, massage, and surgical procedures.

139. TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL PRACTITIONERS Many traditional medicinal practitioners are people without formal education. They received knowledge of medicinal plants and their effects on the human body from their forebears (usually close family members). They have a deep and personal involvement in the healing process and protect the therapeutic knowledge by keeping it a secret.

140. Cont… Similar to orthodox medicinal practice, the practitioners of traditional medicine specialize in particular areas of their profession, including herbalism or spiritual healing through divination.

141. TYPES OF TRADITIONAL HEALERS Traditional Birth Attendants Faith Healers Spiritualists/ Diviners Traditional Herbalists

142. TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANTS

143. Ghana is not Accra! Who shall we send? Not I! TBA’s recognized as important resources, especially in rural areas that are virtually cut-off due to cultural or geographic barriers. Although TBA’s may not be formally integrated into the formal healthcare system, they serve as an important bridge between the community and modern healthcare systems.

144. Cont… In many countries 60–80% of deliveries are assisted by traditional birth attendants (TBAs). The strength of the TBA stems from the fact that she is part of the cultural and social life of the community in which she lives- intimate knowledge of their clients

145. TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANTS Traditional birth attendants (traditional midwives) focus on pregnancy problems and they assist pregnant women at deliveries. Their activities also include sex education and contraceptive counselling .

146. Cont… TBA’s are usually middle-aged and elderly women. TBA’s learn their skills from relatives. They learn through observation and apprenticeship. In Ghana, there have been on-going training programmes to “upgrade” the services of traditional birth attendants.

147. FAITH HEALERS

148. Faith healers Belief that the healing of diseases and disability can be brought about by religious faith through prayer and/or other rituals that stimulate divine presence.

149. FAITH HEALERS Often leaders of revival, sectarian and African-spiritual churches. Apart from church services, some leaders of these churches operate healing sessions. Some have clinics where patients (both church members and non-church members) go to seek help.

150. Cont… Faith healers use the Bible, Holy water and prayer sessions to help “cure” patients who come to them. Certain days of the week are often set aside for healing purposes. They deal mainly with social, psychological, and psychosomatic problems.

151. DIVINERS/ SPIRITUALISTS

152. “WE NEED CUSTOMERS”

153. Cont…

154. Cont…

155. SPIRITUALISTS/ DIVINERS They use methods of possession, divination and other ritual means to diagnose illness and to heal people. They claim to be intermediaries between their spiritual agencies and patients who seek their help. They claim their powers of healing and their diagnostic techniques come from spiritual agencies. Spiritualists diagnose illness through divination.

156. Cont… They enquire whether there were any social disturbances, disordered social relation, or an inability on the part of the patient to communicate effectively with any household relative. When medicine is given to a patient to “cure” any of the illnesses and problems, a ritual ceremony is usually performed at the healer’s shrine to augment the potency of the medicinal preparation.

157. HERBALISTS

158. Cont…

159. HERBALISTS Herbalists are the most numerous of traditional healers. They approach healing through the use and application of herbs. Their methods of treatment and operational procedures are often similar to some of the methods of modern medicine. However, they adhere to traditional principles. There are many sub-specialities in herbalism.

160. Cont… Bone setters Healers who specialise in male and female circumcision Sellers of medicinal preparations (who may not be herbalists themselves) who trade in the open market and everywhere

161. PAYMENT Traditional healers, like any other profession, are rewarded for their services. In African societies, the payment for a treatment depends on its efficacy. They do not request payment until after the treatment is given. This is another reason many prefer traditional healers to western doctors who require payment before the patient has assessed the effectiveness of the treatment.

162. Cont… The payment methods have changed over time, with many practitioners now asking for monetary payment, especially in urban settings.

163. REFERENCE Twumasi, P.A. Medical Systems in Ghana . GPC

164. INTERIM ASSESSMENT Forty-five ( 45 ) Minutes African Cultural Institutions (AUCL 205) “E.B. Tylor defines culture as, ‘ that complex whole which includes knowledge, morals, religion, customs and habits or any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society”. With reference to three (3) institutions of African culture, examine the assertion that, “ African culture is inimical to our development and must therefore be discarded ”.