SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS.pptxLlSOCIAL INSTITUTIONS.pptx

Of course. Here are detailed, lecture-style notes on ELISA designed for medical students, organized for clarity and understanding, moving from basic principles to clinical applications.

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Lecture Notes: Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)

Target Audience: Medical Students
Objective:To understand the principle, types, procedure, applications, and interpretation of ELISA in clinical diagnostics and research.

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1. Introduction: What is ELISA?

· Definition: ELISA is a quantitative, plate-based immunoassay used to detect and measure the presence of a specific substance, usually an antigen (Ag) or an antibody (Ab), in a liquid sample.
· Core Principle: It uses antibodies conjugated to a detectable enzyme. The enzyme catalyzes a reaction with a substrate to produce a measurable signal (usually a color change). The intensity of this signal is proportional to the concentration of the target molecule in the sample.
· Key Feature: Highly sensitive and specific due to the use of immunological reagents (antibodies). It is a cornerstone of modern clinical serology.

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2. The "Workhorses" of ELISA: Key Components

1. Solid Phase: Typically a 96-well polystyrene microtiter plate. Proteins (antigens or antibodies) passively adsorb to the well surfaces.
2. Antigen (Ag): The molecule of interest that you want to detect (e.g., a viral protein, hormone, cytokine).
3. Antibody (Ab): The detection molecule.
· Capture Antibody: Binds to the antigen and immobilizes it on the plate.
· Detection Antibody: Binds to a different epitope on the immobilized antigen and is linked to an enzyme.
4. Enzyme: Conjugated (linked) to the detection antibody. Common examples:
· Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP): Uses substrates like TMB (3,3',5,5'-Tetramethylbenzidine), which turns blue, then yellow when stopped with acid.
· Alkaline Phosphatase (AP): Uses substrates like pNPP (p-Nitrophenyl Phosphate), which turns yellow.
5. Substrate: The chemical the enzyme acts upon to produce a detectable signal.
6. Stop Solution: An acid (e.g., Sulfuric Acid) that halts the enzyme-substrate reaction, stabilizing the final color.
7. Wash Buffer: Used to remove unbound reagents between steps, minimizing non-specific background signal.

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3. The Four Main Types of ELISA (with Detailed Protocols)

A. Direct ELISA

· Principle: A single enzyme-labeled antibody is used to detect the antigen.
· Procedure:
1. Coat: Antigen is directly adsorbed to the well.
2. Block: Add a blocking protein (e.g., BSA, Casein) to cover any empty plastic surface.
3. Detect: Add the enzyme-conjugated primary antibody. It binds directly to the antigen.
4. Wash to remove unbound antibody.
5. Add Substrate: Measure the color development.
· Advantages: Fast, only one antibody needed, fewer steps.
· Disadvantages: Lower sensitivity, no signal amplification, every primary antibody must be labeled.

B. Indirect ELISA

· Principle: Uses two antibodies: an unlabeled primary antibody and an enzyme-

1. BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

2. FACILITATOR MUGAMBI MBAABU DEPARTMENT OF CLINICAL MEDICINE MERU CAMPUS

3. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS OBJECTIVES By the end of this lecture you should be able to: Define various social institutions Describe the characteristics of social institutions Explain the roles of social inductions. Challenges faced by social institutions in contemporary society

4. Political institution No society can survive for long if each person in the society does exactly as he or she pleases. For society to run smoothly ,people must ac together for the common good. Thus all society exercise some degree of power over societal members.

5. Power is the ability to control the behavior of others, with or without their consent.

6. In very simple societies power is held by the family, but in more complex societies ultimate power falls to the state . Which Is the primary political authority in society.

7. Power of the state is shaped by the political institution -the system of roles and norms that governs the distribution and exercise of power in society .according to conflict theorists different segments of the society compete with one another for power

8. Although political institution generally favors the wealthier segment of the society,ongoing,conflict causes the distribution of power to shift enough to result in varying degree of social change. The main functions of the state include:

9. Creation and enforcement of laws, the settling of conflicts between individuals,

10. The provision of services, the establishment of economic and social policies and maintenance of relations with other nations, all these functions center on the task of maintaining law and order.

11. sociologist who adopt the conflict perspective on the other hand focus on how the political institution brings about social change. Different groups in society compete on one another for power

12. And although the political institution generally favors the wealthier segment of society, ongoing conflict causes the distribution of power to shift enough to result in varying degrees of social change.

13. Legitimacy of power. Refers to whether those in power are viewed as having the right to control or govern others.

14. authority Max weber referred to legitimate power as authority. He was interested in how leaders come o be viewed as having the legitimate right to exercise power over others. This right to govern is based on three types of authority: traditional authority, charismatic authority or rational –legal authority

15. Traditional authority That is power that is legitimated by long-standing custom, in other words people accept the exercise of power as legitimate because it has been considered legitimate in the past.

16. Its based on birthrights ,its passed down from generation to generation. kings,queens and tribal chieftains are examples of leaders who rely on traditional authority for their right to rule.

17. Charismatic authority Its legitimated by the personal characteristics of the individual exercising the power. These charismatic leaders are able to exercise authority because their followers believe that such leaders possess special qualities that merit devotion and obedience.

18. This type of leadership generally arises during periods of social unrest when people are searching for leaders who can offer them a better life. Examples of charismatic.

19. Leaders includes Buddha ,Jesus, Adolf Hitler, Mahatma Gandhi, Mao Zedong, Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.,Ayatollah Khomeini and Saddam Hussein…modern charismatic leaders,Mandela, Obama,Kenyatta,Kwame Nkurumah,Raila Odinga.

20. As its evident from the mentioned names charismatic leaders can have either positive or negative consequences in society.

21. Rational-legal authority Its a power legitimated by formal rules and regulations.in most instances these rules and regulations are contained in a written constitution and set of laws that clearly outline the rights and obligations of those in power.

22. power rests not in the individual but in the office or position the individual holds. Thus the authority to govern is lost when the individual leaves or is removed from office.

23. Rational-legal authority is the most common form of authority in modern societies. This is legitimized by formal rules and regulations.in most instances these rules and regulations are contained in a written constitution and set of laws that clearly outline the rights and obligations of those in power. Power rests not on the individual but the office or position the individual holds.

24. Authority to govern is lost when individual leaves office or loses power.

25. Types of governments This consist of the people who direct the power of the state.in kenya the government has two levels .the county and the national government. There are three arms of governments namely the executive, the judiciary and the legislature. Most government are either democratic or authoritarian

26. Democracy Democracy is characterized by the participation of citizens in decision-making processes, either directly or through elected representatives. It can be further divided into: Direct Democracy: Citizens vote on laws and policies directly. Representative Democracy: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Examples include the United States, India and kenya .

27. Monarchy   Monarchies are political systems where a single family rules across generations, often legitimized by tradition. They can be: Absolute Monarchy: The monarch has unrestricted power (e.g., Saudi Arabia,UAE,Eswatini ). Constitutional Monarchy: The monarch's powers are limited by a constitution or laws, with real political power held by elected officials (e.g., United Kingdom,spain,japan ) 

28. Authoritarianism In authoritarian regimes, power is concentrated in the hands of a single leader or a small group, with limited political freedoms. This category includes: Dictatorships: Leaders maintain control through coercion and repression (e.g., North Korea). Totalitarian Regimes: The government seeks total control over all aspects of life, including political, social, and economic spheres (e.g., historical examples include Nazi Germany

29. Oligarchy Oligarchies are governed by a small group of elites who may derive their power from wealth, military control, or other social factors. This system contrasts with democracy as it limits participation to a select few rather than the broader populace 

30. Communism Communism advocates for a classless society where all property is publicly owned, and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs. The state typically controls all means of production and distribution (e.g., historical examples include the Soviet Union,Cuba ) 

31. Other Forms Various other forms of governance exist, including: Theocracy: Rule by religious leaders or based on religious law (e.g., Iran,Vatican ). Technocracy: Governance by technical experts. Federalism: A system where power is divided between a central authority and constituent units (e.g., the United States,Kenya ) 

32. Role of Political Institutions Governance and Regulation Political institutions establish the rules and frameworks for governance. They define how power is distributed, how leaders are elected, and how laws are created and enforced. This includes: Creating Laws: Institutions like legislatures draft and pass laws that govern society. Enforcement: Institutions such as the judiciary enforce laws and resolve disputes, ensuring justice and order

33. Roles of political institutions… Representation Political institutions serve as intermediaries between the government and the citizens. They ensure that diverse interests within society are represented in decision-making processes. This includes: Political Parties: These organizations mobilize support, represent various ideologies, and facilitate the election of representatives Electoral Systems: Institutions manage elections to ensure they are free, fair, and transparent, allowing citizens to choose their leaders

34. Roles of political institutions… Accountability and Oversight Institutions play a vital role in holding leaders accountable for their actions. This includes: Checks and Balances: Different branches of government (executive, legislative, judicial) monitor each other to prevent abuses of power. Public Oversight: Mechanisms are in place for citizens to evaluate government performance and demand accountability, fostering trust in political processes

35. Roles of political institutions… Conflict Mediation Political institutions help mediate conflicts within society by providing structured processes for addressing grievances. This includes: Dispute Resolution: Courts and legal frameworks provide mechanisms for resolving conflicts peacefully rather than through violence or coercion Negotiation Platforms: Institutions can facilitate dialogue among different societal groups to address tensions and foster cooperation

36. Roles of political institutions…   Economic Management Political institutions significantly influence economic policies and development. They create an environment conducive to economic growth by: Policy Formulation: Institutions determine fiscal policies, regulatory frameworks, and economic strategies that impact development. Stability: Strong political institutions contribute to political stability, which is essential for attracting investment and fostering economic activity

37. Roles of political institutions…   Social Cohesion By promoting inclusive governance practices, political institutions can enhance social cohesion within a society. This involves: Engagement of Marginalized Groups: Institutions can implement policies that empower underrepresented populations, ensuring their voices are heard in the political process Promotion of Civic Participation: Encouraging citizen involvement in governance through participatory mechanisms strengthens democracy and fosters a sense of community

38. challenges faced by political institutions in the contemporary world   Political Polarization Intense partisan polarization is a significant threat to democratic accountability. When political opponents view each other as existential threats, it can lead to abuses of democratic norms and hinder effective governance Immigration and Multiculturalism Sustaining multiethnic democracies poses challenges, particularly in managing the politics of redistribution and representation

39.   Economic Inequality Globalization has exacerbated economic inequality, which threatens the viability of democratic systems Populism The rise of populist parties and movements across various regions has created tensions within democratic frameworks.

40. Institutional Inertia Many existing political institutions are rooted in historical contexts that may no longer address contemporary challenges effectively Weak Institutional Frameworks In some regions, political institutions are weak or poorly designed, leading to inefficiencies and corruption

41. Governance Challenges in Divided Societies In deeply divided societies, majoritarian political systems can exacerbate conflicts rather than resolve them Technological Challenges The rise of digital technology poses both opportunities and challenges for political institutions

42. Educational Institutions Educational institutions are organizations designed to facilitate learning and provide education at various levels. They play a crucial role in shaping individuals' knowledge, skills, and social development. Here’s an overview of the different types of educational institutions:

43. Types of Educational Institutions   Primary and Secondary Schools Primary Schools: Focus on foundational education for children typically aged 6 to 12, teaching basic literacy, numeracy, and social skills. Secondary Schools: Serve students aged 12 to 18, preparing them for higher education or vocational training. This includes high schools and middle schools.

44.   Higher Education Institutions Universities: Offer undergraduate and postgraduate degrees across various fields. They often consist of multiple colleges specializing in different disciplines (e.g., engineering, humanities,medicine ,)

45. Colleges: Generally provide undergraduate degrees and may focus on liberal arts or specific professional fields  Community Colleges: Offer two-year associate degrees, certificates, and vocational training, often serving as a bridge to four-year institutions  Technical and Vocational Schools : Provide specialized training for specific careers, emphasizing practical skills and immediate employment opportunities

46. Specialized Institutions   Liberal Arts Colleges : Focus on a broad-based education in the humanities and sciences, emphasizing critical thinking and communication skills  Art and Design Schools : Offer programs in creative fields such as fine arts, graphic design, and performing arts  Military Colleges: Combine military training with academic education, preparing students for service in the armed forces

47. Alternative Education Providers Online Learning Platforms : Provide educational courses through digital means, making education accessible to a wider audience  Community Learning Centers : Offer informal education and skill development opportunities tailored to local community needs.

48. what are the roles of educational institutions Knowledge Transmission Educational institutions are primarily responsible for imparting knowledge across various subjects, from basic education in schools to specialized training in universities. They provide structured learning environments where students acquire essential skills and information necessary for personal and professional success

49. Socialization These institutions play a crucial role in socializing individuals, teaching them cultural norms, values, and acceptable behaviors within society. Through interactions with peers and educators, students learn respect, discipline, and cooperation, which are essential for functioning effectively in their communities

50. Cultural Preservation and Innovation Educational institutions act as vehicles for transmitting cultural values and heritage to younger generations. They help maintain diversity and promote understanding among different cultural groups, fostering a sense of identity and belonging

51. Economic Development By equipping individuals with skills and knowledge, educational institutions contribute to economic growth. They prepare students for the workforce, ensuring that a skilled labor pool is available to meet the demands of various industries. This role is particularly evident in higher education institutions that focus on producing professionals and leaders

52. Community Engagement many educational institutions encourage community involvement through service-learning programs and volunteer opportunities. This fosters a connection between students and their communities, promoting civic responsibility and social awareness

53.   Research and Innovation Higher education institutions often engage in research activities that lead to innovation and advancements in various fields. They serve as centers for testing ideas, conducting experiments, and developing new technologies that can benefit society as a whole

54. Lifelong Learning Educational institutions support lifelong learning by providing opportunities for individuals of all ages to continue their education. This includes flexible learning pathways that cater to non-traditional students seeking to upgrade their skills or change careers

55. challenges faced by educational institutions in the contemporary world Funding and Budget Cuts Underfunding is a significant issue for many educational institutions, leading to reduced resources for teaching, learning materials, and support services.   Teacher Shortages A lack of qualified teachers is a critical challenge, particularly in underserved areas. Budget constraints force schools to downsize staff, leading to increased workloads for remaining teachers and negatively impacting student support and learning outcomes

56. Inequitable Access to Technology the digital divide remains a pressing issue, with students from low-income backgrounds facing significant barriers to accessing technology and online learning resources Mental Health and Wellbeing Student mental health has become a growing concern, with many students reporting increased levels of stress and anxiety.

57. Adaptation to Digital Learning The rapid shift to online and hybrid learning models has posed challenges for both educators and students   Curriculum Relevance There is an ongoing need to align educational curricula with the demands of the modern workforce. 

58.  Assessment Methods Traditional assessment methods often fail to accurately measure student learning and skills acquisition Falling Enrollment Rates Some educational institutions, especially community colleges, have experienced declining enrollment numbers, which can lead to financial instability and reduced program offerings.  

59. Increased Demand for Applied Learning There is a growing emphasis on practical experience and employability skills among graduates.   Climate Change and Sustainability Educational institutions are increasingly expected to address sustainability issues within their operations and curricula. They must invest in environmentally friendly practices while educating students about climate change impacts

60. Personal Development These institutions also focus on the holistic development of individuals, promoting critical thinking, creativity, and emotional intelligence. Through extracurricular activities and diverse curricula, they help shape well-rounded individuals who can contribute positively to society

61. Economic Institutions In every society needs must be met if happiness and health of the societal members are to be maintained. these needs include,food,shelter,healthcare,clothing,education , and entertainent .

62. all these are meant to enhance the quality of life .to satisfy these needs every society develops a system of roles and norms that govern the production ,distribution and consumption of goods

63. And services. This system is called economic institution. This need for economic institutions is rooted.in the problem of scarcity.

64. Peoples needs are always greater than the resources available to satisfy them hence societies have to develop the best ways to use these limited resources for everyone's benefit. This is done by answering three basic questions.

65. 1.what goods and services should be produced. 2.how should these goods and services be produced. 3.for whom should these good and services be produced. How a society answers these questions is determined in large part by the society’s available factors of production and technological levels.

66. Resources that can be used to produce and distribute goods and services are called factors of production These factors include:Natural resources( land,water,minerals,plants,animals,sun and wind) human resources( labour ) and capital resources( money,tools,machinery,buildings

67. A society’s available factors of production and its technological ability to manipulate those resources shape the nature of its economic system.

68. The nature of economic system All economic systems contain three basic sectors The primary sector, the secondary sector, and the tertiary sector.

69. The primary sector deals with the extraction of raw materials from environment. This includes, fishing,hunting,mining and farming. Secondary sector concentrates on the use of raw materials to manufacture goods.

70. Activities in the secondary sector can range from turning a log into a primitive canoe to manufacturing a rocket that can travel deep into space.

71. Tertiary sector, the emphasis shifts to the provision of services. The degree to which any of the sectors is emphasized over the others depends on society's available resources and its technological levels

72. Economic models Sociologist focus on three economic models… 1.capitalism 2.socialism 3.communism. The difference between the first two models hinges on who owns the factor of production in society and how economic activity is regulated.

73. In capitalism the factors of production are owned by individuals rather than the government. Economic activity is regulated by the forces of profit and competition

74. . In socialism , on the other hand the factors of production are owned by the government, which regulates all economic activity.in reality though there is no society follows a pure capitalist or socialist model.

75. Although some societies lean heavily on one or the other. The united states and Canada for example follows the capitalist model while, the people republic of china and Cuba on the other hand follow the social model.

76. Between these extremes there host of nations who combine the two models to various degrees. Countries like Kenya, Great Britain,france and Sweden.

77. In these countries the government control essential services and industries, such as healthcare, energy production and production of industrial goods. However a wide range of businesses are still owned by individuals.

78. capitalism In a pure capitalist system the economy is regulated by self interest and market competition. Self interest regulates the economy by guiding the actions of the consumers and producers.

79. Self interest leads the consumers to try and purchase the goods and services they require at the least price possible. Producers on the other side are guided by the ventures with potential for profit.

80. Market competition regulates the economy by influencing the answers to the three economic questions of: what to produce , how to produce , and for whom to produce. interfernce

81. Businesses that produce goods or services wanted by the consumers at the prices the consumers are willing to pay will be successful. For competition to be effective in regulating the market however it must operate with limited government

82. Rather than government regulation the laws in pure capitalist system works on the laws of supply and demand.

83. The law of supply ; states that produces will supply more products when they can charge higher prices and fewer products when they must charge lower prices. The law of demand states that the demand for a product increases

84. As the price of the product decreases. On the other hand , the demand for a product decreases as the price increases. Economist Adam smith calls this inter play between the forces of supply and demand the ‘invisible hand ’.

85. According to him if the governments interference is left at bare minimum and if competition is not restricted the invisible hand of market forces keeps the economy in balance.

86. This pure capitalist form is sometimes referred to as laissez-faire (lay-say-fair) capitalism. This is a French term for to ‘ let people do as they choose’.in practice though every capitalist system has gov’t regulation that protect the consumer and ensure fair business competion..

87. This however does not prevent individual setting up and running own businesses hence the label free enterprise system/free market economy

88. challenges faced by economic institutions in the contemporary world Economic Fragmentation and Divergence Geo-economic Fragmentation: Rising geopolitical tensions and trade restrictions are creating a fragmented economic landscape Divergent Growth Rates: There is a stark divergence in economic performance among countries, with advanced economies like the U.S. showing robust growth while the euro area struggles with low levels of activity

89. Inflation and Monetary Policy persistent Inflation: Many economies are grappling with high inflation rates, exacerbated by supply chain disruptions and rising energy prices due to geopolitical conflicts Interest Rate Adjustments: The shift from ultra-low interest rates to more normalized levels poses risks for both consumers and businesses, as higher borrowing costs can stifle investment and consumption.

90. Social Tensions and Inequality Rising Inequality: Economic growth has not been evenly distributed, leading to increased social tensions Fiscal Austerity: Policies aimed at reducing public debt often come at the expense of social protections, further fueling discontent among marginalized groups. This creates a vicious cycle that undermines social stability and economic growth

91. Global Cooperation Challenges Weak Global Governance: Existing international institutions struggle to address contemporary global challenges effectively. Issues like climate change, trade negotiations, and pandemic responses require more robust multilateral cooperation, which is often hindered by nationalistic policies

92. Need for Reform: To adapt to current realities, there is a pressing need for reform in global governance structures to make them more representative and effective in addressing shared challenges

93. Finito, Gracias! Q&A