Social Stratification

Some societies have customs or rules that give certain social groups greater access to economic resources and prestige. IF the rules specifying such differential access are not based on ability, age, or sex, anthropologists would say the society is socially stratified. Some societies may limit access only to prestige or status positions; others may limit access to both economic resources and status positions. Thus three types of societies can be distinguished: egalitarian, rank, and class/caste societies. Egalitarian societies have no social groups with greater access either to economic resources or to prestige; they do have social groups with unequal access to prestige. Rank societies do not have unequal access to economic resources, but they do have social groups with unequal access to prestige. Rank societies, then, are partially stratified. Class/caste societies have unequal access to both economic resources and prestige; they are more completely stratified. Table I summarizes these three types of societies.

1. MSTSS-205 Asian Anthropology Janette B. Igot

2. Social Stratification Janette B. Igot

3. Variation in degree of social inequality Some societies have customs or rules that give certain social groups greater access to economic resources and prestige. If the rules specifying such differential access are not based on ability, age, or sex, anthropologists would say that society is socially stratified. Some societies may limit access only to prestige or status positions; others may limit access to both economic resources and status positions. Thus THREE TYPES OF SOCIETIES can be distinguished: 3

4. THREE TYPES OF SOCIETIES Egalitarian Societies Egalitarian societies have no social groups with greater access either to economic resources or to prestige; they are unstratified Rank Societies Rank Societies do not have unequal access to economic resources, but they do not have social groups with unequal access to prestige. R ank societeis, then are partially stratified. Class/Caste societies Class/Caste societies have unequal access to both economic resources and prestige; they are more completely stratified 4 Table 1 summarizes these three types of societies

5. TABLE 1: Stratification in Three Types of Societies 5 Some social groups have greater access to: Type of Society Economic Resources Prestige Egalitarian No No Rank No Yes Class/Caste Yes Yes

6. EGALITARIAN SOCIETIES 6

7. Egalitarian Societies Can be found not only among hunter-gatherers, but among horticulturalists and pastoralists D oes not mean that all people within such societies at he r same There will always be differences among individuals in age and sex and in such abilities or traits as hunting skill, perception, health, creativity, physical prowess, attractiveness, and intelligence 7

8. “There are many positions of prestige in any given age-sex grade as there are persons capable of dilling them” 1 8 Morton H. Fried 1 Morton H. Fred. The Evolution of Political Society New York: Random House, 1967, p33

9. For instance, if a person can achieve status by fashioning fine spears and every person in the society fashions such spears, then every person acquires status as a spearmaker. If status is also acquired by carving bones into artifacts and only three people are considered expert carvers of bones, then, only those three achieve status as carvers. 9 In an egalitarian society, the number of prestigious positions is adjusted to fit the number of qualified candidates. We would say, therefore, that such a society is not socially stratified. www.mutualart.com

10. Even in an egalitarian society, differential prestige exists. But although some persons may be better hunters or more skilled artists than others, there is still equal access to status positions for people of the same ability. Any prestige gained by achievement of status as a great hunter, for instance, is neither transferable nor inheritable. Because a man is a great hunter, it is not assumed that his sons are also great hunters. 10 The egalitarian society keeps inequality at a minimal level Egalitarian Societies Status and Prestige www.scitechdaily.com

11. Any differences in prestige that do exist are not related to economic differences. Egalitarian groups depend heavily on sharing , which ensures equall access to economic resources despite differences in acquired prestige. For instance, in some egalitarian communities, some members achieve status through hunting. But even before the hun begins, how the animal will be divided and distributed among the members of the band has already been decided according to custom. The culture works to separate the status achieved by members-recognition as great hunters-from actual possession of the wealth, which in this case would be the slain animal 11 Egalitarian Societies Status and Prestige www.theguardian.com

12. Societies with age-sets – that is, groups of males differentiated by age-can also be classified as egalitarian. As each new age-set is established among the young, each older group moves up a notch, gaining more prestige and additional rights, such as the right to marry, the right to go on raids, the right to be councilmen or ritual leaders. The inequalities by age at any one time are apparent, but each age-set is automatically promoted so that all rights, duties, and privileges ate available equally to all men during their lifetimes. 12 Egalitarian Societies http://darwinian-medicine.com/do-hunter-gatherers

13. RANK SOCIETIES 13

14. Rank Societies Generally practice agriculture or herding, but not all agricultural or pastoral societies ranked The position of the chief is at least partially hereditary-usually the eldest son succeeded to the position of chief, and different kinship groups were differentially ranked according to their genealogical distance from the chiefly line 14

15. Chiefs are often redistributors. Redistribution of food by the chief often symbolizes that the wealth is communally held. Although the chief the chief may be desigated “owner” of the land, people always retain the right to use the land. In some Polynesian societies, for instance, the chief was designated “manager” of the labor of others. He saw to it that the people did not neglect their f ie lds or fail to give food to be redistributed to the community 15 Rank Societies http://scribal.com/the-origins-of-polynesia

16. SWAZI of South Africa Hilda Kuper reports that the Swazi are a horticultural people who invest their chief with “ownership” of the land. 2 The Staples of their diet are maize and millet, produced cooperatively by men and women. Farming thus supplies the staple foods of Swazi, although herding is more prestigious occupation. Nevertheless, only 10 percent of Swazi land is given over to cultivation; cattle grazing claims 75 percent. 16 Rank Societies http://assets.itinnews.org/s3fs-public/styles/responsive_medium/public/images/201301081314390787.jpg?itok=PSS2G_NW Examples 2 H ilda Kuper , A South African Kingdom: The Swazi. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963

17. All Swazis, however, regardless of rank do the same kinds of work, live in the same kinds of houses, and eat the same foods. The superior rank of the chief is evident by many cows in his possession and by his right to organize work parties. Sharing is principal way goods are distributed, and the chief shares (or redistributes) more than others. A man who accumulates too many cattle is in danger of public retaliation unless he shares them or lets others use them. If he does not, he may be accused of witchcraft and his cattle may be killed and eaten. This custom serves as a cultural means of preventing the accumulation of wealth. Labor too is shared; for example, a work party from a particular age-set might be called upon to help a family undertaking a construction job. 17 Rank Societies

18. CLASS/CASTE SOCIETIES 18

19. Class/Caste Societies There is unequal access of prestige and also characterized by unequal access to economic resources Not every type of person of the same sex or age has the same chance to obtain land, animals, money, or economic benefits 19

20. Class Systems 20 👪 👉

21. A class is a category of persons who have about the same opportunity to obtain economic resources and prestige. During the last fifty years, study after study has been made of classes in American towns. Sociologists have produced profiles of typical American communities known variously as “Yankee City,” “Middletown,” “Jonesville,” and “Old City,” all of which support the premise that the United States has distinguishable, though somewhat “open”, social classes. 21 Both the Warner and Lunt “Yankee City” 3 and the Lynds ’ “Middletown” 4 reached the conclusion that the social status or prestige of a family generally correlated with the occupation and wealth of the head of the family. 3 W.Lloyd Warmer and Paul S. Lunt. The Social Life of a Modern Community . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941 4 Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd. Midddletown ., New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1937

22. Towns in America have been described as having as few as two, and as many as eleven social classes, but generally from four to six classes are recognized in Warner and Lunt’s “Yankee City,” 99 percent of the city’s 17.000 inhabitants were studied and classified over a period of several years. Warner and Lunt concluded that six groups emerged strongly enough to be called classes. They are summarized by characteristic traits in Table 2 22 Class System

23. Table 2: American Social Classes in “Yankee City” 23 Percentage of Income 5%Percentage of Population Social Classes and characteristics traits 45% for top 20% of the population 1.4% Upper upper “Old Family”, usually possessing wealth, but sometimes poor, active in charities, Episcopal or Congregational church, exclusive clubs, endogamous 1.6 Lower upper Newly rich; imitate the U-U class and long to marry into that class 10.2 Upper middle Professional men or storeowners; active in civic affairs; respectable; long to be accepted by the groups above them, but almost never are 28.1 Lower middle White collar worker; respectable homeowners, schoolteachers; looked down upon by all above them. Some members of recently integrated groups, such as Irish, Italians, French-Canadians, are this group 32.6 Upper lower “poor but honest worker’, most of their income spent on food and rent 5% for bottom 20% of the population 25.6 Lower lower Thought by other classes to be lazy, shiftless, sexually proficient, and promiscuous. In reality, they are simply poor Summarize from W. Lloyd Warner and Paul S, Lunt . The Social Life of a Modern Community ( New Haven : Yale University Press. 1941 ) p88

24. The way members of the highest and lowest classes perceive each other has also been observed and recorded. Table 3 summarizes such perceptions as they were revealed in a study of a town in the American South. 24 Class System By upper-upper class By lower-lower class “Old aristocracy” U-U “Aristocracy,” but not “old” L-U “Society” or the “folks with money” “Nice, respectable people” U-M “Good people” but “nobody” L-M “Way-high-ups” but not “Society” “Po’ whites” U-L “Snobs trying to push up” L-L “People just as good as anybody” TABLE 3: Perceptions of Social Classes

25. The people at the top grouped the bottom two classes together and the people at the bottom grouped the top three class together. This grouping suggests that the greater the social distance between classes, the more likely is that a group will lump together other groups farthest away in the hierarchy. Groups tend, however, to distinguish between other groups just above or just below themselves 25 Class System

26. A person’s identification with his or her social class begins quite early in life. The residence area chosen by our parents, our church, school, school curriculum, clubs, sports, college, marriage partner, and occupation are all influential in socializing us into a particular class group. 26 Class System

27. Although social class in America is not fully determined by birth, there us a high probability that most people will stay within the class into which they were born and marry within that class. Identification with a particular group and the roles of that group begins in early childhood. 27 Class System

28. The seven- year-old daughter of a poor farmer may be assigned the role of farm helper. She will have few privileges, and her duties could include feeding the chickens, gathering the eggs, milking the cow, and harvest certain crops. In contrast, the seven-year-old daughter of a welthy businessman may be assigned the role of debutante-in-training. Her duties could include learning to ride, to play tennis, to play the piano, and to conduct herself properly at concerts and teas. Among her priveleges would respect from the servants of the house, a large variety of choice foods, a room or a suite of her own, private tutors. By the time each these girls is twenty years old, she will have passed through many roles. At this point, the farmer’s daughter and the debutante will have equal chances of achieving the role of wife, but highly unequal chances of achieving the role of wife of millionaire. Each will likely to marry someone from her own class of birth 28 Example

29. Class boundaries, though vague, have been established by customs and tradition; sometimes they have been reinforced by the enactment of laws. Many of our laws deal with protection of property and thus tend to favour the upper and upper middle classes. The poor in contrast, seem to be perennial losers in our legal systems. The Crimes the poor are most likely to commit are dealt with quite harshly in our judicial system; and poor people rarely have money to secure effective legal counsel. 29 Class System

30. Caste Systems 30 👪 👉

31. Caste Systems An individual’s position is society is completely ascribed or determined at birth Upward mobility is prohibited either by law or custom or both, and marriage is restricted to members of one’s own caste Caste is a closed class 31

32. Questions basic to all stratified societies, and particulary to a cast society, were posed by John Ruskin: “Which of us…is to do the hard and dirty work for the rest- and for what to pay? Who is to do the pleasant and clean work, and for what pay?” 5 32 Caste Systems 5 John Ruskin. “Of Kings’ Treasure.” In John D. Rosenberg, ed. The Genius of John Ruskin: Selections from His Writing . New York: George Braziller , 1963. pp. 296-314

33. The questions have been answered in India by the maintenance of rigidly constructed caste system-or hierarchy of statuses-whose underlying basis is economic; it involves an intricate procedure for the exchange of goods and services. 6 33 Caste Systems 6 See Oscar Lewis with the assistance of Victor Barnouw , Village Life in Northen India. Urbana; University of Illimois Press, 1958

34. Who is to do the hard and dirty work for the rest of society is clearly established: a large group of untouchables forms the bottom of the hierarchy. Among the untouchables are sub-castes such as the Camars , or leatherworkers, and the Bhangis , who are sweepers. At the top of the hierarchy, performing the pleasant and clean work of priests, are the Brahmans. Between the two extremes are literally thousands of castes and subcastes . Each caste is tradionally associated with an occupation. 34 Caste Systems http://indiafacts.org/book-summary-western-foundations-of-the-caste-system-i

35. In a typical village the potter makes clay drinking cups and larger water vessels for the entire village population. In return, the principal landowner gives him a house site and supplies him twice yearly with grain. Some other castes owe the potter their services: the barber cuts his hair, the sweeper carries away his rubbish, the washer washes his clothes, the Brahman performs his children’s weddings. The barber serves every caste in the village except the untouchables; he, in turn, is served by half of the others. He has inherited the families he works for along with his father’s occupation. He also receives a house site from the principal landowner, at each harvest, all the grain he can lift. All castes help at harvest and the weddings for additional payment, which sometimes includes a money payment 35 Example http://indiafacts.org/book-summary-western-foundations-of-the-caste-system-i

36. This description is, in fact, an idealized picture of the caste system of India. In reality, the system operates to the advantage of the principal landowning caste-sometimes the Brahmans and sometimes other castes. Also, it is not carried on without some resentment; signs of hostility are shown toward the ruling caste by the untouchables and other lower castes. The resentment does not appear to be against the caste system as such; instead, the lower castes exhibit bitterness at their own low status and strive for greater equality. For instance, one of the Camars ’ traditional services is to remove dead cattle; in return, they can have the meat to eat and the hide to tan for their leatherworking. Since handling dead animals and eating beef are both regarded as unclean acts, the Camars of one village refused to continue this service. Thus, they lost a source of free hides and food in a vain attempt to escape unclean status. 36 Caste Systems http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Tired-of-burying-dead-cows,-Dalits-go-on-strike-in-Gujarat-38746.html

37. Perpetuation of the caste system is ensured by the power of those in the upper castes, who derive three main advantages from their position: Economic gain Gain in prestige Sexual gain 37 Caste Systems

38. Economic gain 38 Caste Systems Most immediately apparent . An ample supply of cheap labor and free services is maintained by the threat of sanctions. Lower caste members may have their use of a house site withdrawn; they may be refused access to the village well or to common grazing land for animals; or they maybe expelled from the village

39. Prestige 39 Caste Systems Also maintained by the threat of sanctions The higher castes expect deference and servility from the lower castes

40. Sexual Gain 40 Caste Systems Less apparent but equally real High caste male has access to two groups of females, those of his own caste and those of lower castes High-cast females are kept free of the “contaminating” touch of low-cast males because low-caste males are allowed access only to low-caste women.

41. The emergence of class society 41

42. 42 Stratification Anthropologists are not certain why social stratification developed. Nevertheless, they are reasonably sure that higher level of stratification emerged relatively recently in human history. Archaeological sites until about 7.500 year ago do not show any evidence of inequality. Houses do not appear to vary much in size and content. And burials seem to be more or less the same, suggesting that their occupants were treated more or less the same in life

43. 43 Stratification The stratification is a relatively recent development is also suggested by the fact that certain cultural features associated with stratification also developed recently. For example, most societies that are primarily dependent upon agriculture or herding have social classes 7 . 7 Data from Robert B. Textor , comp ., A Cross-Cultural Summary . New Haven: HRAF Press, 1967.

44. 44 Stratification Other recently developed cultural features associated with class stratification include fixed settlement, political integration beyond the community level, the use of money as a medium of exchange, and the presence of at least some full-time specialization. 8 8 Data from Robert B. Textor , comp ., A Cross-Cultural Summary . New Haven: HRAF Press, 1967.

45. The Spread of Class Society 45

46. 46 Despite of the fact that most class societies have an enormous amount of inequality of opportunity, people from more egalitarian societies tend to be attracted to them. But there is probably also a “pull” factor- the attractiveness of the rewards that are possible in more stratified situations. The again, perhaps some of the attractiveness of stratification comes from the awareness that when more egalitarian societies have fought with stratified societies have won out.

47. 47 After all, stratified societies are literally more powerful, with large and dense populations that can support the exercise of great military force. So perhaps one additional reason for the reason of class society around the world is that stratification is associated with more security, even though access to rewards is v ery unequal.

48. Summary: Whereas sociologists contend that social stratification is universal because individual inequalities exist in all societies, anthropologists argue that egalitarian societies do exists, in the sense that there are societies in which access to economic resources and to prestige and higher status is equally available to all in a particular age-sex category. . 48 The presence or absence of customs or rules that give certain groups unequal access to economic resources and prestige can be used to distinguish three types of societies. Egalitarian societies have no unequal access either to economic resources or to prestige; they are unstratified . Rank societies do not have unequal access to economic resources, but they do not have unequal access to prestige. Rank societies, then are partially stratified. Class/caste societies have unequal access to both economic resources and to prestige. They are more completely stratified. .

49. Summary: However economic stratification came into existence, it ahs come to dominate the globe. Economically stratified societies range from somewhat open class systems to caste systems, which are extremely rigid, since caste membership is ascribed and fixed permanently at birth. 49 Social stratification appears to have emerged relatively recently in human history. This conclusion is based on archeological evidence and on the facet that a number of other cultural features associated with stratification developed relatively recently.

50. Amber and Amber . Anthropology Morton H. Fred. The Evolution of Political Society New York: Random House, 1967, p33 Hilda Kuper , A South African Kingdom: The Swazi. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963 W.Lloyd Warmer and Paul S. Lunt. The Social Life of a Modern Community . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941 Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd. Midddletown ., New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1937 Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd. Midddletown ., New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1937 John Ruskin. “Of Kings’ Treasure.” In John D. Rosenberg, ed. The Genius of John Ruskin: Selections from His Writing . New York: George Braziller , 1963. pp. 296-314 Oscar Lewis with the assistance of Victor Barnouw , Village Life in Northen India. Urbana ; University of Illimois Press, 1958 Robert B. Textor , comp ., A Cross-Cultural Summary . New Haven: HRAF Press, 1967 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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