Society ,Social Structure and Social change

A topic of Social science

1. Social Change Types of Society In sociological terms, society refers to a group of people who live in a definable community and share the same cultural components. On a broader scale, society consists of the people and institutions around us, our shared beliefs, and our cultural ideas. Typically, many societies also share a political authority. Preindustrial Societies Before the Industrial Revolution and the widespread use of machines, societies were small, rural, and dependent largely on local resources. Hunter-Gatherer Hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate the strongest dependence on the environment of the various types of preindustrial societies. As the basic structure of human society until about 10,000–12,000 years ago, these groups were based around kinship or tribes. Hunter- gatherersThese societies were common until several hundred years ago, but today only a few hundred remain in existence, such as indigenous Australian tribes sometimes referred to as “aborigines,” or the Bambuti , a group of pygmy hunter-gatherers residing in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

2. Pastoral Changing conditions and adaptations led some societies to rely on the domestication of animals where circumstances permitted. Roughly 7,500 years ago, human societies began to recognize their ability to tame and breed animals and to grow and cultivate their own plants. Pastoral societies, such as the Maasai villagers, rely on the domestication of animals as a resource for survival. Unlike earlier hunter-gatherers who depended entirely on existing resources to stay alive, pastoral groups were able to breed livestock for food, clothing, and transportation, and they created a surplus of goods.

3. Horticultural Around the same time that pastoral societies were on the rise, another type of society developed, based on the newly developed capacity for people to grow and cultivate plants. Previously, the depletion of a region’s crops or water supply forced pastoral societies to relocate in search of food sources for their livestock. Horticultural societies formed in areas where rainfall and other conditions allowed them to grow stable crops. They were similar to hunter-gatherers in that they largely depended on the environment for survival, but since they didn’t have to abandon their location to follow resources, they were able to start permanent settlements. Agricultural While pastoral and horticultural societies used small, temporary tools such as digging sticks or hoes, agricultural societies relied on permanent tools for survival. Around 10,000 B.C.E ., an explosion of new technology known as the Agricultural Revolution made farming possible—and profitable. Farmers learned to rotate the types of crops grown on their fields and to reuse waste products such as manure as fertilizer, which led to better harvests and bigger surpluses of food. New tools for digging and harvesting were made of metal, and this made them more effective and longer lasting.

4. Feudal The ninth century gave rise to feudal societies. These societies contained a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and protection. The nobility, known as lords, placed vassals in charge of pieces of land. In return for the resources that the land provided, vassals promised to fight for their lords. These individual pieces of land, known as fiefdoms, were cultivated by the lower class. In return for maintaining the land, peasants were guaranteed a place to live and protection from outside enemies.

5. Industrial Society In the eighteenth century, Europe experienced a dramatic rise in technological invention, ushering in an era known as the Industrial Revolution. What made this period remarkable was the number of new inventions that influenced people’s daily lives. Within a generation, tasks that had until this point required months of labor became achievable in a matter of days. Before Postindustrial Society Information societies, sometimes known as postindustrial or digital societies, are a recent development. Unlike industrial societies that are rooted in the production of material goods, information societies are based on the production of information and services. Digital technology is the steam engine of information societies, and computer moguls such as Steve Jobs and Bill Gates are its John D. Rockefellers and Cornelius Vanderbilts . Since the economy of information societies is driven by knowledge and not material goods, power lies with those in charge of storing and distributing information.

6. social change , in sociology, the alteration of mechanisms within the social structure, characterized by changes in cultural symbols, rules of behaviour , social organizations, or value systems. Several ideas of social change have been developed in various cultures and historical periods. Three may be distinguished as the most basic: (1) the idea of decline or degeneration, or, in religious terms, the fall from an original state of grace, (2) the idea of cyclic change, a pattern of subsequent and recurring phases of growth and decline, and (3) the idea of continuous progress. These three ideas were already prominent in Greek and Roman antiquity and have characterized Western social thought since that time.

7. Gillin and Gillin - • “Social changes are variations from the accepted modes of life whether due to alternation in geographical conditions, in cultural equipments , composition of the population or ideologies whether brought about by diffusion or inventions-within the group". (Cultural Sociology). M.E. Jones- • "Social change is a term used to describe variations in,or modifications of, any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interaction or social organization". D. Jenson- • "Social change may be defined as modification in ways of doing and thinking to people". (Introduction to Sociology). M. Ginsberg- • "By social change. I understand a change in social structure e.g. the size of a society, the composition or balance of its parts or the type of its organization". (Social change, British Journal of Sociology, Sept. 1958).

8. How Social Change Occurs Social change is an ongoing process driven by a number of factors, which are often political in their goals and ramifications. Among the key triggers for widespread social change, three stand out in particular: conflict, demographic change, and cultural change. Conflict: The inequalities embedded in society based on class, race, gender, and religion naturally incite conflict. This unrest acts as a catalyst for social change as marginalized groups challenge norms and existing power structures in pursuit of a more equitable society. Demographic change: Shifts in a society's demographics can also stimulate social change. This could be due to fluctuations in birth rates, mortality rates, or migration patterns. For instance, an aging population might lead to alterations in healthcare policies and social services, while increased immigration could lead to cultural diversification. Cultural change: New inventions, scientific discoveries, and the spread of ideas can profoundly contribute to societal shifts. Innovations in technology and communication, for example, can rapidly alter societal behavior, leading to widespread change. These factors, often operating simultaneously, shape the trajectory of social evolution, steering society toward new paths of development and progress. Despite the challenges that may come with it, social revolution is crucial for societal advancement. Examples of Social Change Social change is often driven by social movements—by groups of people advocating for representation in a more equitable and just world. Several key social movements have left indelible marks on Western society: The Reformation: A 16th-century movement that reshaped Europe's religious and political structure by challenging the Catholic Church and fostering the rise of Protestant churches. The Civil Rights Movement: In the mid-20th century, the U.S. Civil Rights Movement fought against racial segregation and discrimination and achieved significant legal and societal reform.

9. What are the theories on how social change functions? What are the causes and effects? Theories of social change While it’s inevitable for all societies to go through some changes, why that happens isn’t obvious. Throughout history, sociologists have wrestled with different ideas and models. There are three main theories of social change: evolutionary, functionalist, and conflict. Evolutionary The evolutionary theory of social change emerged in the 19th century, a period shaped not only by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution but also by the Industrial Revolution, which brought profound changes to societal structures. Herbert Spencer, another prominent thinker of this era, also applied this evolutionary perspective to social change, suggesting that societies, like biological organisms, evolve through stages of increasing complexity.

10. According to Auguste Comte, recognized as the father of sociology, society is always changing from simple to more complex states. This evolution is considered to reflect a slow movement toward “higher” levels of organization. The evolutionary theory of social change says that societal change follows a linear path of development, with each stage being a more advanced version of the last. In line with the concept of “survival of the fittest,” this theory suggests that societies that don’t adapt quickly enough risk falling behind, while societies and political systems that successfully adapt to the needs of their citizens can flourish. This theory offers a view of social change as an inevitable progression toward better social structures.

11. Functionalist theory The functionalist theory compares society to a living organism, where each part or '“organ”' has a specific role and contributes to the stability and survival of the system as a whole. This perspective states that individuals in society can't thrive independently but are connected and dependent on each other. Emile Durkheim, a pioneer of sociology, was a leading spokesperson for functionalist theory. In the context of social change, this theory states that changes occur to maintain societal balance. If one part of society undergoes a disruption, such as a global health crisis like COVID -19, other parts will adapt to restore equilibrium, much like the body's response to an injury or illness. From a functionalist standpoint, social change is seen as a process that ultimately seeks to maintain societal harmony rather than disrupting it.

12. Conflict theory The conflict theory states that society is by nature unequal and competitive. Karl Marx spearheaded this theory. While he did believe in the evolutionary model to a point, Marx didn’t think each phase resulted in something better than before. More often than not, the rich and powerful control the rest of society by exploiting vulnerable groups. This sows conflict, provoking people to action. Social change occurs as a result. The conflict model evolved over the years. It’s found in other theories such as feminist theory, queer theory, and critical race theory.

13. Resistance to Social Change Not all changes or innovations are accepted by the society. The attitudes and values of a group determine what kind of changes a group is likely to accept. A process of selective acceptance operates. Some innovations are accepted instantly and some are rejected entirely. We have accepted many material traits of Britishers such as dress pattern, china clay potteries etc., but not accepted the marriage system (courtship, premarital sex, frequent divorces etc.) because these would conflict with our values. An innovation is most quickly accepted when its usefulness can be easily demonstrated that it is cheap and helpful. Compatible innovations are more readily accepted than those which clash with important features of the existing culture. Innovations, which are substitutive and not additive, are less readily accepted.

14. A society’s rate and direction of changes are greatly affected by the needs its members perceive. The concept of cultural lag implies that changes in part of the culture create a need for adaptive changes in related parts of culture. “Necessity is the mother of invention”, however, it is not guarantee that needed invention or discovery will be made. The structure of a society affects its rate of change in subtle ways. A highly conformist, authoritarian society or a highly integrated culture is less prone to change than the individualistic, permissive society or the less highly integrated culture. The structure of Indian society, which is traditional, rigid and tightly structured, does not permit changes easily- Such a system is strongly resistant to change. The resistance to change by people in a culture is called cultural inertia and this resistence can be a liability of patterns of behaviour that have outlived their utility to persist. The attitude that retaining them is easier than discarding them.

15. To change is a painful effort and to discard old ways and old values for new is not easy. Hence, all over the world, there is resistance to changes to new or improved practices. Resistence may be mild or may take the form of violent refusal depending on the nature and type of change. This inertia can constitute a major obstacle to improvement as we have observed in the matters of family planning and new methods of agriculture during early period of independence in India.

16. Technology and Social Change Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to the making of tools to solve specific problems. Technological advances such as automobiles, airplanes, radio, television, cellular phones, computers, modems, and fax machines have brought major advances and changes to the world. Indeed, 20th century technology has completely—and irreversibly—changed the way people meet, interact, learn, work, play, travel, worship, and do business. Computer technology In the 1990s , people witnessed an explosion of computer technology—both in America and around the globe, which has in turn led to a change in how and where people work. Telecommuters are employees of agencies or business firms who work full‐time or part‐time at home instead of in the office.

17. The Internet —the world's largest computer network—has revolutionized electronic networking. The number of people using the Internet continues to double annually, with at least 50 percent of all Americans “online” in 2000. Biotechnology Recent decades have produced dramatic—though controversial—scientific advances in biotechnology (the application of technology to the practice of medicine).

18. In many cases, doctors can successfully treat infertility: Fertility drugs (ovulation‐stimulating hormones) can help when the woman's inability to ovulate causes the infertility. Artificial insemination , which involves collecting and introducing sperm into the vagina using a syringe, proves particularly useful when the man possesses a below‐normal sperm count. In vitro fertilization , or the “test‐tube baby” method, involves fertilizing an egg outside the woman's body and implanting it into the uterus. This procedure is useful when the woman has blocked fallopian tubes. Gamete intrafallopian transfer (“GIFT”) involves taking eggs from the woman's ovaries, mixing them with the man's sperm, and then inserting them into the fallopian tube. In this procedure, fertilization takes place inside the woman's body rather than outside. To date, couples in the United States have produced over 20,000 babies using g alternatives such as these.

19. Genetic engineering Perhaps even more presumptuous (or alarming, according to some critics) than reproductive technologies and sex preselection is altering human behavior through genetic engineering. Cloning , or the creation of exact replicas from a single genetic ancestor, represents the most extreme form of genetic engineering.

20. Urbanization as a structural process of change is generally related to industrialization but it is not always the result of industrialization. Urbanization results due to the concentration of large-scale and small scale industrial and commercial , financial and administrative set up in the cities; technological development in transport and communication, cultural and recreational activities . The excess of urbanization over industrialization that makes it possible to provide employment for all persons coming to urban areas is, in fact , what sometimes leads to over urbanization. Urbanization implies a cultural and social psychological process whereby people acquire the material and non-material culture, including behavioural patterns , forms of organization, and ideas that originated in, or are distinctive of the city . Although the flow of cultural influences is in both directions – both toward and away from the city – there is substantial agreement that the cultural influences exerted by the city on non-urban people are probably more pervasive than the reverse. Urbanization seen in this light has also resulted in what Toynbee has called the “Westernization” of the world.

21. The history of urbanization in developing countries reveals , broadly four processes of urbanization at work throughout the historical period. These are: a) the emergence of new social relationships among people in cities and between people in cities and those in villages through a process of social change; b) the rise and fall of cities with changes in the political order; c) the growth of cities based on new productive processes, which alter the economic base of the city; and d) the physical spread of cities with the inflow of migrants, who come in search of a means of livelihood as well as a new way of life

22. Industrialization and social change Industrialization is defined as a shift from animate to inanimate source of power. Industrialization is the rise of factories and use of machinery in the production of goods first occurred in England in the late 1700s and Arnold Toynbee referred to the particular time period as Industrial Revolution. Industrialization led to following changes in the social set-up: Occupational shifts – As the society became more industrialized the labor force became smaller in proportion. Occupational patterns made a shift from agriculture to industry. From ascriptive to achievement-based division of labor- Communal and family division of labor gave way to scientific division of labor. High division of labor and opportunity for mobility- Due to division of labor, stratification increased and more opportunities of social mobility also opened up.

23. Changing power structure- with the decline of estate system in Europe and the rise of capitalism, power equations changed. Land no longer remained as a dominant source of power and instead industry and trade emerged as new sources of power. New forms of conflict- Trade Unions came into existence and with them lock outs, labor mobilization became the mode of class struggle. Demand for skilled job and education changes- Education as an agent of social change also gets a boost as it could lead to better skill development. Changing family structure- Industrialization required mobile family and it led to the emergence of nuclear family. Growth of new ideas – Industrialization led to the growth of new ideas like Marxism and socialism. Improved standard of life – Industrialization led to more jobs and prosperity as the income gradually increased. More facilities ensured a better standard of living. Communication improved and production process became more efficient.