Summary of Sophie's world

this is the summary of whole book in presentation form and all the data is composed in precise way to help the student to know about the history of Philosophy

1. BZ University, Layyah Campus Presented to: Mr. Riaz Khan Dasti Presented by: Malik Muhammad Ali Roll no. BSENL-17-25 Topic: “Sophie’s World” by “Jostein Gaarder”

2. Table of Contents… The Garden of Eden The Top Hat The Myths The Natural Philosophers Democritus Fate Socrates Athens Plato The Major’s Cabin Aristotle Hellenism The Postcards Two Cultures The Middle Ages The Renaissance The Baroque Descartes Spinoza Locke Hume Berkeley Bjerkely The Enlightenment Kant Romanticism Hegel Kierkegaard Marx Darwin Freud Our Own Time The Garden Party Counterpoint The Big Bang

3. CH# 1 The Garden of Eden (… at some point something must have come from nothing…) Sophie Amundsen is fourteen year old girl who lives in Norway. She had a school friend named Joanna. One day she comes home and receives a letter from a stranger named M φ llar Knag who is sending a birthday greetings to his daughter “Hilde” but Sophie doesn’t know who is Mollar Knag and Hilde but on the envelope the address was of Sophie’s house. (Hilde Mollar Knag c/o Sophie Amundsen, 3 clover close…) She also two other envelope where strange questions were written.. Who are you? Where the world came from? she went to den his hiding place to ponder on these questions. She think that something must have come from nothing and it is not true that universe always exists, if god had made universe he must have come from somewhere else.

4. Ch# 2 The Top Hat… (… the only thing we require to be a good philosopher is the faculty of wonder…) Next day Sophie receives another envelopes in his mailbox and at that time they were the typed one. Their titles were “What is Philosophy” and “A Strange Creature”. Basically someone was teaching his philosophy course. Dear Sophie, The best way of approaching Philosophy is to ask a few Philosophical questions: How was the World created? Is there any will or meaning Behind what happens? Is there a life after death? How can we answer these questions>? And the most Important, How we ought to live? The major thing in philosophy is to understand ourselves. A Greek Philosopher who lived more than two thousand years ago believed that philosophy had its origin in man’s sense of wonder. And the thing which Sophie has to recover that is his wonder. At the same time her mother thinks that she is having some sort of drugs .

5. CH # 3 The Myths (…a precarious balance between the forces of good and evil…) Philosophy – the completely new way of thinking that evolved in Greece about 600 years before Christ. Religious explanations were handed down from generation to generation as myths. Myth is a story about the gods which sets out to explain why life is as it is. There is a story where Thor (god of rain) whose hammer was stolen by Thrym and he said that he will return hammer when Loki will be awarded as bride. Thor gains the face of Loki and he marries Thrym and murdered him and get back his hammer. Thordon means Thoar’s roar. In Swedish Thunder  aska  as-aka  gods roar Around 700 B.C. Homer and Hesiod writes down much of the Greek mythology. Once myths existed in written form, it was possible to discuss and criticize them. Earliest Greek philosophers criticized Homer’s mythology because the gods resembled mortals too much . For the first time, it was said that the myths were nothing but human notion.

6. CH# 4 The Natural Philosophers (… nothing can come from nothing…) One day Sophie’s mother find a letter that was un stamped then she finds that this is a sort of love letter but it was actually a letter concerning with philosophy. The questions in this was following. Is there a basic substance that everything else is made of? Can water turn into wine? How can earth and water produce a live frog? Three Philosophers from Miletus Thales: Source of all things is water 2. Anaximander: Our world is only of a myriads of worlds that evolve and dissolve in the boundless Anaximenes : Source of all living things must be “air” or “vapor” All believed in the existence of a single basic substance as the source of all things According to them four basic elements to life are air, water, vapor and fire

7. Continue… Eliatcs : Everything that exists had always existed.“ Nothing could change” Herclitus : Constant change or flow was the most basic characteristics of nature. “Everything flows” Therefore we cannot step twice into the same river. “Everything could change” Empedocles: There are actually four things and the world is the formation and intermingling of these four things (air, water, fire and vapor). Nature could transform without anything actually changing. At the end Sophie concludes that no-one can learn philosophy : one can learn only to think like a philosopher.

8. CH# 5 Democritus (… the most ingenious toy in the world…) Why is Lego the most ingenious toy in the world? Everything was made of/was built of tiny invisible blocks, each of which was eternal and immutable. The Atom Theory: Everything is basically made up of small particles and these particles are hook and bark of that substance. When a person dies its soul barks out of it and when he is alive it hooks in it. He basically called these smallest units atoms. E.g soul has soul atom, moon has moon atoms that penetrates our eye. Seeker of natural than supernatural He gave explanations for natural processes. He gave the decisive break with the mythological world picture

9. CH# 6 Fate (… the “fortune-teller” is trying to foresee something that is really quite unforeseeable…) Sophie receives a letter that starts with three questions: Do you believe in fate? Is sickness the punishments of the gods? What forces govern the course of history? As no.13 is considered as bad omen and black cat also. What a strange world if you believe in Christianity or Islam, it is called “Fate”. But if you believed in astrology or Friday, thirteenth it was superstition. Who had the right t6o call other people’s belief superstition Same is the story with Oracle of Delphi where people asks question to Pythia who transfers the message to Apollo (god) which again transfers his message to Pythia and the priest later translates it. In term of fate the story of King Oedipus is a great example. In history disease was subjected to gods punishment. The word “Influenza” means a malign influence from the stars. Hippocrates removed the stance of disease as punishment. At the end she concludes that the ancient Greeks were fatalists – they believed that everything on life was predetermined. However, the historians Herodotus, Thucydides, and Hippocrates began to look for naturalistic explanation of any event occur in life.

10. CH# 7 Socrates (… wisest is she who knows she does not know..) Most enigmatic figure in the entire history of philosophy. Next morning she receives a letter by the messenger, the dog, whose name is Hermes. From this she learned about skepticism, a believe that we cannot have true knowledge about the world, practiced by Stoics in Athens. She also came to know about the silk scarf that she found yesterday was of Hilde. Life of Socrates: mainly know through the writings of Plato has inspired the western world for nearly 2500 years. Not a sophist, but a philosopher: Sophie and Socrates turned their attentions from questions of natural philosophy to problems related to man and society. He was neither certain nor indifferent: all he knew was that he knew nothing – and it troubled him. “One thing I know that is that I know nothing”. So he became a philosopher - someone who doesn’t give up but tirelessly pursues his quest for truth. he dared tell people how little we humans know. The Art of Discourse: never a believer of instruction. Like a midwife. Socrates saw his task as helping people to “give birth” to correct insight. By playing ignorant, Socrates forced people to use their common sense.

11. Continue.. All true insight comes from within: Real understanding must come from within; only that can lead to true insight. Right insight leads to right action. He who knows what god is will do good . We all had the same chances because we all had the same common sense: There exist eternal and absolute rule for what is right or wrong By using our common sense we call all arrive at these norms. Ability to distinguish between right and wrong lies in people’s reason, not in society. Unmistakable faith in human reason. Socrates managed to free himself from the prevailing views of the time by his own intelligence. But he had to pay a heavy amount for it. Socrates was killed because he disturbed the Athenian society’s conventional ideas and tried to light the way to true insight. In Socrates, we therefore see how dangerous it could be to appeal to people’s Reason Socrates must have had tremendous courage and sense of pedagogical responsibility to go ahead regardless of the perils.

12. CH# 8 Athens (… several tall buildings had risen from the ruins…) Sophie receives a videotape about Athens. He basically elaborates the history of Athens, “Acropolis” which is citadel  the city on the hill. Old Dionysos Theater, where the most tragic stories are performed, written by Sophocles, Euripides, & Aeschylus and the most tragic story King Oedipus was also performed there. The tall buildings are now ruined to the ground in a most pathetic way. At same time two people occur which shows them as Aristotle and Plato. Plato asked few questions to Sophie. You must think over how a baker can bake fifty absolutely identical cookies? Why all horses are the same? Whether you think man has an immortal soul? Whether men and women are equally sensible?

13. CH# 9 Plato (… a longing to return to the realm of the soul…) Search for the eternal and immutable: Plato was concerned with the relationship between what is eternal immutable, on the one hand, and what “flows”, on the other – middle ground between Sophie and Socrates. Everything in this universe changes but there is a eternal world of ideas outside the natural world. We cant have true knowledge about anything but we perceive them on the basis of reason. Theory of ideas: Reality is divided into two regions. World of senses : About which we can only have approximate or incomplete knowledge by using our five senses. Here, “everything flows” and nothing is permanent. World of ideas: About which we can have true knowledge by using our reason. The world of ideas cannot be perceived by senses but ideas are eternal and immutable. All natural forms are mere shadows or reflections of eternal form or ideas – theory of ideas Man is thus a dual creature: our body consist of earth and dust like everything else in the sensory world (matter), but we also had an immortal soul (spirit).

14. Continue… Plato political philosophy Characterized by rationalism. Favored philosopher’s rule of state. In effect a totalitarian state with no family political ties, not unlike caste system. Later opined that a constitutional state is the next best option. On women: Women could govern just as effectively as men for the simple reason that the rulers govern by virtue of their reason. Women have exactly the same powers of the reasoning as men provided they get the same training and are exempt from child rearing and housekeeping. Body Soul Virtue State Head Reason Wisdom Rulers Chest Will Courage Auxiliaries Abdomen Appetite Temperance Laborers

15. CH# 10 The Major’s Cabin (… the girl in the mirror winked with both eyes…) Sophie follows the path that Alberto’s dog Hermes had taken into the woods. She reaches near a cabin and knocks the door and enters into the cabin. The house is called major’s cabin because a major lived there. Sophie visited a cottage where she founds the things that are most inappropriate to her because the things are messed up there. There she founds the name of girl whose name is written on the envelop where she receives. She also came to know that he is Mr. Philosopher lives there and an envelop was on the table where her name was written on it. In envelop, there were typed pages and there was a question in the envelop and the message was that What comes first the “chicken” or “idea” chicken? “The devil finds work for the idle hands”. She runs away as she hears the sound of Hermes barking.

16. CH# 11 Aristotle (… a meticulous organizer who wanted to clarify our concepts…) Founded the science of logic. Criticized Plato’s theory of ideas: The distinction between “form” and “substance” plays an important part in Aristotle explanation of the way we discern things in the world. Plato Aristotle Highest degree of reality is that which we think with our reason Highest degree of reality is that which we percieve with our senses Things we see in natural world are purely reflection of things that existed in the higher reality of the world of ideas - and thereby in human soul Things that are in the human soul were purely reflection of natural objects. So nature is the natural world.

17. Continue… N ature’s scale: There is a gradual transition from simple growths to more complicated plants, from simple animals to more complicated animals. With man at the top of this “scale” who lives the whole life of nature. Ethics: Three form of happiness. Life of pleasure and enjoyment. Life as a free and responsible citizen. Life as thinker and philosopher. All three criteria must be present at the same time for man to find happiness and fulfillment. He rejected all forms of imbalance and advocated the golden mean. Women : Women is incomplete, an unfinished game. Politics: three good forms of constitution oi Form Meaning Must not degenerate into Monarchy Only one head of state Tyranny (one ruler captures power) Aristocracy Large group of rulers Oligarchy (Government run by a selected few) Polity Democracy Mob rule

18. CH# 12 Hellenism (… a spark from the fire…) In morning Sophie receives a letter about birthday wish was for Hilde an it is postmarked june,15. in letter she reads the history of Athens. Athens loses its dominant rule by 350 B.C. Conquests of Alexander the Great  political upheavals  new epoch in history of mankind. Hellenism refers to both the period of time and the Greek dominated culture that prevailed in the Hellenistic kingdoms of Macedonia, Syria and Egypt. Borders between countries and culture became erased as border are erased then religious beliefs became to mix.. In place of national religion, different cultures merged into a fusion of creeds. New religion formations – fusion of many gods, many beliefs – doubt and uncertainty about philosophy of life – religious doubts, cultural dissolution, and pessimism – “the world had grown old’

19. Continue Philosophic insight – not only for its own sake but also to free mankind from pessimism and the fear of death. Eliminates boundaries between religion and philosophy. Hellenistic philosophy : Not startlingly original Continued to work with problems raised by Socrates, Plato and Aristotle Common current: desire to discover how mankind should best live and die – ethics – central philosophical project. Emphasis on findings out what true happiness was and how it could be achieved.

20. Four major philosophical trends… The Cynics Antisthenes – Athens around 400 B.C True happiness is not found in external advantages or on being dependent on random and fleeting things Therefore happiness is within everyone’s reach. Having once been attained, it can never be lost. Stoics All natural processes follow the unbreakable laws of nature. Man must therefore learn top accept his destiny Nothing happens accidently Everything happens through necessity So it is of little use to complain when fate comes knocking at the door.

21. Continue… Epicureans Epicurus around 300 B.C. The highest good is pleasure, the greatest evil is pain. Pleasurable results of an action to be weighed against possible side effects Death does not concern us; as long as we exist, death is not here. And when it does come, we no longer exist. The gods are not be forced. Death is nothing to worry about. Good is easy to attain. The fearful is easy to endure. Neoplatonics Plato – distinction between world of ideas and sensory world Plotinus – world as a span between two poles with divine light at one end and absolute darkness at other end. All that exist is God. Soul is illuminated by the light from the God, while matter is the darkness that has no real existence. Divine mystery is everything that exists. No barrier between god and man

22. CH # 13 The Postcards (… I’m imposing a severe censorship on myself…) One day Sophie and his friend Joanna vists major cabin in curiosity that someone is sending them letters from there. They found a painting that was named as Berkeley and Bjerkely. And many stamps. They found a mirror which was a mysterious one because when she saw in mirror , she observed that someone is also staring at her. The main thing was the two postcards were there, on them the address was of Sophie’s Home an on other there was the address of Hilde. She observed that the philosopher was sending postcards to both of them and many postcards were stamped from Lebanon.

23. CH# 14 Two Cultures, two philosophers (… the only way to avoid floating in a vacuum…) Indo-European: All nations and cultures using Indo-European language (Most of Europe, India, Iran). Clear similarities in mode of thoughts. Semitic: Cultures using Semitic language. Root of all three Western religions – Judaism, Christianity, Islam. Belief in any gods Belief in one god Sought insight into world history – Sight Relied on God’s words – Hearing Oneness with God Distance between god and his creation – No pictures and Sculptures Purpose of life is to be released from the cycle of rebirth Purpose of life is to be redeemed from sin and blame Religious life characterized by self-communion and meditation Religious life characterized by prayer, sermons, and study of scriptures Cyclic view of history: History goes in circles like seasons – no beginning and no end – Civilization rise and fall in an eternal interplay between birth and death Linear view of history: In the beginning God created the world – history begun. On judgment day history will end, when God judges the living and the dead.

24. CH# 15 The middle ages (… going only part of the way is not the same as going the wrong way…) Rise of Christianity: Church puts the lid on Greek philosophy 529 AD – Closed Plato’s Academy Monasteries wrestled monopoly of education, reflection, and meditation. By 600 AD, Islam wins over Middle east, Spain, and North African part of Rome empire, adopts Mecca, Jerusalem and Baghdad. Arabs inherited much of old Greek science; gains prominence in sciences Dark Ages, one interminable thousand-year-long night settled over Europe between antiquity and the Renaissance. Also seen as a period of germination and growth when schools and universities developed Unifying force of Christian Culture. 145 AD (Paul’s missionary journey) 300 AD (Christian church banned) 313 AD (Accepted religion) 380 AD (Official religion)

25. (Continue…) Medieval philosophers Took it almost for granted that Christianity was true. Only questions: Whether to simply believe Christian revelations or approach them with the help of reason. No dramatic break with Greek philosophy, slow transition enabled by Fathers of the Church like St. Augustine. St. Augustine: Located Platonic ideas in God and thus preserved the Platonic view of eternal ideas. Biblical ideas: God created the world out of the void Greek: World has always existed St. Augustine: Before God created the world, the “ideas” were in the Divine mind. Ideas of City of God: Human history is a struggle between ‘Kingdom of God’ and ‘Kingdom of World’ for mastery over human beings.

26. (Continue…) St. Thomas Aquinas: Christianized Aristotle just as St. Augustine Christianized Plato. Adopted Aristotle’s philosophy in all areas it did not collide with Church’s theology. (Logic, theory of knowledge, and natural philosophy) No need for any conflict between philosophers like Aristotle and Christian doctrine. God’s existence can be proved on the basis of Aristotle’s philosophy Truth could be reached both through Christian faith and innate reason. To paths to faith: Aristotle’s philosophy presumed the existence of a formal cause (God) which sets all natural processes going. Christianity knows this formal cause is god. God has thus revealed himself to mankind both through Bible and through reason Two paths to moral life: Bible teaches us how God wants us to live. But God has also given us a conscience to distinguish between right and wrong. Aristotle goes only part of the way because he didn’t know of the Christian revelation. But going only part of the way is not the same as going the wrong way.

27. CH# 16 The Renaissance (… O divine lineage in mortal guise …) Renaissance (Rebirth): Rich cultural development – began in late 14 th century – N. Italy – spread rapidly northward in 200 years. Rebirth of art and culture of antiquity. After Dark Ages where life was seen through divine light, everything once again revolved around man – Renaissance humanism. Basis: Changes on the cultural and economic front – From subsistence economy to a monetary economy. Developed cities – rise of middle class with better basic conditions of life. Rewarded people’s diligence, imagination and ingenuity. New demands on individual. Three discoveries: - compass (easy navigation – great voyages), firearms, (military superiority) and printing press (dissemination of ideas – breaks free of Church monopoly) – essential preconditions. Renaissance middle class - break away rom feudal lords and Church. Religion acquires a freer relationship to reasoning and science. New scientific methods and a new religious fervor. Rediscovery of Greek culture through closer contact with the Arabs in Spain and Byzantine culture in East.

28. (Continue…) New method of scientific investigation – observation, experiment, experience. M easure what can be measured, and make measureable what cant be measured: Galileo. Emphasis on practical value of knowledge. Starting to intervene in nature and beginning to control it. Nicolas Copernicus : Earth moved around the sun and not vice versa (1543) – Heliocentric world picture . Kepler – Planets move in elliptical orbit. Earth is a planet like any other (1600s). Same physical laws apply everywhere in the universe. Law of Inertia: A body remains in the state which it is in, at rest or in motion, as long as no external force compels it to charge its state. Isaac Newton: Final description of the solar system and the planetary orbit – Law of Universal Gravitation.

29. CH# 17 Baroque (… such stuff as dreams are made of …) Irregularity and richness was typical of Baroque art than the plainer and more harmonious Renaissance art. Baroque favourite saying: ‘Carpe diem’ – ‘seize the day’ , ‘memento mori’ – ‘Remember that you must die’. Age of conflict, class differences, and irreconcilable contrasts – between Renaissance’s unremitting optimism and life of religious seclusion and self-denial ; between rich and the poor , between magnificence and mendicancy; between Protestants and Catholics ; war between countries. Birth of modern theatre. Philosophy of Baroque: Characterized by powerful struggle between diametrically opposed mode of thoughts. Contours between Idealism and Materialism never so clearly present at the same time as in the Baroque. Great philosophers of this period – Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz.

30. CH# 18 Descartes (… he wanted to clear all the rubble off the site …) He doubted the work of early philosopher of the middle ages. Father of modern philosophy: Assembled contemporary thought into one coherent philosophical system. Socrates – Plato – St. Augustine – Descartes: Rationalists – reason as the only path to knowledge Main concerns: What can we know , in other words, certain knowledge. What was the relationship between body and mind. Discourse on Philosophical method: Philosophy should go from simple to the complex to construct a new insight. Ensure by constant enumeration and control that nothing was left out. Then, a philosophical conclusion would be within reach. Favourite lines: Cogito, ergo sum: I think therefore I am . Dualist: Man is a dual creature – with a mind and body (matter – extension of mind)

31. CH# 19 Baruch Spinoza (… God is not a puppeteer…) First to apply historical-critical interpretation of Bible: Critical reading of bible bearing in mind the period it was written in. He rejected Descartes dualism and believed that thought and extension are simply two of God’s features that we can perceive. God was ruly free but people get happiness on the basis of seeing things “from the perspective of eternity”. Spinoza interpreted this as meaning both love of God and love of humanity. Monist: Does not have dualistic view of reality as Descartes. Everything that exists can be reduced to one single reality. Substance which may be God or nature. God speaking through the laws of nature is the inner cause of everything that happens. Everything in the material world happens through necessity. Spinoza had a determinist view of the material, or natural, world.

32. CH# 20 John Locke ( as bare and empty as a blackboard before the teacher arrives ) Essay concerning Human Understanding Attempt to clarify two questions: Where we get our ideas from: Mind at birth is an empty slate. Only source of genuine knowledge is sensory experience. Knowledge that cannot be traced back to a sensation is therefore false knowledge and must consequently be rejected. There’s nothing in the intellect that wasn’t previously in the sense. Can we rely on our senses: Senses objectively reproduce primary qualities (extension, weight, motion and number) world as it is. Senses only reproduce the effect of the outer reality of secondary qualities (color, smell, taste, sound) on our senses – subjective – World as it appears to us . Everyone agrees on primary qualities, secondary qualities vary from person to person – relativism. “There is nothing in the mind except what was first in the sense” (Aristotle) Inconsistent in empiricism : It is inherent in human reason to be able to know that God exists. Forerunner of many liberal ideas: He spoke out for intellectual liberty and tolerance and equality of the sexes, division of power.

33. CH# 21 David Hume (… commit it then to the flames …) A treatise of Human nature: We sometimes from complex ideas for which there is no corresponding object in the physical world – Example Batman or Superman. Each element was once sensed, and entered the theatre of the mind in the form of a real ‘impression’. Mind puts things together and constructs false ideas. Human sought to tidy up thoughts and notion: critical analysis of ideas. Investigate any single idea to see whether it was compounded in a way that doesn’t correspond to reality. Opposed all thoughts and ideas that could not be traced back to corresponding sense perceptions. “Dismiss all this meaningless nonsense which long has dominated metaphysical; thoughts and brought it into disrepute”. With Hume’s philosophy, the final link between faith and knowledge was broken. Hume also rebelled against rationalist thought in the area of ethics that the ability to distinguish between right and wrong is inherent in human reason. “it is not reason that determines what we say ad do”

34. CH# 22 Berkeley (… like a giddy planet round a burning sun…) He questioned more than any other empiricist. He suggested that even external reality itself may have no substance. He f elt that current philosophies and science were a threat to Christian way of life . He felt that all of our feelings and ideas can stem from our soul – just like when we are dreaming. Material reality doesn’t exist. We perceive only ideas. We never have direct experience of things themselves. Our own perception of time and space can also be merely figments of the mind denied existence of a material world beyond the human mind. Our sense perception proceed from God . Everything we see and feel is ‘an effect of God’s power. We exist only in the mind of god . And on the other hand, Alberto was seeing this as his explanation and the result of it was that he thinks Hilde’s father is writing or telling their story for his daughter’s amusement. Alberto calls Sophie Hilde a few more times and then lightning flashes and Sophie runs out of the house.

35. CH# 23 Bjerkely (… an old magic mirror Great-grandmother had bought from a Gypsy woman…) Hilde wakes up on birthday morning and thinks of the time she fell overboard in the rowboat and the boat had been left floating in the middle of the bay. Hilde looks at her reflection and remembers how she used to try to wink at the mirror with both eyes because her father said it. She then gets a parcel near her bed and there are few typed pages in it and the title of theses are Sophie’s World. At first she studies the story but then she get annoyed with the characters Alberto, Sophie and Joanna. But in story when Sophie finder her gold crucifix Hilde becomes very confused because she does not know how her father could have known it was lost. She becomes certain that Sophie actually exist.

36. CH# 24 The Enlightenment(Seven key points…) (… from the way needles are made to the way cannons are found…) Opposition to authority: Of French philosophers inspired by the English philosophy and liberal political establishment. Rationalism: Unshakeable faith in human reason - Age of Reason. Enlightenment movements: Greatest monument – huge encyclopedia. All the great philosophers and men of letters contributed to it. ‘Everything is to be found here, from the way needles are made to the way cannons are founded. Cultural optimism: Once reason and knowledge became widespread, humanity would make great progress. It could only be a question of time before irrationalism and ignorance would give way to an ‘enlightened humanity’. Return to nature: Emphasized intrinsic value of childhood. Natural religion: Religion also had to be brought into harmony with ‘natural’ reason. Deism – God only reveals himself to mankind through nature and natural laws, never in any ‘supernatural’ way. Human rights: No content themselves with theoretical views on man’s place in society – fought actively from ‘natural rights’ (lights that everybody was entitled to simply by being born) of the citizen. Campaign against censorship, for freedom of expression in religion, morals, and politics, for abolition of slavery and for a more humane treatment of criminals.

37. CH# 25 Immanuel Kant. (… the starry heavens above me and the moral within me…) Showed the way out of the philosophical impasse in the struggle between rationalism and empiricism. All our knowledge of the world comes from our sensation. But in our reason there are decisive factors that determine how we perceive the world around us. We have no freedom if we lived only as creature of the senses. But if we obey universal reason we are free and independent. There are clear limits to what we can know. Mins’s ‘glasses’ set these limits. It is not only mind which conforms to things. Things also conforms to the mind. Greatest contribution to philosophy: Dividing line between things in themselves and things as they appears to us. Rationalist: Basis for all human knowledge lay in the mind Empiricist: Knowledge of the world proceeded from senses. Kant: Both views are partly right and partly wrong.

38. CH# 26 Romanticism … Europe’s last great cultural epoch.. (… the path of mystery leads inwards …) Feelings, imagination, experience, yearning. All of nature – human soul and physical reality – is the expression of one world spirit – Schelling. Features: Yearning for something distant and unattainable like bygone eras; for nature and nature’s mysteries. Artists can provide something philosophers cant express. Urban phenomenon, youth. Romanticism helped strengthen the feeling of national identity. Two forms of Romanticism: Universal Romanticism: Romantics who were preoccupied with nature, world soul, and artistic genius. National Romanticism: Interested in the history, language and culture of the people.

39. CH# 27 Hegel (… the reasonable is that which is viable…) First philosophers who tried to salvage philosophy when the Romantic had dissolved everything into spirit. Hegel’s philosophy – Historicism – A method to understand the progress of history. Any human society and all human activities (science, art or philosophy), are defined by their history, so their essence can be sought only through only by understanding this. There are no eternal truths. Only fixed point philosophy can hold onto is history itself. The current of the past traditions and present material conditions determine what you think. No thought is true forever. (Aristotle – woman is incomplete man). Dialectic process – Three stages of knowledge: Thesis: A thought is proposed on the basis of other, previously proposed thoughts. Antithesis: As soon as one thought is proposed, it will be contradicted by another. Synthesis: Tension between these two opposite ways of thinking is resolved by the proposal of a third thought which accommodates the best of both point of view. “Philosophy is the history of philosophy”.

40. CH# 28 Kierkegaard (… Europe is on the road to bankruptcy..) The main concept of Kierkegaard was the concept of individualism. He basically gave the concept of individualism by blue bottle. Kierkegaard basically develop0e three stages of philosophy that are aesthetic stage, ethical stage and religious stage. Buddha philosophy: the philosophy of Buddha and Kierkegaard was the same that man was already exist in this world. About faith: Kierkegaard has a broader view about faith that it is some thing that exists every where in every religion , in every society but its shape are different. It turns the angle of 180̇̇· at any stage and in any society. These three philosophies that Kierkegaard gave about life are basically stages of life.

41. CH# 29 Marx (… a spectre is haunting Europe…) Hilde calls some of his friends of their family to enlist help I her plan. Then, after going out when her mother, she reads on Sophie returns home and tells her mother she met the philosopher again. She receives a letter and she went to consult with Alberto. Sophie encounters with Ebenezer Scrooge and the little match girl from a Hans Christian Anderson tale. Marx is a materialist, he wanted philosophy to be practical. He believed that economic forces caused change in society. He defined society in terms of material bases and a superstructure of culture. He pointed out that the natural resources of a society determine what the society will produce and what type of society will be. Those who have control of the means of production determine societal norms, and this is usually the ruling class. Marx felt there was always conflict between two classes in society and in his day it was between Capitalists and Workers .

42. CH# 30 Darwin (… a ship sailing through life with a cargo of genes..) Charles Darwin is not considered by many to be a philosophers, but the ideals of his discussed in Sophie’s World prove otherwise. His contribution to science is equal to that of the world of philosophy, by creating a metaphorical “bridge "between two realms of thought with this scientific theory. By previously adopting the doctrine of creation, satisfied romantics who saw the world and communities as whole. At the same time, he satisfied those with focuses on the individual by stating that we had no clue how life actually began, leaving the individual ponder the mystery on their own in order to search for their own answers. But does this make him a philosopher? By contributing not only discoveries in science, and most importantly his thoughts on those findings, causing other to agree, refute, defend, and call into question his ideals and methods which make him a philosopher. His contributions are undeniable.

43. CH# 31 Freud (… the odious egoistic impulse that had emerged in her …) He pointed out that we have unconscious drives that can affect out actions without us knowing about them. He is the father of Psychoanalysis school of thought whose main concern was with human mind in order to help people deal with neuroses or other sorts of problems. He stated that our mind is made up of three things id (our desire for pleasure), ego (takes reality into account and regulates the id), and superego (the societal morality that regulates everything we do) Believed that the conflict between man’s needs and desires and the demand of society drove most of his behavior. Every unpleasant experience we have is retained in part in the subconscious. The sublimated desires remain in the subconscious and affect our actions throughout life, sometimes explaining seemingly irrational behavior . Freudian Slip of tongue demonstrates that our unconscious can interference in our actions – we often say things that we did not intend to say but that might be what we really mean. H e suggested that dreams are ways of our wishes fulfilling. After Freud unconscious became the important part of art and literature.

44. CH# 32 Our Own Time (…man is condemne d to be free…) Hilde wakes up and realizes that she reamed that she was sitting on the dock hearing Sophie’s voice when her father came home . Sophie met Alberto who begins to talk about existentialism. He focuses on S artre who felt that existentialists have nothing but humanity to go on. He was an atheist who believed that people are conscious of their existence, their “being” is therefore different from that things. He thought that there is no general human nature but rather that we must create our own. He viewed our freedom as burden. S imon de Beauvoir argued further that male and female natures do not exist. Alberto points out that modern science is still dealing with many of the questions that the ancient Greek philosophers asked. And special thing about philosophical questions is that they must always be asked over years and can’t answered in any permanent way.

45. CH# 33 The Garden Party (… a white crow… ) Sophie bumps into her mother on the bus ride home and her mom reads a bit of Sophie’s World but does not seem too surprised. They make it through a demonstration on their street and then spend the rest of the day preparing. Joann helps them set up the next day. The guests begin to arrive, and soon wait for Alberto. He arrives late, set off a few firecrackers, and sits down after Sophie’s mom makes a short speech. Suddenly, Joanna begins kissing Jeremy, one of the boys. Soon, Joanna and Jeremy are rolling in the grass together while everyone watching except Sophie and Alberto. Alberto tells everyone the truth about their existence – that they are all merely figments of the imagination of Albert Knag. Things begin to get out of hand, and Alberto and Sophie disappear just as a book come to a close.

46. CH# 34 Counterpoint (… Two or more melodies sounding together…) Sophie and Alberto slips from situation and they take a make-believe car and drive off to be there when Albert Knag meets his daughter in Lillesand. Albert Knag at airport receives a letter from his daughter, which gives him some instructions and then he receives another letter where he is asked to bring things from store and then he believed that his daughter is observing him. Sophie and Alberto are driing , but Sophie is concerend because they can go right throgh everything and she thinks they are less real than anything around them. Alberto says that thjey are spirits and they can go everywhere. They stop for a coffee and meet an old woman who is also opf spirit out of Grimm’s Fairy Tales. She tells him they are part of the invisible people and they see many others whom they had once thought were imaginary.

47. Continue… Albert Knag realizes that his daughter has given him a dose of medicine and it continue the entire trip home. Hilde has message to him everywhere. As he arrives home that moment Sophie and Alberto arrive and Sophie runs down to Hilde. She tries to speak to her, knowing she cannot succeed, but is surprised to see that Hilde seems to sense something. Hilde and her father talks about everything, laughing and enjoying themselves, and Hilde again thinks she hears something. What she heard was Albert honking the car horn. Sophie is said that she cannot live a real life but Albert points out that they will live forever and that there is much for them to do.

48. CH# 35 The Big Band (… we too are stardust…) Hilde father tells her about universe and the Big B a ng, Sophie tells Alberto she thinks they can have an affect in Hilde’s world. She hits Hilde in the face with a wrench and Hilde yelps in pain, thinking a gadfly stung her. Hilde thinks she feels Sophie’s presence. Alberto is impressed. Albert tells his daughter that we are all a part of the same whole, since everything started with the Big Bang. It is a theory that thousand of years ago, there was something that came close to earth and it created the wave of tides on it by his force, but when it begun to go apart the tide apart into pieces and these pieces started to rotate around the sun and bty this way our solar system/universe came into being So an attempt to understand the universe is an attempt to understand ourselves. Sophie and Alberto manage to get the rowboat loose, and Albert makes fun of his daughter by suggesting that maybe Sophie did it.

49. Twentieth Century Renewal of philosophical currents: Neo-Thomism, logical empiricism, Neo-Marxism. Materialism: Search for the indivisible ‘elemental particle’ of which all matter is composed. Ecophilosophy: Western civilization as a whole is on a fundamentally wrong track, racing toward a head-on collision with the limits of what our planet can tolerate. There is something basically wrong with western thoughts. Our whole mode of scientific thoughts is facing a ‘paradigm shift’. Rise of ‘alternative movements’ advocating holism and a new lifestyle . In renaissance , the world began to explode. Beginning with the great voyages of discovery, Europeans started to travel all over the world World is becoming drawn together into one great communication network The question is whether history is coming to an end. Or whether on the contrary we are on the threshold of a completely new age . We are no longer simply citizens of a city – or of a particular country. We live in a planetary civilization.