Text_context.pptfor English Philippines educational book

English text context

1. Text and Context in Text and Context in
Translation Translation
Juliane HouseJuliane House
University of HamburgUniversity of Hamburg

2. 1. Text and Context1. Text and Context
2. Context from Different Perspectives2. Context from Different Perspectives
2.1. Philosophical and 2.1. Philosophical and
Psychological Psychological
2.2. Anthropological, 2.2. Anthropological,
Sociolinguistic, Discourse, Sociolinguistic, Discourse,
Conversation AnalyticalConversation Analytical
2.3. Linguistic 2.3. Linguistic
3. Context - Text -Translation3. Context - Text -Translation

3. 4. Translation as an Act of 4. Translation as an Act of
Re-contextualisationRe-contextualisation
4.1. A Theory of Translation as 4.1. A Theory of Translation as
Re-ContextualisationRe-Contextualisation
4.2. Two Types of Translation: 4.2. Two Types of Translation:
Overt and Covert Translation Overt and Covert Translation
4.3. The ‘Cultural Filter’ in 4.3. The ‘Cultural Filter’ in
Covert TranslationCovert Translation
5.5. Global English and Cultural Global English and Cultural
FilteringFiltering

4. 
‘‘Text’Text’: (A unit of) connected discourse. : (A unit of) connected discourse.
Its function is communicative, and it is Its function is communicative, and it is
an object of analysis and description an object of analysis and description

‘‘Context’Context’: A general type of connection : A general type of connection
or relationship; circumstances relevant to or relationship; circumstances relevant to
something under consideration’; the something under consideration’; the
environment surrounding a phenomenon environment surrounding a phenomenon
(such as e.g. a text!) that determines its (such as e.g. a text!) that determines its
meaning, similar to setting, background, meaning, similar to setting, background,
frame, (figure and) ground.frame, (figure and) ground.
1.The Notions ‘Text’ and 1.The Notions ‘Text’ and
‘Context’‘Context’

5. 
‘‘Text’ and ‘context’ are closely Text’ and ‘context’ are closely
related concepts.related concepts.
‘‘Context’ is the more complex Context’ is the more complex
notion and thus in need of further notion and thus in need of further
exploration. exploration.

6. 2.1. Philosophical and Psychological 2.1. Philosophical and Psychological
Perspectives of ContextPerspectives of Context
Contextualism versus UniversalismContextualism versus Universalism
-Linguistic actions are embedded in the Linguistic actions are embedded in the
environment in which they occur and fulfil certain environment in which they occur and fulfil certain
functions functions versusversus
-Sentences obey formal rules, principles and Sentences obey formal rules, principles and
parameters, parameters,
-The local, the particular, the social, the situated, The local, the particular, the social, the situated,
the individual, the unique, the relative the individual, the unique, the relative versusversus
-the generally valid, the typical, the supra-the generally valid, the typical, the supra-
individual, the absoluteindividual, the absolute

7. 
Wittgenstein’s idea that language is a form Wittgenstein’s idea that language is a form
of action, and that the meanings of linguistic of action, and that the meanings of linguistic
forms are their use in specific ‘forms of life’forms are their use in specific ‘forms of life’

Austin’s emphasis on how the contexts of Austin’s emphasis on how the contexts of
speech acts influence the conventions of speech acts influence the conventions of
language use, and how speech act language use, and how speech act
performance depends on the enveloping performance depends on the enveloping
context and language user’s intentions.context and language user’s intentions.


Gadamer’s and Steiner’s hermeneutic Gadamer’s and Steiner’s hermeneutic
interpretive study of texts with its ‘fusion of interpretive study of texts with its ‘fusion of
horizons’ uniting writer and reader in their horizons’ uniting writer and reader in their
context-dependence. context-dependence.

8. 
Grice’s conception of context as part of Grice’s conception of context as part of
a theory of language use - including a theory of language use - including
conversational maxims which guide the conversational maxims which guide the
conduct of talk and express an conduct of talk and express an
underlying co-operative principle. underlying co-operative principle.

Sperber and Wilson’s notion of Sperber and Wilson’s notion of
relevance as a set of internalized relevance as a set of internalized
contextual factors for interpreting contextual factors for interpreting
utterancesutterances

9. 
Forgas’ view that utterance meaning Forgas’ view that utterance meaning
and speakers’ shared views of context and speakers’ shared views of context
result from collective cognitive result from collective cognitive
activities. activities.

Clark’s idea of language use as a form Clark’s idea of language use as a form
of collaborative action bound up with of collaborative action bound up with
contexts as ‘common ground’, i.e., contexts as ‘common ground’, i.e.,
knowledge, beliefs, assumptions which knowledge, beliefs, assumptions which
language users bring to joint activitieslanguage users bring to joint activities

10. 2.2. Context in Anthropology, 2.2. Context in Anthropology,
Sociolinguistics, Discourse and Conversation Sociolinguistics, Discourse and Conversation
Analysis Analysis

‘‘Context’ as ‘culture’ is central in anthropology. It Context’ as ‘culture’ is central in anthropology. It
comprises conventionalized expectations made to comprises conventionalized expectations made to
fit a specific, local situationfit a specific, local situation

For sociolinguists, language reflects context and For sociolinguists, language reflects context and
language also determines the context in which it is language also determines the context in which it is
used. Contexts are evolving systems undergoing used. Contexts are evolving systems undergoing
constant change and mutual influence with constant change and mutual influence with
languagelanguage

Context is also at the core of discourse analysis, Context is also at the core of discourse analysis,
since all interaction involves context. In order to since all interaction involves context. In order to
understand, speakers must rely on context, and understand, speakers must rely on context, and
their linguistic choices are motivated by contextual their linguistic choices are motivated by contextual
factors (topic, participants, place, time, etc.) factors (topic, participants, place, time, etc.)

11. 
Conversation analysts focus on Conversation analysts focus on
utterances-in-sequence which both create utterances-in-sequence which both create
context and are conditioned by it. context and are conditioned by it.
Utterances are organized linearly in time, Utterances are organized linearly in time,
such that what is said now relies on what such that what is said now relies on what
was said before. Context and talk are in a was said before. Context and talk are in a
“reflexive relationship”: talk and its “reflexive relationship”: talk and its
interpretation shapes context as much as interpretation shapes context as much as
context shapes talk. context shapes talk.

12. 2.3.Context from Linguistic 2.3.Context from Linguistic
PerspectivesPerspectives
Hymes’ “Ethnography of Speaking” as ‘contextual linguistics’ Hymes’ “Ethnography of Speaking” as ‘contextual linguistics’
explicitly designed as an ‘anti-Chomsky model’: explicitly designed as an ‘anti-Chomsky model’:
stark contrast between ‘functional, contextual linguistics’ stark contrast between ‘functional, contextual linguistics’

andand
‘ ‘formal, competence linguistics’. The latter has an formal, competence linguistics’. The latter has an
idealized view of language divorced from the contextidealized view of language divorced from the context
in which it is actually used by human beings.in which it is actually used by human beings.
Context in functional linguistics includes setting, Context in functional linguistics includes setting,
behavior, language itself, knowledge, and is subjectbehavior, language itself, knowledge, and is subject
to multiple interpretations of immediate environments and to multiple interpretations of immediate environments and
wider socio-cultural frameworks wider socio-cultural frameworks

13. 
A prime example of functional linguistics is A prime example of functional linguistics is
pragmatics. Here context plays such an pragmatics. Here context plays such an
important role that its very definition is bound important role that its very definition is bound
up with contextup with context
- Pragmatics is the study of linguistic acts- Pragmatics is the study of linguistic acts
and the contexts in which they occur and the contexts in which they occur
- Pragmatics is a theory of language - Pragmatics is a theory of language
understanding that takes context into understanding that takes context into
account account
Gumperz’ notion of “contextualization cues” is Gumperz’ notion of “contextualization cues” is
based on assumptions about context and based on assumptions about context and
connects linguistic forms with cognitive and connects linguistic forms with cognitive and
social phenomenasocial phenomena

14. 
Halliday’s systemic-functional Halliday’s systemic-functional
theory explicitly links text and theory explicitly links text and
context and combines broad context and combines broad
functional explanations of social functional explanations of social
phenomena with detailed phenomena with detailed
description of linguistic formsdescription of linguistic forms

15. 3. Context, Text and Translation3. Context, Text and Translation

In most disciplines, Context is thought to refer to In most disciplines, Context is thought to refer to
both external (situational,cultural) and internal both external (situational,cultural) and internal
(cognitive, psychological) factors which influence (cognitive, psychological) factors which influence
each other in acts of speaking and listening each other in acts of speaking and listening

Context is often regarded as dynamic rather than Context is often regarded as dynamic rather than
static, as more than a set of pre-fixed variables that static, as more than a set of pre-fixed variables that
impact on language. impact on language.

Context and language are viewed as mutually Context and language are viewed as mutually
dependent, such that language shapes context as dependent, such that language shapes context as
much as context shapes language.much as context shapes language.
For translation, such a view of context is For translation, such a view of context is
NOT useful! NOT useful!

16. 
In translation, a ’finished’, and in this sense ‘static’ In translation, a ’finished’, and in this sense ‘static’
stretch of written language as text is available to stretch of written language as text is available to
the translator in its entirety from the start. Full the translator in its entirety from the start. Full
availability of a written text - as opposed to the bit-availability of a written text - as opposed to the bit-
by-bit unfolding of discourse - is thus constitutive by-bit unfolding of discourse - is thus constitutive
of translation.of translation.

Translating involves RE-CONTEXTUALISING and as Translating involves RE-CONTEXTUALISING and as
such the creation of such the creation of a discourse out of a written a discourse out of a written
text, i.e., the creation of a ‘living’, but text, i.e., the creation of a ‘living’, but
essentially NOT dynamic, cognitive-social essentially NOT dynamic, cognitive-social
entity replete with contextual connections.entity replete with contextual connections.

In translation, Context is NOT ‘negotiated’ or In translation, Context is NOT ‘negotiated’ or
‘emergent’, but rather static. This ‘staticness’ ‘emergent’, but rather static. This ‘staticness’
arises in the space opened up by the arises in the space opened up by the
separation in time and space of writer and separation in time and space of writer and
reader, and through the translator’s limited reader, and through the translator’s limited
power to define what the context is. power to define what the context is.

17. 
The realisation of a discourse out of a text The realisation of a discourse out of a text
can only involve imaginary, hidden, mental can only involve imaginary, hidden, mental
interaction between writer and reader in the interaction between writer and reader in the
translator’s mind. The natural unity of translator’s mind. The natural unity of
speaker and listener in oral interaction is speaker and listener in oral interaction is
replaced by the real-world separateness in replaced by the real-world separateness in
space and time of writer and reader. But the space and time of writer and reader. But the
translator can overcome this separateness: translator can overcome this separateness:
S/he creates a new unity that transcends the S/he creates a new unity that transcends the
text’s givenness (with its immutable text’s givenness (with its immutable
arrangement of linguistic elements) by arrangement of linguistic elements) by
activatingthe text’s context in its old and new activatingthe text’s context in its old and new
variant - imagined and miraculously united in variant - imagined and miraculously united in
his mind. his mind.

18. 4. Translation as an Act of Re- 4. Translation as an Act of Re-
Contextualisation Contextualisation

For translation as an act of re-contextualisation, a For translation as an act of re-contextualisation, a
TEXT is a stretch of a contextually embedded TEXT is a stretch of a contextually embedded
ensemble of linguistic forms. And CONTEXT is the ensemble of linguistic forms. And CONTEXT is the
means of converting ‘inert (static) text’ into means of converting ‘inert (static) text’ into
discourse in an discourse in an ex- post facto, cex- post facto, cognitive ‘meaning ognitive ‘meaning
making’ making’



The translator’s re-creative act is thus critically The translator’s re-creative act is thus critically
different from the type of observable on-line different from the type of observable on-line
transformative power a speaker in talk-in-transformative power a speaker in talk-in-
interaction has over the path of the developing interaction has over the path of the developing
discourse.discourse.

19. 4.1. A Functional Theory of 4.1. A Functional Theory of
Translation as Re-contextualization Translation as Re-contextualization
House’s Theory of Translation as House’s Theory of Translation as
Re-contextualisation:Re-contextualisation:

Translation texts are doubly contextually-Translation texts are doubly contextually-
bound: to their source text and to the new bound: to their source text and to the new
recipient’s contextual conditions. This recipient’s contextual conditions. This
double-linkage is the basis of the double-linkage is the basis of the
equivalence relationequivalence relation – the conceptual – the conceptual
heart of translation. heart of translation.

20. 
EquivalencEquivalence is determined by e is determined by contextcontext, and , and
comprises at least the following:comprises at least the following:
Source and target linguistic features and the Source and target linguistic features and the
rules of the two language systemsrules of the two language systems
The extra-linguistic world and how it is perceived The extra-linguistic world and how it is perceived
by members of L1 and L2 communities by members of L1 and L2 communities
L1 and L2 conventions and genres guiding the L1 and L2 conventions and genres guiding the
translatortranslator
Structural, connotative, and aesthetic features of Structural, connotative, and aesthetic features of
the original the original
The translator’s interpretation of the original and The translator’s interpretation of the original and
his or her ‘creativity’ his or her ‘creativity’
The translator’s theory of translation The translator’s theory of translation
Translation traditions holding in the target culture Translation traditions holding in the target culture

21. 
Since appropriate use of language Since appropriate use of language
in communicative performance is in communicative performance is
what matters most in translation, what matters most in translation,
it is it is functional pragmatic functional pragmatic
equivalence which is crucial. equivalence which is crucial.
This type of equivalence This type of equivalence
underpins House’s functional underpins House’s functional
translation model.translation model.

22. A Scheme for Producing, Analysing and
Comparing Original and Translation Texts

23. This model explicates the way semantic, This model explicates the way semantic,
pragmatic and textual meaning are re-pragmatic and textual meaning are re-
constituted across different contexts. constituted across different contexts.

Translation is conceived as the Translation is conceived as the
replacement of an L1 text by a replacement of an L1 text by a
semantically and pragmatically equivalent semantically and pragmatically equivalent
L2 text. An adequate translation is then a L2 text. An adequate translation is then a
pragmatically and semantically equivalent pragmatically and semantically equivalent
one. one.

A first requirement for this equivalence is A first requirement for this equivalence is
that that a translation text have a functiona translation text have a function
equivalent to that of its originalequivalent to that of its original. .

24. 
If we use a concept such as If we use a concept such as ‘function’‘function’ of a text, of a text,
we must be sure that there are elements in a text we must be sure that there are elements in a text
which can reveal a text’s function. which can reveal a text’s function.

Function here is Function here is NOTNOT identical with identical with ‘functions of ‘functions of
language’ language’ as suggested by philosophers and as suggested by philosophers and
linguists such as Bühler, Jakobson,Popper and linguists such as Bühler, Jakobson,Popper and
many others. many others.

Different language functions always co-exist in a Different language functions always co-exist in a
text, there is no simple equation of language text, there is no simple equation of language
function and textual type.function and textual type.

25. 
The The function of a textfunction of a text is simply is simply the the
application of a text in a particular context, application of a text in a particular context,
and there is aand there is a systematic relationship between systematic relationship between
context and the functional organization of context and the functional organization of
language-in-text, which can be revealed by language-in-text, which can be revealed by
breaking down context into a manageable set of breaking down context into a manageable set of
‘contextual parameters’: FIELD –TENOR- MODE ‘contextual parameters’: FIELD –TENOR- MODE

The pre-translation analysis results then in a The pre-translation analysis results then in a
text-context profile that reflects the text’s text-context profile that reflects the text’s
function. Whether and how this function can be function. Whether and how this function can be
maintained, critically depends, however, on the maintained, critically depends, however, on the
type of translation sought. type of translation sought.

26. 4.2.Two Types of Translation: 4.2.Two Types of Translation:
Overt and Covert TranslationOvert and Covert Translation

OvertOvert andand covert translationcovert translation areare outcomes of outcomes of
different types of re-contextualisationdifferent types of re-contextualisation

They resemble Schleiermacher’s famous They resemble Schleiermacher’s famous
distinction between “distinction between “verfremdende und verfremdende und
einbürgernde Übersetzungeneinbürgernde Übersetzungen” (‘alienating’ and ” (‘alienating’ and
‘integrating’ translations) which has had many ‘integrating’ translations) which has had many
imitators using different, but essentially similar imitators using different, but essentially similar
terms.terms.

What sets the overt-covert distinction apart is What sets the overt-covert distinction apart is
the fact that it is integrated into a coherent the fact that it is integrated into a coherent
theory of translation, within which these terms theory of translation, within which these terms
are explicated.are explicated.

27. 
In In overt translationovert translation, recipients are quite ‘overtly’ NOT , recipients are quite ‘overtly’ NOT
directly addressed, because an overt translation is quite directly addressed, because an overt translation is quite
overtly a translation, not a ‘second original’. And it shows: overtly a translation, not a ‘second original’. And it shows:
while an overt translation must needs be embedded in a new while an overt translation must needs be embedded in a new
context, it also, at the same time, schizophrenically, signals context, it also, at the same time, schizophrenically, signals
its origin. The translator’s work is important and visible: it is its origin. The translator’s work is important and visible: it is
to enable L2 members to observe and judge the original’s to enable L2 members to observe and judge the original’s
impact “from outside”impact “from outside”

Although an overt translation and its original are equivalent Although an overt translation and its original are equivalent
at the levels of at the levels of Language/Text, Register, Genre, only Language/Text, Register, Genre, only
second-levelsecond-level functional equivalence is possible: giving functional equivalence is possible: giving
access to the original’s function. Since this access is to be in access to the original’s function. Since this access is to be in
the L2, a contextual switch is necessary. But because there the L2, a contextual switch is necessary. But because there
is this three-tier equivalence, the original’s context is co-is this three-tier equivalence, the original’s context is co-
activated in the minds of the translator and L2 addressees so activated in the minds of the translator and L2 addressees so
as to enable them to “eavesdrop” and appreciate the as to enable them to “eavesdrop” and appreciate the
original’s function in its new guise. original’s function in its new guise.

28. 
A A covert translationcovert translation is a translation which is a translation which
enjoys the status of an original text in a new enjoys the status of an original text in a new
context. The translation is covert because it is context. The translation is covert because it is
not marked as a translation, but may, not marked as a translation, but may,
conceivably, have been created in its own right. conceivably, have been created in its own right.
An original and its covert translation are An original and its covert translation are
pragmatically of equal concern for L1 and L2 pragmatically of equal concern for L1 and L2
addressees in their different contexts addressees in their different contexts
The translator re-creates an equivalent speech The translator re-creates an equivalent speech
event and reproduces the original’s function event and reproduces the original’s function
with the result that a covert translation with the result that a covert translation
operates solely in the new L2 context, with no operates solely in the new L2 context, with no
attempt made to co-activate the context in attempt made to co-activate the context in
which the original had unfolded. which the original had unfolded.

29. The translator’s express task is to ‘betray’ the The translator’s express task is to ‘betray’ the
original, to hide behind its transformation.The original, to hide behind its transformation.The
translator acts in a self-effacing manner. translator acts in a self-effacing manner.
Since true functional equivalence is the goal, Since true functional equivalence is the goal,
the original may be legitimately manipulated the original may be legitimately manipulated
at the levels of at the levels of Language/Text Language/Text and and RegisterRegister. .
The translator takes exclusive account of the The translator takes exclusive account of the
new context into which the translation is new context into which the translation is
inserted. To facilitate this insertion inserted. To facilitate this insertion
seamlesssly as it were, the translator applies seamlesssly as it were, the translator applies
a CULTURAL FILTER.a CULTURAL FILTER.

30. 4.3. The ‘Cultural Filter’ 4.3. The ‘Cultural Filter’

A ‘cultural filterA ‘cultural filter’ is a means of capturing ’ is a means of capturing
contextual differences in expectation contextual differences in expectation
norms between recipients in L1 and L2 norms between recipients in L1 and L2
contexts.The application of a cultural filter contexts.The application of a cultural filter
should however ideally not be left to should however ideally not be left to
accidental individual intuition, but be in accidental individual intuition, but be in
line with relevant cross-cultural research. line with relevant cross-cultural research.

What do we mean by “culture”?? What do we mean by “culture”??

31. ‚‚Culture‘Culture‘
Whatever it is one has to know or believe in Whatever it is one has to know or believe in
order to operate in a manner acceptable to a order to operate in a manner acceptable to a
society’s members, and do so in any role that society’s members, and do so in any role that
they accept for any one of themselves .... they accept for any one of themselves ....
Culture is not a material phenomenon; it Culture is not a material phenomenon; it
does not consist of things, people, behavior, does not consist of things, people, behavior,
or emotions. It is rather an organization of or emotions. It is rather an organization of
these things. It is the forms of things that these things. It is the forms of things that
people have in mind, their model of people have in mind, their model of
perceiving, relating, and otherwise perceiving, relating, and otherwise
interpreting them. interpreting them.
(Goodenough, 1964: 36)(Goodenough, 1964: 36)

32. 
As in the case of context, a “dynamic”, As in the case of context, a “dynamic”,
negotiable view of culture is NOT useful negotiable view of culture is NOT useful
for translation, because in translating a for translation, because in translating a
text, one must refer to a concrete point in text, one must refer to a concrete point in
time and space and adopt a static, time and space and adopt a static,
necessarily “essentialist” idea of culture. necessarily “essentialist” idea of culture.
This should not be disqualified as naively This should not be disqualified as naively
ignoring the complexity of culture, as in ignoring the complexity of culture, as in
translation we also take account of translation we also take account of
empirical research into cultures as empirical research into cultures as
interpretive devices for understanding interpretive devices for understanding
communicative behavior. communicative behavior.

33. 
Empirical research into communicative Empirical research into communicative
norms in L1 and L2 cultures can give norms in L1 and L2 cultures can give
substance to the cultural filter and thus substance to the cultural filter and thus
complement tacit native-speaker knowledge. complement tacit native-speaker knowledge.
For example, in the case of the German and For example, in the case of the German and
Anglophone linguistic-cultural communities, Anglophone linguistic-cultural communities,
the cultural filter has been substantiated the cultural filter has been substantiated
through extensive empirical contrastive-through extensive empirical contrastive-
pragmatic research. Its results show pragmatic research. Its results show
differences in behavioral norms that can differences in behavioral norms that can
explain acts of re-contextualization in covert explain acts of re-contextualization in covert
translation.translation.

34. 
For example: Germans often express For example: Germans often express
themselves in more direct, explicit and content-themselves in more direct, explicit and content-
oriented ways than Anglophone speakers oriented ways than Anglophone speakers

Such cross-cultural differences can be displayed Such cross-cultural differences can be displayed
along dimensions such as along dimensions such as

directness vs. indirectnessdirectness vs. indirectness
explicitness vs. implicitnessexplicitness vs. implicitness
focus on vs. focus onfocus on vs. focus on
content persons content persons

35. The Cultural Filter: ExamplesThe Cultural Filter: Examples
Sign at Frankfurt Airport at a building site:Sign at Frankfurt Airport at a building site:
Damit die Zukunft schneller kommt!Damit die Zukunft schneller kommt!
[Such that the future comes more quickly!][Such that the future comes more quickly!]
vs. English translation:vs. English translation:
We apologize for any inconvenience work on our We apologize for any inconvenience work on our
building site is causing you!building site is causing you!

36. Software manual (original English, Back Software manual (original English, Back
Translation from German)Translation from German)
WordPerfect is backed by a customer support WordPerfect is backed by a customer support
system designed to offer you fast, courteous system designed to offer you fast, courteous
service. If you’ve exhausted all other Help service. If you’ve exhausted all other Help
Avenues and need a Friendly Voice to help you Avenues and need a Friendly Voice to help you
with your problem, just follow these steps...with your problem, just follow these steps...
vs.vs.
WordPerfect has established a Support Centre, WordPerfect has established a Support Centre,
whose employees offer you competent support whose employees offer you competent support
with problems. If, despite the support available with problems. If, despite the support available
to you in WordPerfect, you were not able to solve to you in WordPerfect, you were not able to solve
a problem, turn to our support centre.a problem, turn to our support centre.

37. Preface, Preface, Perl CookbookPerl Cookbook (Original (Original
English, backtranslated from German)English, backtranslated from German)

That's what That's what
Learning PerlLearning Perl, a , a
kinder and gentler kinder and gentler
introduction to introduction to
Perl, is designed Perl, is designed
for.for.

It is for this that It is for this that
books like books like
Introduction to PerlIntroduction to Perl
are meant.are meant.

38. Instruction leaflet, oven ware (original German Instruction leaflet, oven ware (original German
backtranslated into English)backtranslated into English)
Kerafour has been tested for being ovenproof in Kerafour has been tested for being ovenproof in
independent testing institutes. So that you can enjoy it for a independent testing institutes. So that you can enjoy it for a
long time, we give you some instructions for use: 1. Never long time, we give you some instructions for use: 1. Never
put an empty cold vessel into the heated oven - “empty” put an empty cold vessel into the heated oven - “empty”
also refers to a vessel which is only rubbed with fat!also refers to a vessel which is only rubbed with fat!
vs. vs.
Kerafour oven-to-table pieces have been tested by Kerafour oven-to-table pieces have been tested by
independent research institutes and are considered independent research institutes and are considered
ovenproof and micro-wave resistant. Here are a few simple ovenproof and micro-wave resistant. Here are a few simple
rules for using Kerafour:rules for using Kerafour:
Never put a cold and empty piece into the heated oven.Never put a cold and empty piece into the heated oven.

39. ADVERTISEMENT AIR FRANCE (Translations from French ADVERTISEMENT AIR FRANCE (Translations from French
into English and German, backtranslated)into English and German, backtranslated)
We know how hard it is for business travellers to have to We know how hard it is for business travellers to have to
concentrate on their work while waging the eternal battle of concentrate on their work while waging the eternal battle of
the armrest, so we have re-arranged the space between the armrest, so we have re-arranged the space between
our L’Espace Europe seats. Where there used to be rows of our L’Espace Europe seats. Where there used to be rows of
three seats, there are now two seats separated by a table. three seats, there are now two seats separated by a table.
Your seat is now much wider, more comfortable and the Your seat is now much wider, more comfortable and the
total space more conducive to a little privacy.total space more conducive to a little privacy.
Business travellers want to study their files, read Business travellers want to study their files, read
newspapers or prepare themselves quietly for a meeting. newspapers or prepare themselves quietly for a meeting.
Preferably without getting too close to the man sitting next Preferably without getting too close to the man sitting next
to them. Or the woman. This is why we have completely re-to them. Or the woman. This is why we have completely re-
arranged our L’Espace Europe. Bigger, more beautiful and arranged our L’Espace Europe. Bigger, more beautiful and
comfortable and above all with very welcome space for comfortable and above all with very welcome space for
putting things on between the seats. For much elbow room putting things on between the seats. For much elbow room
for reading, eating and relaxing in exactly the right for reading, eating and relaxing in exactly the right
distance. And also for stimulating conversations.distance. And also for stimulating conversations.

40. FILM TITLES (Original ENGLISH-Backtranslation from FILM TITLES (Original ENGLISH-Backtranslation from
GERMAN)GERMAN)

Where are the children?----Limitless Suffering of a Where are the children?----Limitless Suffering of a
MotherMother

Jack the Bear----My Dad-a totally incredible fatherJack the Bear----My Dad-a totally incredible father

The Surrogate ----Murder after BirthThe Surrogate ----Murder after Birth

Whatever happened to Aunt Alice----A widow kills softlyWhatever happened to Aunt Alice----A widow kills softly

Silent victim ….Accusation: AbortionSilent victim ….Accusation: Abortion

Backlash…..The secret of the five gravesBacklash…..The secret of the five graves

Shadow of the Past----The corpse in the bootShadow of the Past----The corpse in the boot

etc.etc.

41. 
Michel Bond’s classic book “Michel Bond’s classic book “A Bear called Paddington” in translationA Bear called Paddington” in translation

An example of massive cultural filtering in children’s literature.An example of massive cultural filtering in children’s literature.

Examples here backtranslated from the German :“Paddington unser kleiner Bär”Examples here backtranslated from the German :“Paddington unser kleiner Bär”

42. (Mr Brown offers Paddington some cakes)(Mr Brown offers Paddington some cakes)
I’m sorry they haven’t any marmalade ones, but these I’m sorry they haven’t any marmalade ones, but these
were the best I could getwere the best I could get
There is nothing with marmaladeThere is nothing with marmalade
(Paddington in a shop)(Paddington in a shop)
Mr Gruber took Paddington into his shop and after Mr Gruber took Paddington into his shop and after
offering him a seat. ….offering him a seat. ….
Then he pulled the little bear into the shop: „Sit Then he pulled the little bear into the shop: „Sit
down!” down!”
(Small Talk)(Small Talk)
““Hallo Mrs Bird” said Judy “It’s nice to see you again. Hallo Mrs Bird” said Judy “It’s nice to see you again.
How’s the rheumatism?” “Worse than it’s ever been” How’s the rheumatism?” “Worse than it’s ever been”
began Mrs Bird…. began Mrs Bird….
(Zero-Realization in the German Translation…)(Zero-Realization in the German Translation…)

43. The Body Shop: Corporate Statement The Body Shop: Corporate Statement
(Original English, Back Translation from (Original English, Back Translation from
German)German)

We consider We consider
testing products or testing products or
ingredients on ingredients on
animals morally animals morally
and scientifically and scientifically
indefensible
 
indefensible
 



We are of the We are of the
opinion that opinion that
experiments with experiments with
animals in the animals in the
cosmetics industry cosmetics industry
are neither are neither
necessary nor necessary nor
morally defensiblemorally defensible

44. 
We know that We know that
you're you're unique, and unique, and
we'll always treat we'll always treat
you like an you like an
individual. individual.

We are of the We are of the
opinion that opinion that every every
man or womanman or woman is is
beautiful, everyone beautiful, everyone
in his or her own in his or her own
wayway

45. P&G CEO Speech to students at small US P&G CEO Speech to students at small US
College (Original English, Back Translation College (Original English, Back Translation
from German)from German)
Simulation of oral impromptu talk:Simulation of oral impromptu talk:

I thought I’d use I thought I’d use
my time here my time here toto
talk to youtalk to you
about…about…

I’ll give I’ll give youyou one one
more example…more example…

I will use the time I will use the time
allotted to me to allotted to me to
report on... report on...

I will reportI will report on on
another case... another case...

46. CongruentCongruent Presentation of states Presentation of states
of affairs and eventsof affairs and events

When I was first When I was first
started to put togetherstarted to put together
my remarks for today, I my remarks for today, I
asked for some input asked for some input
from Dr. Amos Bradford, from Dr. Amos Bradford,
who provided a broad list who provided a broad list
of subjects he thought of subjects he thought
you’d be interested in you’d be interested in
hearing about:hearing about:

For the preparation of For the preparation of
my presentation today my presentation today
I asked Dr. Amos I asked Dr. Amos
Bradford for a few Bradford for a few
suggestions..suggestions... .

47. 
After I’ve finished,After I’ve finished,
I’ll be happy to I’ll be happy to
answer any questions answer any questions
you have and, you have and,
hopefully, to engage hopefully, to engage
in a bit of in a bit of
conversation about conversation about
the issues we’ll raise the issues we’ll raise
here this afternoon.here this afternoon.

After my After my
presentation I will presentation I will
gladly answer all gladly answer all
your questions and your questions and
talk about this talk about this
afternoon‘s topics.afternoon‘s topics.

48. Second Person PronounsSecond Person Pronouns

……he provided a he provided a
broad list of broad list of
subjects he subjects he
thought thought youyou’d be ’d be
interested in interested in
hearing about:hearing about:

YouYou’re tempted to ’re tempted to
put off a put off a
discussion…discussion…

..he provided me ..he provided me
with a long list of with a long list of
topics, topics, which he which he
considered considered
interesting…interesting…

One One is tempted to is tempted to
delay a delay a
conversation... conversation...

49. EvaluationsEvaluations

And it’s important to And it’s important to
notenote that it is not just that it is not just
a piece of paper…a piece of paper…

And more positivelyAnd more positively, ,
governments and other governments and other
companies really do companies really do
want to deal with want to deal with
companies they feel...companies they feel...

It is not simply a It is not simply a
piece of paper… piece of paper…

Governments and Governments and
other firms prefer to other firms prefer to
cooperate with cooperate with
companies which companies which
act… act…

50. Multisyn Vision 2000 (Original Multisyn Vision 2000 (Original
English, Back Translation from English, Back Translation from
German)German)

......obsessively obsessively
search forsearch for new new
ideasideas, by , by
observing, listening observing, listening
and learning from and learning from
everyoneeveryone

......look forlook for
intensive new intensive new
ideasideas through through
observing, listening observing, listening
and learning from and learning from
everyone.everyone.

51. 
I want to be part of a I want to be part of a
company where company where I am I am
challengedchallenged to.. to..

have have unrelentingly unrelentingly
high expectationshigh expectations of of
myself and othersmyself and others

I want to be part of I want to be part of
a company which a company which
challenges mechallenges me
to…to…

put put high high
expectationsexpectations on on
me and othersme and others

52. Goldsmith Corporate Statement Goldsmith Corporate Statement
(Original English, Backtranslation (Original English, Backtranslation
from German)from German)

Our long term success Our long term success
requires a requires a total total
commitmentcommitment to to
exceptional standards exceptional standards
of performance and of performance and
productivity, to productivity, to
working together working together
effectively effectively

Our long-term success Our long-term success
is only possible, ifis only possible, if we we
set ourselves set ourselves
exceptional standards exceptional standards
of performance and of performance and
productivity, and if we productivity, and if we
cooperate efficiently cooperate efficiently
and with all and with all
preparedness.preparedness.

53. Milton Meissner Letter to Sharesholders 27.12.1971 Milton Meissner Letter to Sharesholders 27.12.1971
(Original English, backtranslated from German)(Original English, backtranslated from German)
As you will note, As you will note, we have asked that we have asked that
youyou designate a bank (or broker) to designate a bank (or broker) to
which your dividend certificates will be which your dividend certificates will be
sent. Your bank (or broker) should sent. Your bank (or broker) should
indicate its confirmation of your indicate its confirmation of your
signature…signature…
As you will note, As you will note, we have asked youwe have asked you to to
name a bank (or a broker) to which the name a bank (or a broker) to which the
dividend certificates shall be sent. dividend certificates shall be sent. You You
have tohave to ask the bank (or the broker) to ask the bank (or the broker) to
confirm your signature…confirm your signature…

54. CULTURAL FILTERING IN SCIENCE TEXTSCULTURAL FILTERING IN SCIENCE TEXTS
„HIV Vaccines: Prospects and Challenges“ „HIV Vaccines: Prospects and Challenges“
Scientific AmericanScientific American, July 1998/ Backtranslated , July 1998/ Backtranslated
from German from German Spektrum der WissenschaftSpektrum der Wissenschaft, ,
October 1998October 1998

Most vaccines Most vaccines
activate what is activate what is
called the humoral called the humoral
arm of the immune arm of the immune
system.system.

Most vaccines Most vaccines
activate the so-called activate the so-called
humoral arm of the humoral arm of the
immune systemimmune system

(after Latin humor, (after Latin humor,
liquid.liquid.

55. Buchbinder, S. „Avoiding Infection after HIV Buchbinder, S. „Avoiding Infection after HIV
Exposure“ Scientific American July 1998; Exposure“ Scientific American July 1998;
Backtranslation from German Spektrum der Backtranslation from German Spektrum der
Wissenschaft October 1998 „Prevention after HIV Wissenschaft October 1998 „Prevention after HIV
Contact“Contact“

Treatment may reduce Treatment may reduce
the chance of the chance of
contracting HIV contracting HIV
infection after a risky infection after a risky
encounter. encounter.

An immediate An immediate
treatment after contact treatment after contact
reduces under certain reduces under certain
circumstances the circumstances the
danger that the human danger that the human
immuno-deficiency-immuno-deficiency-
virus establishes itself virus establishes itself
in the body.There is no in the body.There is no
guarantee for this, guarantee for this,
moreover new risks moreover new risks
arise.arise.

56. Suppose you are a doctor Suppose you are a doctor
in an emergency room in an emergency room
and a patient tells you and a patient tells you
she was raped two hours she was raped two hours
earlier. She is afraid she earlier. She is afraid she
may have been exposed may have been exposed
to HIV, the virus that to HIV, the virus that
causes AIDS but has causes AIDS but has
heard that there is a heard that there is a
"morning-after pill" to "morning-after pill" to
prevent HIV infection.prevent HIV infection.
Can you in fact do Can you in fact do
anything to block the anything to block the
virus from replicating and virus from replicating and
establishing infection?establishing infection?
In the emergency room In the emergency room
of a hospital a patient of a hospital a patient
reports that she had reports that she had
been raped two hours been raped two hours
ago and was now ago and was now
worrying that she had worrying that she had
been exposed to the been exposed to the
AIDS-Virus. She said she AIDS-Virus. She said she
had heard that there was had heard that there was
an "After-Pill", which an "After-Pill", which
might prevent an HIV-might prevent an HIV-
infection. Can the doctor infection. Can the doctor
in fact do anything which in fact do anything which
might prevent potentially might prevent potentially
existing viruses from existing viruses from
replicating and replicating and
establishing themselves establishing themselves
permanently in the body?permanently in the body?

57. M.F. Perutz, Hemoglobin structure and respiratory transport, M.F. Perutz, Hemoglobin structure and respiratory transport,
Scientific American, Scientific American, December 1978, Backtranslated from German, December 1978, Backtranslated from German,
February 1979 Spektrum der WissenschaftenFebruary 1979 Spektrum der Wissenschaften
Hemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and helps Hemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and helps
to transport carbon dioxide back to the lungs. It fulfils this dual role to transport carbon dioxide back to the lungs. It fulfils this dual role
by clicking back and forth between two alternative structures.by clicking back and forth between two alternative structures.
Hemoglobin, the substance responsible for the blood’s red color, Hemoglobin, the substance responsible for the blood’s red color,
carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and facilitates the carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and facilitates the
backtransport of carbon dioxide to the lungs. The molecule fulfils backtransport of carbon dioxide to the lungs. The molecule fulfils
this double function because it changes between two structures. this double function because it changes between two structures.
“Why the grass is green and our blood red, are secrets which “Why the grass is green and our blood red, are secrets which
nobody will ever know. In this dim state, poor soul, what will you nobody will ever know. In this dim state, poor soul, what will you
do?” (John Donne “On the soul’s progress”) do?” (John Donne “On the soul’s progress”)

58. 
David Hounshell, “Two Paths to the Telephone, David Hounshell, “Two Paths to the Telephone,
Scientific American”, June 1981Scientific American”, June 1981
As Alexander Graham Bell was developing the As Alexander Graham Bell was developing the
telephone, Elisha Gray was doing the same. Bell got telephone, Elisha Gray was doing the same. Bell got
the patent, but the episode is nonetheless an the patent, but the episode is nonetheless an
instructive example of simultaneous invention.instructive example of simultaneous invention.

Back Translation from German „The Race for the Back Translation from German „The Race for the
Telephone Patent“, Spektrum der Wissenschaft, Telephone Patent“, Spektrum der Wissenschaft,
August 1981.August 1981.
Independent of each other Alexander Graham Bell Independent of each other Alexander Graham Bell
and Elisha Gray handed in nearly identical and Elisha Gray handed in nearly identical
construction plans for a telephone in 1976 – but only construction plans for a telephone in 1976 – but only
Bell received the patent and became rich and Bell received the patent and became rich and
famous. famous. Gray on the other hand had misjudged the Gray on the other hand had misjudged the
importance of his invention and had moreover been importance of his invention and had moreover been
badly advised.badly advised.

59. INTERVIEW with German translator of Popular INTERVIEW with German translator of Popular
Science Texts (Scientific American/Spektrum der Science Texts (Scientific American/Spektrum der
Wissenschaft)Wissenschaft)
““A bit more rational strength, a bit more: A bit more rational strength, a bit more:
what can we really do and what do we really what can we really do and what do we really
know? What can we really build on? Many know? What can we really build on? Many
popular science texts written in English, when popular science texts written in English, when
you translate them, you notice that they are you translate them, you notice that they are
written totally imprecise. You consume them written totally imprecise. You consume them
in a way for your entertainment, and if you in a way for your entertainment, and if you
realize that then you don’t find it so bad. But realize that then you don’t find it so bad. But
try to get this into German! The English try to get this into German! The English
language actually permits you to express language actually permits you to express
yourself much more imprecisely, then yourself much more imprecisely, then
everything is like chewing gum with a taste everything is like chewing gum with a taste
of science…”of science…”

60. 5. Global English and Cultural 5. Global English and Cultural
Filtering Filtering

Globalisation has created a demand for texts Globalisation has created a demand for texts
simultaneously meant for recipients in many simultaneously meant for recipients in many
different contexts. They are either translated different contexts. They are either translated
covertly or produced simultaneously as covertly or produced simultaneously as
‘comparable texts’. In the past, translators ‘comparable texts’. In the past, translators
routinely applied a cultural filter. Due to the global routinely applied a cultural filter. Due to the global
dominance of English, there is now a tendency dominance of English, there is now a tendency
towards cultural “neutralism” - towards cultural “neutralism” - which is in reality which is in reality
a drift towards (universal) Anglo-American norms. a drift towards (universal) Anglo-American norms.

61. 
While Anglophone influence is amply documented While Anglophone influence is amply documented
in the area of words and phrases, we know very in the area of words and phrases, we know very
little about what happens at the levels of text and little about what happens at the levels of text and
context. However, investigating textual shifts from context. However, investigating textual shifts from
local contexts towards pseudo-neutral Anglo-local contexts towards pseudo-neutral Anglo-
contexts is an important research task.contexts is an important research task.
A first step in this direction is the project “Covert A first step in this direction is the project “Covert
Translation” at Hamburg’s Research Center on Translation” at Hamburg’s Research Center on
Multilingualism. Here we investigate Anglophone Multilingualism. Here we investigate Anglophone
influence on translations and comparable texts in influence on translations and comparable texts in
other languages, using quantitative and qualitative other languages, using quantitative and qualitative
diachronic analyses on the basis of multilingual diachronic analyses on the basis of multilingual
corpora, interviews, and ethnographic background corpora, interviews, and ethnographic background
material.material.

62. 
Covert Translation Covert Translation Corpus Corpus
I: Primary Translation Corpus: Translations of English Texts into German, I: Primary Translation Corpus: Translations of English Texts into German,
French, Spanish (later Chinese, Persian, Arabic)French, Spanish (later Chinese, Persian, Arabic)
Two Genres:Two Genres:
Popular Science Texts Popular Science Texts
Economic Texts Economic Texts
-Business-/Product Information-Business-/Product Information
-Letters to Shareholders-Letters to Shareholders
-Visions and Missions-Visions and Missions
II: Comparable Corpus: English, German, French, Spanish (later Chinese, II: Comparable Corpus: English, German, French, Spanish (later Chinese,
Persian, Arabic)Persian, Arabic)
Authentic original texts in the same genresAuthentic original texts in the same genres
III: Validation CorpusIII: Validation Corpus
1.1.Translations into English using the same genres Translations into English using the same genres
2.2.Interviews with Translators,Translation Commissioners, Editors Interviews with Translators,Translation Commissioners, Editors
3.3.Background Documents, e.g. Business PR MaterialsBackground Documents, e.g. Business PR Materials
4.4.Press Corpus (Translation Corpus + Comparable Corpus)Press Corpus (Translation Corpus + Comparable Corpus)
International Dailies International Dailies International Herald Tribune, Financial International Herald Tribune, Financial
Times, GlobTimes, Globalized Magazines: alized Magazines: National GeographicNational Geographic

63. 
The analyses show that German communicative The analyses show that German communicative
preferences –unlike French and Spanish ones! – have preferences –unlike French and Spanish ones! – have
indeed changed over the past 25 years indeed changed over the past 25 years
(Two time frames: 1978-1982 and 1999-2002; 550 (Two time frames: 1978-1982 and 1999-2002; 550
texts, 800 000 words) texts, 800 000 words)

Particularly vulnerable are the functional categories Particularly vulnerable are the functional categories
pronouns, conjunctions, pronominal adverbials, pronouns, conjunctions, pronominal adverbials,
mental verbs and modal particles. They trigger mental verbs and modal particles. They trigger
changes in text norms changes in text norms

There is a general tendency towards colloquialisation There is a general tendency towards colloquialisation
in German texts - where formerly a more ‘scientific’, in German texts - where formerly a more ‘scientific’,
‘serious’ norm was the rule in popular science and ‘serious’ norm was the rule in popular science and
economic texts, and a cultural filter enabled German economic texts, and a cultural filter enabled German
readers to be informed in a more detached manner readers to be informed in a more detached manner
rather than the entertaining person-oriented Anglo-rather than the entertaining person-oriented Anglo-
manner.. All this, it seems, is now changing.manner.. All this, it seems, is now changing.

64. Non-Filter ExamplesNon-Filter Examples

Michael Rose: “Can Human Ageing be Postponed?” Michael Rose: “Can Human Ageing be Postponed?”
Scientific AmericanScientific American, December 1999, Backtranslated , December 1999, Backtranslated
from German March 2000 “Can Human Ageing be Held from German March 2000 “Can Human Ageing be Held
up?” Spektrum der Wissenschaft up?” Spektrum der Wissenschaft
Anti-ageing therapiesAnti-ageing therapies of the future will undoubtedly of the future will undoubtedly
have to counter many destructive biochemical have to counter many destructive biochemical
processes at once.processes at once.

EEffective therapiesffective therapies must however take up the fight must however take up the fight
against many destructive biochemical processes against many destructive biochemical processes
simultaneously.simultaneously.

65. 
Ian Tattersall: “Once we were not alone”, Ian Tattersall: “Once we were not alone”,
Scientific AmericanScientific American, January 2000, , January 2000,
Backtranslated from German, Spektrum der Backtranslated from German, Spektrum der
Wissenschaft, March 2000Wissenschaft, March 2000

As far as can be told, these two hominids As far as can be told, these two hominids
behaved in similar ways despite anatomical behaved in similar ways despite anatomical
differences. differences. AndAnd as long as they did so, they as long as they did so, they
somehow contrived to share the Levantine somehow contrived to share the Levantine
environment.environment.
As far as As far as wewe can judge this, both hominids can judge this, both hominids
behaved in a similar way despite all their behaved in a similar way despite all their
anatomicalanatomical differences. differences. AndAnd as long as both as long as both
stayed that way, they also succeeded in stayed that way, they also succeeded in
sharing the environment in the Near East.sharing the environment in the Near East.

66. 
Hans Moravecs, “Rise of the Robots”, Scientific Hans Moravecs, “Rise of the Robots”, Scientific
American, December 1999, Backtranslation from American, December 1999, Backtranslation from
German Spektrum der Wissenschaften “Robots will German Spektrum der Wissenschaften “Robots will
overtake us”January 2000overtake us”January 2000
Nevertheless, Nevertheless, I am convincedI am convinced that ... By 2040, that ... By 2040, II
believe, believe, wewe will finally achieve the original goal of will finally achieve the original goal of
robotics robotics andand a thematic mainstay of science a thematic mainstay of science
fiction: …Why do fiction: …Why do II believe that rapid progress and believe that rapid progress and
stunning accomplishments are in the offing?stunning accomplishments are in the offing?

Despite previous failuresDespite previous failures I am convinced that.... I am convinced that....
By 2040 By 2040 we will, so I think, we will, so I think, have finally reached have finally reached
the great goal which has also been often praised in the great goal which has also been often praised in
science fiction...How doscience fiction...How do I I come to be so optimistic come to be so optimistic
and believe…and believe…

67. 
Jill Tarter and Christopher Chyba „Is Life elsewhere in Jill Tarter and Christopher Chyba „Is Life elsewhere in
the universe?” Scientific American December 1999 the universe?” Scientific American December 1999
At a minimum At a minimum wewe will have thoroughly explored the will have thoroughly explored the
most likely candidates, something most likely candidates, something wewe cannot claim cannot claim
today. today. WeWe will have discovered will have discovered whether life dwellswhether life dwells
on Jupiter’s moon Europa or on Mars. Andon Jupiter’s moon Europa or on Mars. And we we will will
have undertaken the systematic exobiological have undertaken the systematic exobiological
exploration of planetary systems…exploration of planetary systems…

““Is there extra-terrestral life?“ Spektrum der Is there extra-terrestral life?“ Spektrum der
Wissenschaft March 2000, backtranslated Wissenschaft March 2000, backtranslated
We We will at least have thoroughly examined the most will at least have thoroughly examined the most
likely candidates, something likely candidates, something wewe cannot yet claim cannot yet claim
today. Until then today. Until then wewe will for example find out will for example find out
whether we willwhether we will find traces of life on the Jupiter find traces of life on the Jupiter
moon Europa or on Mars. And moon Europa or on Mars. And wewe will have begun to will have begun to
systematically and biologically investigate extrasolar systematically and biologically investigate extrasolar
planets…planets…

68. 
While there is then some evidence that cultural While there is then some evidence that cultural
filtering is replaced by “All-Anglo Norms”, filtering is replaced by “All-Anglo Norms”,
we cannot be sure that the dissolution of we cannot be sure that the dissolution of
the natural ties between texts and their local the natural ties between texts and their local
contexts is traceable to hegemonic English via contexts is traceable to hegemonic English via
translation processes translation processes

It might for instance be the case that the observed It might for instance be the case that the observed
changes reflect a current changes reflect a current general general (media-induced? (media-induced?
youth-culture conditioned?) tendency for texts to youth-culture conditioned?) tendency for texts to
become more colloquial, more oral, become more colloquial, more oral,
more ,personal’! more ,personal’!

69. 
The changes in the link between text and The changes in the link between text and
context can presently not be definitively context can presently not be definitively
explained. Much more empirical research explained. Much more empirical research
is needed - with different genres, different is needed - with different genres, different
language pairs and larger diachronic language pairs and larger diachronic
corpora - before plausible hypotheses can corpora - before plausible hypotheses can
be formulated that might explain how be formulated that might explain how
global English changes the link between global English changes the link between
texts and their local contexts.texts and their local contexts.