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First Edition, 2009

ISBN 978 93 80075 61 7

© All rights reserved.

Published by:

Global Media
1819, Bhagirath Palace,
Chandni Chowk, Delhi-110 006
Email: [email protected]

Table of Contents

1. Computer Fundamentals

2. Operating System

3. Networking

4. Html

5. Dbms & Rdbms

6. FoxPro

7. Structured System Analysis and Design

8. Information Concepts

9. System Concepts

10. Management Information System

11. Decision Support System

12. Enterprise Resource Planning

13. Role of IT in Hotels

14. Microsoft Word

15. Microsoft Excel

16. Microsoft Powerpoint

17. Internet

18. Appendices-1

19. Appendices-2

1

Computer Fundamentals

Anyone who has lived in a modern society within the last few years is aware of what a
computer is. We all have seen them, and we have all used them. Even though we know
what a computer looks like, and we might know something about what it does, there are
some puzzling things about the nature of this machine that make understanding it a little
more elusive than other machines. In this section, we will examine what actually happens
deep inside the computer and see how it really works. Computers are almost completely
universal, capable of doing all kinds of complex processes. The simple tasks are
combined in complex ways to make the computer capable of performing complicated
jobs. Computers deal with every kind of information from words to numbers to pictures
and music.
A computer is composed of hardware and software ,and can exist in a variety of sizes
and configuratons.
Therefore, a computer can be defined in this way: “A computer is a universal information
manipulator”.
Definition of Computer

Computer is a fast and accurate electronic data manipulating device that’s designed to
automatically accept and store data (input), process them and produce results (output)
under the direction of a stored set of instructions/programs.

Or

“A Computer is a tool or an instrument that can perform the computations fast and
accurately using the precise instructions given to it by a human user.”

Or

“An electronic device for the storage and processing of information”

Or

“A computer is a device or machine for making calculations or controlling operations
that are expressible in numerical or logical terms”

Or

“An electronic device that performs pre-defined or programmed computations at a high
speed and with great accuracy; a machine that is used to store, transfer, and transform
information”

Information
1. Computers are designed to work with information.
2. Information is more conceptual. Numbers, words, and instructions are good
examples of information.
3. The input given by means of some input device (Examples: keyboard, mouse,
modem, scanner) to the computer is called data.
4. This data is processed by the computer i.e. several manipulations of data is done.
5. Output is the way the computer communicates the results to us. It is displayed
through output devices. e.g. Monitor, Printer, Plotter etc.
6. The processed data (or output) so obtained or we can say the meaningful data
obtained after it’s processing is called Information.

Full Form of Term “COMPUTER”: -

Commonly Operating Machine Purposely Used For Training Education &
Research

Characteristics & limitations

1. SPEED :-

As computer is an electronic device. It’s internal speed is virtually
instantaneous. They can process millions of instructions per second. The
unit of measuring computation time is-

• Microsec (millionths of a second)
• Nannosec (thousand-millionths of a sec)
• Picosec (Million-Millionths of a sec)
Therefore, The computer can work much faster than human beings. In a
computer, a specialized oscillator, called the clock, serves as a sort of
pacemaker for the microprocessor. Today's personal computers run at a
clock speed in the hundreds of megahertz (MHz) and some exceed one
gigahertz (GHz). The clock speed is determined by a quartz-crystal and is
an important factor in determining the rate at which a computer can
perform instructions.
The speed of computer is closely related to the amount of data it processes.
The terms used to describe the amount of data handled by a computer
system are volume and frequency. Volume represents the overall quantity
of data and frequency describes how often a specific data item is used in
processing.

2. AUTOMATION :-

For doing every work, computer requires or needs a human user.
Once a program is in the computer’s memory, the individual
instructions are then transferred, one after the other to the control
unit for execution. It simply means that computers are not
intelligent as human beings. They always need to be
programmed by a human being.

1. VERSATILITY OR MULTIPURPOSE :-

Computers are capable of performing almost any task, provided that
the task can be reduced to a series of logical steps. This is because, the
computer has only limited ability and it can perform only four basic
functions-
1. Input/output operations.
2. Text manipulation & calculation
3. Logic/comparison operations
4. Storage and retrieval operations

Computers can do a variety of jobs depending upon the instructions fed
to them and their hardware characteristics. Modern computers can be
used in railways, air reservations systems, process controls, nuclear
reactors, manufacturing plants, scientific laboratories, hospitals and
hotels etc.

3. ACCURACY :

The accuracy of computers is consistently high. The circuits in a
computer have no mechanical parts to wear and malfunction.
Almost without exception, the errors in computer are due to human
rather than to technological weaknesses. This is due to the fact that
human being gives the basic instructions to the computer for
carrying out various operations. But, modern computers have a
special error detecting and error correcting features, due to which
they have become highly accurate.

4. DILIGENCE :

Being a machine, a computer does not suffer from the human traits of
tiredness and lack of concentration
Diligence is the property by virtue of which a computer can work
continuously without getting tired & without loosing concentration.
e.g. If five million calculations have to be performed, it will perform
the 5 millionth calculation with the same accuracy & speed as the
first.

5. MEMORY AND STO RAGE :

Memory is that area in computer where the storage of data takes
place. A computer can store unlimited data. The stored data can be
retrieved back easily in fraction of seconds.

The information is stored in the form of files, but on disks and
tapes. This helps in easy and speedy retrieval of information. This
storage is known as electronic storage system. For example, in a
company or an organization the details of employees are given
such as name, address, basic salary, unique code number etc., that
may be required by accounts department as well as personnel
department. In case, an employee resigns or is promoted, then the
updation of the information is required only once and at one place.
Now a days standard storage capacity of a computer is in the range
of 20 GB-100 GB.

6. PROGRAMMABILITY :

Computers can do nearly anything with information, but they have to be
taught (by humans, for now) how to store and manipulate that information.
They can only do what we teach them to do. Programmers obviously do a
lot of this teaching, but users do, too. If we can imagine how to translate
an operation into the core operations, we can get a computer to do it. This
process is the art of programming and using a computer. Likewise, if we
can imagine how any value can be represented digitally, we can teach a
computer how to store and manipulate that value.
Using computer languages like C, C++, Java etc, a program can be
developed for accomplishing a certain task. Do you know? What is
Program? Program is basically a group of instructions given to the
computer.

LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER-:

As the speed and size of computing technology continues to improve, we are seeing
fewer and fewer technical limitations. We can already make computers do many kinds of
operations by combining the ones we have. The hardware is not the limiting factor in
computing. The limiting factor is absence of following human traits-
1 Cannot think.
2 Cannot learn by experience.
3 Cannot take independent decisions i.e. requires human
intervention to do each and every step.

Computer Applications

1 BUSINESS :-

• Computers began their business careers in the banking and
insurance industries, where massive amounts of data have
to be processed daily. Computers are used in banks for
magnetic coding of checks, and for the ATM facility.
• Credit cards are used for automatic and instantaneous
banking transactions through computers.
• The concept of “bank anywhere, anytime” depends on the
computer based expansion of EFT (Electronic Fund
Transfer) technology.
• A person can perform all the banking transactions sitting at
home via Internet.
• Computers are used for almost all aspects of business
administration bookkeeping, accounting, inventory control,
forecasting and record keeping.
• In the field of Office Autom ation, computers
interconnected by telecommunication are applied to such
tasks as the text and document processing and keeping in
touch with the outside world through electronic mail and
information browsing.

2 EDUCATION :-

• In Education, Computers are becoming increasingly useful
tools of education. Thus, computers are used for

computation, design and research.
• For some applications, such as routine instructions, they
can be superb adjuncts to the teacher.
• They are ideally suited for self-placed instructions where
the course objectives and contents are well defined.
• Computers are not good at teaching “fuzzy” situations, where tasks cannot be defined in simple terms.
• Virtual libraries are nowadays replacing paper libraries. In
virtual libraries, the books are stored using small silicon
chips. Using computers, student can enter the book name
and thus able to retrieve data from corresponding e-books.
• Used in development of CBT (Computer Based Teaching)
and CAT (Computer Aided Teaching) programs for
education.
• Computers are thus widely used by the students for
developing projects, presentations and even the notes using the audio visual features of computers.
• Various educational publishing houses are successfully
implementing the concept of Educational CDs.
• Teachers can use computers to develop & maintain question banks, test papers and scores of students.

3 HOME :-

• Computers have entered the homes in large numbers.
• Many home computers are used mainly for entertainment but have great potential for education, household
management and household control.
• There are some other examples of some automated systems
like microwave ovens, fully automatic washing machines,
programmable recorders and radios, home security systems
and intelligent telephones. These all are consist of built-in
computing devices.
• Home budget and expenditure analysis can be done using
computers.
• Addresses of friends and relatives can be maintained using electronic address book.
• Meetings can be scheduled using computers.
• PCs are coming in which you can view all your television
channels and even you can pause your program in between
and resume it later.
• Many games can be played using computers like Cricket, Chess, Snooker, Solitaire etc.
• Computers can be used for listening to music and viewing

movies at home.
• Computers can be used to upgrade you with the latest
inventions and news happening round the world using
internet at home.

4 ELECTRONIC MAIL: -

• An electronic system, which can store and deliver message
that, would otherwise be sent through postal services or
over telephone lines.
• Using a computer having Internet connection you can send mails to different people, just sitting at home.

5 FASCIMILE MACHINES :-

• These are used to electronically send copies of documents to distant places.
• Facsimile machines can be connected to computers in order
to send fax using computers.

6 TELECONFERENCING FACILITY :-

• This is an Electronic method of bringing together
geographically apart conferring groups, face to face at the
same time.
• It is a facility where audiovisual equipment like cameras, microphones etc together with communication facilities are
used to hold meeting of various people sitting
geographically apart.
• All the members of the meeting will be able to see and hear
each other, with the help of cameras and microphones,
sitting at their own offices.

7 Weather :-
• To forecast the weather.
8 Hospitals :-
• Computers are widely used in retrieving information of
patients, diseases and drugs etc.
• Used in hospitals and nursing home for maintaining medical records, prescription writing, and diagnostic
applications and computerized scanning (CAT Scanning).
• Doctors can discuss a disease or problem with his colleagues by using teleconferencing facility.
• Some expert systems have been developed. Although, such systems cannot substitute doctors, however they can

provide help to doctors. The databases used in these expert
systems need to be checked and updated time to time e.g
MYCIN (expert system for diagnosing Meningitis),
XCON (expert system for diagnosis of Computer
malfunction)
• There are various devices that scans images and diagnose
diseases e.g. Positron Emission Tomography (PET),
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Computerized Axial
Tomography (CAT)
• Computers are also used in pathological tests such as Haemoglobin test, glucose test, white and red blood cell
count etc.
9 Publishing :-
• Nowadays, publishing houses are using several application programs like PageMaker, Word Processing, Corel Draw,
Photoshop etc for designing books, thesis, brochures etc.
• Laser printers are connected to the computers in order to
take out the hard copy or print of the designed material
(textual or pictorial).
• Thus, the final copy produced is sent to the author for proof
reading.
• The errors pointed out by the author are again corrected and then a negative of the actual copy is produced.
• Finally, the negative is used for offset printing. In this way, the mass printing of books is carried out.
• The software package that is specially designed for publishing is DTP. DTP stands for Desktop Publishing. It
consists of PageMaker, Corel Draw and Photoshop.

10 Engineering :-
• Design of any piece of engineering whether an aeroplane,
ship, car, building need the help of computers to eliminate
technical faults and human error.
• Some of the examples are-. CAD (Computer Aided
Designing), CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing), CAE
(Computer Aided Engineering), CAM (Computer Aided
Manufacturing) and CIM (Computer Integrated
Manufacturing)
• Computers are used for guiding spacecrafts on moon.
• Various satellites and spacecraft are launched that need no
intervention of human beings (unmanned satellites or spacecrafts). Thus, such satellites and spacecrafts are
automatically guided and monitored by computers alone.
• Using computers, various equipments are developed that
proves to be beneficial in determining or predicting natural
calamities like volcanoes, earthquakes, hurricanes etc.

Besides this, such equipments can also determine the
impact of these calamities on human beings. E.g. Richter
Scale is used to measure the intensity of an earthquake.

11 Defence :-
• Used to operate war planes, ships, radars and many
advanced weapons.
• ENIAC was the first computer developed for the Army of
US.
• The defence personnel of US Army had developed a
network useful for connecting remote offices of US defence
to communicate with each other. The network was called
ARPANET. This network was upgraded from time to time
to develop a global network of computers i.e. Internet.
• Computers are used to communicate by radio in air, under
water and on surface with land based network.
• Computers can also be used to compute internal shell
trajectories for various distances and weather conditions.
• Computers can also be used as Smart Bombs ie. Missiles
(but that is a destructive use of computers)
• To computerize geographically separated defence
organizations through networking.
• To update the necessary information about the conspiracy
of enemy countries using radars, satellites, transmitters etc.
• In America, MDT (Mobile Data Terminals) are used by the
crime branch that have data regarding the car numbers, car
owners, license numbers etc. Thus, using MDT’s help, the
crime organizations perform their duties efficiently.
• Smart weapons use microprocessor based control systems.
• Computers allow pilot to interact with the entire air-traffic
control system.

Historical Development of Computers

Human beings are different from animals because of the ability to invent tools,
improve upon and make the best use of tools for improving the way of working and
communication etc. The evergreen curiosity of man to invent new things has led the
whole world today to a situation where we have high speed and multipurpose
machines called computers. Machines were invented to help man in his calculations,
to increase his skills of work and speed of work. Calculator was invented for
computing purpose at a speed more than that of a human being. The first truly general
purpose computer was designed to meet the defence need of World War II.

Gradually, the journey from calculator to high-speed computers started and today we
have reached a stage where we will see the fifth generation computers to think like
human beings. That day is not far when computers will perform almost all the tasks
that a human brain can do. Depending upon the needs the man has developed
computers generation after generation. But this is not the end. We have to go miles
and miles ahead to improve the technology and bring computers in our life in such a
way that they become our good friends and help us in day-to-day life. The efforts of
man are on.
The history of evolution of computers will prove the fact that man is capable of doing
much more and bring a revolutionary change as early as possible. From huge size of
computer to very small size computer man has taken around 30 years. This is due to
the microprocessor revolution in last ten years and this revolution has changed the
entire world of computers.

1. ABACUS OR SOROBAN :-

1. The word “abacus” comes to us from a Greek word “abax.”
meaning “sand”
2. It was developed by Egyptians in 450 B.C
3. It was the first actual calculating aid or mechanism. It is
basically a mechanized pebble counter.
4. According to the original concept, abacus is a flat stone covered
with sand (or dust) into which numeric symbols were drawn.
The first abacus was almost certainly based on such a stone,
with pebbles being placed on lines drawn in the sand. Over
time a wooden frame supporting thin sticks, braided hair, or
leather thongs, onto which clay beads or pebbles with holes
were threaded, replaced the stone.

.
2. NAPIER’S BONES :-

1. It is a set of rods used for multiplication.
2. A Scottish mathematician, John Napier
devised it in 1614 A.D.
3. This device was designed by using bones
or wood. He actually inscribed
multiplication tables on strips of wood or
bone.

3. PASCAL’S ARITHMETIC MACHINE :

1. A French mathematician BLAISE PASCAL devised it in 1642.
2. However, Pascal's device could only add and subtract, while multiplication and
division operations were implemented by performing a series of additions or
subtractions. In fact the Arithmetic Machine could really only add, because
subtractions were performed using complement techniques, in which the number to
be subtracted is first converted into its complement, which is then added to the first
number. Interestingly, modern computers also employ similar complement
techniques.
3. It could only perform multiplication by repeated addition and division by repeated
subtraction.

4. LEIBNIZ DEVICE

1. Gottfried von Leibniz developed Pascal’s ideas and devised a machine in 1671.
2. It was a device, which, as well as performing additions and subtractions, could
multiply, divide, and evaluate square roots by series of stepped additions.
3. However, it was not reliable because of insufficient accuracy.

5. PUNCHED CARDS OR HOLLERITH CARDS

1. Herman Hollerith introduced it in early 1800 A.D.
2. The basic principle is the presence of one or the other two states i.e. absence
or presence of a hole in the punched card.
3. Earlier, Hollerith’s cards were punched with round holes. But, the data
storage capacity of such punched card was limited. For example, a Hollerith’s
card supported 45 columns, where each column could be used to represent a
single character value or data value.
4. For further improving pucnched cards, IBM responded by using rectangular
holes, which allowed them to pack 80 columns of data onto each card.
5. Each card contains 12 rows of 80 columns, and each column is typically used
to represent a single piece of data such as a character. The top row is called
the "12" or "Y" row; the second row from the top is called the "11" or "X"
row; and the remaining rows are called the "0" to "9" rows.

IBM 80-column punched card format

a

6. MARK-1 :-

1. It is the first electromechanical computer built by Howard Aiken
with the support of IBM in 1937-44.
2. The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet
long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons.
3. It sounds like a "roomful of ladies knitting."
4. Switches and relays (One of the earliest forms of switches, which
were formed from a metal bar surrounded by a coil of wire) were
used in developing this machine.
5. This machine was based on numbers that were 23 digits wide -- it
could add or subtract two of these numbers in three-tenths of a
second, multiply them in four seconds, and divide them in ten
seconds.
6. Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer,
its architecture was significantly different from modern machines.

7. ENIAC :-
1. It refers to Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator.
2. It is the first general-purpose true electronic computer,
developed using vacuum tubes.
3. J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly devised it at Pennysylvania
University in 1946.
4. It was 10 feet tall, occupied 1,000 square feet of floor- space,
weighed in at approximately 30 tons, and used more than
70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors, 6,000 switches, and 18,000
vacuum tubes.
5. ENIAC required 150 kilowatts of power, which was enough to
light a small town.
6. The major drawback of ENIAC was that it was hard-wired; i.e.
it did not have any internal memory as such. Therefore, it was
needed to be physically programmed by means of switches etc.
7. It also required frequent replacement of burnt out vacuum tubes
(say approximately 19,000 tubes every year)

Classification of Data Processing Devices

? Manual or Mechanical Devices: The
devices, which are based on simple mechanisms and are
powered by hand, are called manual devices. e.g.
Abacus, Slide Rule etc.

Abacus

? Electromechanical Devices: The devices,
which are powered by an electric motor and involve the
usage of switches and relays, are called
electromechanical devices.
e.g. Household appliances, Punched card processing
equipments.

Punched Card Reader

? Electronic Devices: The devices that make
use of electronic components such as transistors,
microprocessors etc. e.g. Personal Computers.

Electronic Devices

Ages & Generations of Computer

AGES OF COMPUTERS :-

1 Dark Age (5000 B.C –1890 A.D) (Manual devices)
2 Middle Age (1890-1944) (Electronmechanical Devices)
3 Modern Age (1944 onwards) (Electronic Devices)

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS :-

YEAR

GENERATION

TECHNOLOGY USED

GRAPHICAL
REPRESENTATION
1946-55 I Valves (Vacuum Tubes or
Diodes)

1955-64 II Transistors

1964-75 III IC (Integrated Circuits) with
LSI (Large Scale Integration)
1976-1990 IV VLSI (Very large scale
integration)

Late
1990’S
V Optic fibre technology to
handle AI (Artificial
Intelligence)

? ZEROTH GENERATION OF COMPUTERS :-

It consists of all the calculating devices discussed here from ABACUS to MARK-II.

? FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS:

The main trends that were started during the time of first generation computers-
1. The first generation computer control was centralized in a single CPU, and all

operations required direct intervention of the CPU.
2. Concepts such as use of virtual memory and index register.
3. Punched cards were used as input device.
4. Magnetic tapes and magnetic drums were used as secondary memory.
5. Binary code or machine language was used for programming.
6. Use of ferrite-core main memory was started during this time.
7. Towards the end due to difficulties encountered in use of machine language as
programming language, the use of symbolic language, which is now called
assembly language started.
8. Assembler, a program, which translates assembly language programs to machine
language, was made.
9. Computer was accessible to only one programmer at a time (Single user
environment.)
10. Advent of von-Neumann architecture.

Disadvantages of I Generation :-

1 Large number of vacuum tubes are used
2 Too bulky in size
3 Generated heat
4 Air conditioning was required
5 Unreliable
6 Frequent Hardware Failure
7 Constant maintenance required.
8 Very expensive
9 Consume more power
10 Not portable.
Advantage of I Generation :-
1. Vacuum tubes were used for internal logic and capacitors were used for storage. Only these electronic components were available during that period.
2. First generation computers could accomplish mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, table reference etc., at a good speed
and these computers were the fastest calculating machines of their time.

Examples of I Generation Computers: -
? ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)
(1946)

Limitation: ENIAC needed to be programmed manually by
setting switches and plugging or unplugging. Thus, passing
instructions to the computer was cumbersome and time-
consuming.

? EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Calculator) (1951)

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
was designed on stored program concept. The concept of
‘stored program’ was developed by Dr. John Van
Neumann. This new concept solved the problem of ENIAC.
The instructions and the data were stored in the binary form
instead of decimal numbers.

? EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator)
(1949)
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) was
developed by Britishers during 1947-1949. Addition was
completed in 1500 microseconds and multiplication was
completed in 4000 microseconds. This machine utilized
stored program concept.

? UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) (1951)

? ACE (Automatic Computer Engine) (National Physics Lab in
1951)

? LEO (Lyons Electronic Office) First Commercial Computer
by M.V Vikies in 1951)

? IAS Machine (New version of EDVAC, built by Von
Neumann) (1952)

IAS Machine

IAS machine has five basic parts-

• Memory
• ALU
• C.U
• Input Unit
• Output Unit

? SECOND GENERATION COMPUTERS:
Transistor: The transistor is an electronic device, which was invented by Bardeen,
Bratain and Shockley in 1951. It consists of three parts, which are called emitter, base
and collector. Semi-conducting materials like silicon are used in manufacturing
transistors. Pure silicon is heavily doped with materials like aluminum, phosphorus,
arsenic, indium etc but these materials must be either trivalent(valency should be three)
or pentavalent (valency should be five).

Disadvantages of II Generation Computers:-

1 Manual Assembling of components required
2 Air conditioning is required
3 Constant maintenance required.
4 Expensive

Advantages Of II Generation :-

1 Smaller size.
2 Less heat generation
3 Less power consumption
4 More reliable
5 Less prompt to hardware failure
6 Faster
7 Portable

8 Low maintenance
9 More advanced in terms of arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU).
10 Computational time reduced from milliseconds to microseconds.

Examples of II Generation:-

? PDP-1, developed by DEC, It was the first minicomputer.
? NCR 304 (National Cash Register)

? THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS:
Chips & ICs : The advent of micro-electronics technology started the method of
integrating large number of circuit elements into very small (less than 5mm square)
surface of silicon known as ‘chips’. This new invention of integrated circuits (ICs)
defines the third generation of computers. Thousands of transistors, capacitors & resistors
could be fabricated on a single wafer of
SSI & MSI : Different circuits are constructed on different wafers. The packaged circuit
chips are interconnected on PCB (Printed circuit board) to produce several complex
electronic circuits such as computers, digital diaries etc. Initially, the integrated circuit
contained only 10 to 20 components. This technology was named small-scale
integration (SSI). Later on, with the advancing technology in microelectronics, hundreds
of components were fabricated on a chip. This technology was named medium scale
integration (MSI). Third generation computers mainly used SSI chips.
The major developments of the third generation comput ers are as follows-
1. IC circuits were used
2. Semiconductor (Integrated circuit) memories were used as main memory
3. The CPU design was made simple and a technique called microprogramming (a
scheme where programs controls the generation of signals) was introduced.
4. Multiprocessing & Pipelining techniques were used to reduce execution time of
programs.
5. The operating systems were facilitated with the efficient methods of sharing the
facilities or resources such as processor and memory space, automatically.
Disadvantages
1 Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of ICs.
2 Temperature control is required but this requirement is less than that in second
generation computers.
Advantages of III Generation:
1 Even smaller size as compared to second generation computers

2 Lower heat generation
3 Less power required
4 Computing time reduced from microseconds to nanoseconds.
5 More reliable
6 Faster
7 Portable
8 Low maintenance cost
9 Production is rather easier and cheaper.
Examples of III Generation Computer-

? IBM 360, developed by IBM in 1964.
? PDP-8, developed by DEC in 1965, first mass-market minicomputer.
? PDP-11, developed by DEC in 1970, was the first highly successful
minicomputer.
? CRAY-1, developed by Cray in 1974, first supercomputer.
? VAX, developed by DEC in 1978.

? FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTERS:

With the rapid advancement of IC technology, it became possible to integrate 30,000
components on a single chip. This technology was known as Large Scale Integration
(LSI). Efforts are still on for integrating more than 1 million components on a single chip.
This technology is known as Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI).
Disadvantage of IV Generation: None
Advantages of IV Generation:

10

10) Even smaller size
11 Negligible heat generation
12 No AC (Air conditioner) required
13 Less power required
14 More reliable
15 Faster
16 Portable
17 Low maintenance cost

18 Production is rather easier and cheaper.
19 Chances of hardware failure are very low and hence, minimal maintenance is
required.

Examples of IV Generation:-

1 IBM PC developed in 1981, having Intel 8088 memory chip.
2 IBM PC/AT developed in 1982, having Intel 80286 chip.
3 386, developed in 1985 having Intel 80386 chip.
4 CRAY-2, developed in 1985, was the fourth generation
supercomputer.
5 486, developed in 1989, had Intel 80486 memory chip.
6 Pentium, developed in 1995, has Pentium (80586) memory chip.

? FIFTH GENERATION COMPUTERS :-

These are some of the limitations of fourth generation computers. Unlike the human brain
a computer cannot think on its own, cannot learn by experience and cannot handle real-
time situations. It has to be given step-by-step instructions to make it perform a task.
Scientists are working on the fifth generation computers.
The main aim of the development of fifth generation computers will be to bring about
machines with genuine I.Q i.e. the ability to reason logically, and the real knowledge of
the world.

In such computers, technology of AI (Artificial Intelligence) is used for making “expert
systems” which can perform tasks with as much intelligence as the human beings i.e.
they have special abilities to think and make decisions.
Japanese have named fifth generation computers as KIPS (Knowledge Information
Processing System)
1 Common characteristics of expert systems-

o Performance is almost equivalent to an human expert.
o Explain their reasoning
o Can provide alternative solutions to a problem

2 Artificial Intelligence: AI is concerned with designing and programming
machines to accomplish tasks that represent intelligent behavior. Recently, AI
technology is used to determine how to program computers for learning and
discovery. The development of intelligent programs employs databases and
complex set of rules.

3 Virtual Reality: It is a concept that is helpful in analyzing the practical aspect
of a thought or an imagination. Thus, it is a way for humans to visualize,
manipulate and interact with computers and extremely complex data. e.g. Air
traffic control systems, engine simulators etc. It is the other name given to
Artificial Reality. Virtual Reality is also called Cyberspace or Simulator
technology.

4 Example: Yet to develop, but ROBOTS have a few feature of fifth generation
computers.
o e.g.1 a robot has been developed in Tokyo, which is named as Piplio. The
special feature of this robot is that it can recognize the voice and faces of
human beings)

o e.g. 2 a ballroom dance partner (lady) robot

Courtesy: Eddidraws

COMPARITIVE FEATURES OF VARIOUS GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

CRITERIA I GEN. II GEN. III GEN. IV GEN. V GEN.
Basic
Electronic
component
Vacuum Tubes or
Valves
Transistors
circuits
Integrated
Circuits (IC)
with LSI
IC with
VLSI
IC with ULSI
Speed Slowest Slow Medium Faster Fastest
Size Largest Large Medium Smallest Medium
Reliability Unreliable Less Reliable More Reliable Most judge Yet to
Availability Out-dated Out-dated Out-dated Current Yet to build

Human Brain Vs Computer

Similarity :-

1 Both use electrical signals.
2 Both transmit information.
3 Both have a memory that can grow.
4 Both have evolved over time.
5 Both can adapt and learn.
6 Both need energy.
7 Both can be damaged.
8 Both can do math and other logical task.
9 Both brains and computers are studied by scientist.

Differences :-

SNO.

HUMAN
BRAIN

COMPUTER
1 The brain uses chemicals to
transmit information.
The computer uses electricity.

2 The electrical signals travel at high
speeds in the nervous system.
Comparitively much faster rate of
traveling of signals.

3 A neuron in the brain is either on
or off by either firing an action
potential or not firing an action
potential.
A computer uses switches that are
either on or off.

4 A human memory in the brain
grows by stronger synaptic
connections.
Computer memory grows by adding
computer chips.

5 It is much easier and faster for the
brain to learn new things
The computer can do multiple
complex tasks at the same time,
which are difficult for the brain.

6 The brain needs nutrients like
oxygen and sugar for power.
The computer needs electricity to
keep working.

7 The brain is always changing and
being modified. There is no “off”
for the brain- even when an animal
is sleeping, it’s brain is still active
and working.
The computer only changes when
new hardware or software is added
or something is saved in the
memory. There is an “off” for a
computer. When the power is turned
off, signals are not transmitted.

8 The brain is better at interpreting
the outside world and coming up
with new ideas. The brain is
capable of imagination.
The computer is faster at doing
logical computations

Calculator Vs Computer

Sno

CALCULATOR

COMPUTER
1. Performs mathematical calculations Performs mathematical and logical
calculations
2. Operate at high speed Operates at incredibly faster speed
3. Small temporary memory Large or permanent memory
4. No facility for secondary storage Various secondary storage devices are
available
5. Needs an operator continuously Once initiated, is capable of functioning
automatically.
6. Handles small data in the form of
calculation
Handles large volume of data from
highly complex operations

CYBERPHOBIA: - Some people are scared of using the
computers. It is known as cyber phobia.

Components / Elements of Computer

The entire computer system is classified into two-

1 Central Processing Unit
2 Peripheral devices connected to and controlled by the CPU

Hierarchical Representa tion of Elements of
Computer

Hardware Concepts

The term hardware refers to the physical components of computer i.e. it includes the
touchable and visible parts of the computer. It consists of all the electrical and
mechanical components of the computer.

The basic functions performed by hardware are as follows-

1 Accepts and store data

2 Process the data accepted
3 Output the processed result

Peripherals or Peripherals Devices: All those devices which can be connected to
the computer (or CPU) externally are called peripherals or peripheral devices.

Peripheral devices includes-

1 Input Devices
2 Output Devices
3 Storage Devices

Input Devices:

Input devices are those devices through which data can be fed into the computer. In other
words, Input devices accepts data from outside world and converts the data in binary
form (acceptable by computer) and finally sends it to the computer for further processing.

Examples of Input Devices:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Joystick
4. Light Pen
5. OMR
6. OCR
7. OBCR
8. MICR
9. Speech Synthesizer
10. Scanner
11. Digitizers
12. Floppy Disk Reader
13. Microphones
14. WebCam

KEYBOARD

1. Keyboard is called “QWERTY” Keyboard because the alphabetical keys are
arranges so that the upper left row of letter begins with the following six letters- Q
W E R T Y
2. ASCII codes (i.e. 8 bit code) are supported by QWERTY keyboards. Thus, it
supports 256 characters (2
8
)
3. The keys of computer can be divided among the following categories-
a. Alphabetical keys (A – Z)
b. Numeric Keys (0-9)
c. Control Keys (Shift, Ctrl, Del, Enter, Esc & Insert )
d. Functional keys (F1- F12 : these keys have different functionality in
different software)
e. Multimedia keys
f. Utility keys (PrintScreen, Pause/Break, PageUp, PageDown)

MOUSE

1. The mouse is basically a pointing device.
2. It is an input device, but instead of sending character to the CPU, it sends the

2) coordinates of the point on the screen, at which the mouse pointer is placed or
clicked.
3. The mouse has a roller underneath, which enables it to move across a flat surface
and thus leading to change in the cursor position on the screen correspondingly.
4. The mouse may be mechanical or optical and comes in many shapes and sizes.
5. There may be two or three buttons on the mouse.
6. With a mouse, you can draw, select options from a menu and modify or move
text.
7. Commands are issued by pointing with the pointer and clicking a mouse button.
8. Left mouse button is generally used for clicking and double clicking. Right mouse
button (i.e. right click) is used to open and selecting pop-up or context menus

JOYSTICK

1. The joystick is also a pointing device like mouse, but it is normally used in
games.
2. In joystick, a stick can be moved right, left, backward or forward.
3. The electronics in joystick measures the movement of the stick from its central
position and sends the information for processing.

LIGHT PEN

1.

1) It is a pointing device that can be used to point to areas on the screen and to
choose a menu option.
2. The pen consists of a photocell placed in a tube.
3. With this device, the user can directly communicate with PC without using
keyboard or mouse.
4. A pen can be used to draw pictures on the screen and saves time when trying to
produce accurate screen designs.

OMR

1. OMR stands for Optical Mark Reader.

2. It is an optical scanner that employs light source and sensors for reading
information recorded on paper.
3. This device can recognize pen/pencil marks.
4. It is basically used for objective answer sheets evaluation or processing of forms
on a large scale basis.

OCR

1. OCR stands for Optical Character Reader.
2. It can read typewritten document i.e. used for evaluating telephone bills or
objective papers
3. OCR optically reads and scans the written data, converts it into electrical codes
and finally transmits to the computer very speedily.

OBCR

1. It stands for Optical Bar Code Reader.
2. It is used for reading the Universal Product Code and prices, directly from the bar
code imprinted on the packets of the consumer products like grocery, books, toys
etc.

MICR

1. It stands for Magnetic Ink Character Recognition.
2. It is used in banks to process huge number of cheques in banks.
3. When the cheque is paid in at a bank it undergoes a chain of processing events
and only then is money transferred from one bank account to another. The method
of processing the cheque is called cheque clearing. This normally takes several
days.
4.

4) The numbers at the bottom of the cheque are written in special magnetic ink.
These are :
a. the account number
b. the branch number
c. cheque number
5. The cheques with the characters marked in ink are passed through a magnetic
field where the ink coded characters (like amount of the cheque, signature of the
account holder etc) get magnetized due to iron deposits in the ink. These are then
sensed by the MICR. This process is of reading characters written in magnetic ink
is called MICR or Magnetic Ink Character Recognition.

SPEECH SYNTHESIZER

1. Voice-input system is one of the recent ways of inputting data.
2. The device has a microphone through which spoken words are input to the
computer.
3. Within the computer, there is a pre-stored vocabulary of about 100 to 200 words
in the form of a typical “sound patterns”
4. The voice input word is then recognized and compared with the vocabulary stored
inside.
5. These devices are used in those areas of applications where one may not be free to
use keyboards e.g. laboratories, quality control or even the disabled.

SCANNER

1. Scanner is a device that is capable of reproducing a drawing or a picture from a
page on to the computer.
2. When the picture or any text is scanned with the light, it is broken into light and
dark dots.
3. These are then converted into digital form for storage into computer.
4. Recently developed scanners use laser beam to create high-resolution color and
black & white photograph.
5. The electronic components used by the scanner are-
a. CCDs (Charged –coupled devices)
b.

PMTs (Photo-multiplier tube)
c. CISs ( Contact image sensors)

6. Scanners can be differentiated by their resolution.
7. Types of Scanners-
d. Drum Scanners
e. Sheet-fed Scanners
f. Flatbed Scanners
g. Handheld Scanners

DIGITIZERS OR DIGITIZER TABLET :-

1. Digitizers are also used for graphical work.
2. It is actually a work surface which has a grid of electric wires set in. The grid is
connected to PC.

3. With a special pen, the user draws lines on a paper placed on the tablet. As the
pen moves, the grid senses the exact position of the pen and signals to the PC.
4. Even the users, who do not have a very steady hand, will be able to draw straight
lines because PC will straighten the irregular lines also.

FLOPPY DISK READER:-

1.

1) Data recorded on a floppy disk is read and stored in a computer’s memory by a
device called floppy disk reader.
2. A floppy disk is inserted in the slot of the floppy drive.
3. The disk is rotated at around 360 r.p.m.
4. A reading head is positioned touching a track.
5. A voltage is induced in a coil wound on the head when a magnetized spot moves
below the head.
6. The polarity of voltage when a 1 is read is opposite to the voltage when a 0 is
read.
7. The voltage sensed by the head coil is amplified, converted to appropriate signals
and stored in the computer’s memory.

MICROPHONES

1. It is also called “mic” (pronounced as “mike”)
2. It is a device which converts sound into electrical representation of the sound
wave, which can be amplified and recorded. It lets the user record speech and
sound into the computer.

WEBCAM

1. A webcam is a real-time camera that is connected to a computer, either directly or
wirelessly and gathers a series of images for remote display elsewhere.
2. It is called webcam because the images generated by it can be accessed and
displayed on the World Wide Web through a web server.
3. Web cams are often used personally at home or used for videoconferencing.

Output Devices

Output devices are those devices through which output or processed information can be
obtained. In other words, output devices accepts data in binary form from the computer
and converts the coded data to human acceptable form and finally outputs the converted
result to the outside world.

Examples of Output Devices

1. Monitor or V.D.U (Visual Display Unit)
2. Printer
3. Plotter
4. Microfiche

MONITOR

1. A monitor is also called V.D.U or Visual Display Unit.
2. Monitors can be MONOCHROME (black & white) or color models (V.G.A :
visual graphics adapter)
3. An RGB monitor has three color guns, which shoot the colors simultaneously,
producing a broader color range.
4. On the screen, PIXELS or PICTURE ELEMENTS (tiny dots or points) are
present which can be illuminated by highly focused electron beam. These tiny
dots are illuminated in such a pattern that we recognize the characters or the

objects.
5. To avoid the fading of a picture displayed on the screen, the screen is coated with
PHOSPHOR to retain the light.
6. Technologies used in Monitors may be – CRT (cathode ray tube) or LCD (Liquid
Crystal Display).

EFT Monitors: EFT stands for Eye Fresh Technology. This technology is first
launched by Samsung. EFT Monitors are available in 15 and 17 inches. It is based on
unique Magic Green technology. The monitor have a vital coating on the rear that emits
anions and far infra red rays that serve to make the environment fresh, relax the human
body & ease the strain on human eyes. The Silver Nano coating serves to remove odor
from the environment making air fresh and clean. The technology offers specialized
setting from highly used applications- Movie mode, Game mode, Internet mode & Text
mode. This technique is used for both the categories of monitors – CRT & LCD.

DIFFERENCE BETW EEN CRT MONITORS & LCD
MONITORS

Sno. CRT MONITORS

LCD MONITORS
1. CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display
2. It is too bulky ( approx.13-23 kg) It is comparatively less bulky ( i.e. 4.5 kg)
3. It has comparatively higher depth It is only 1-3 inch thick.
4. It is based on P assive-Matrix
technology.
It is based on Active-Matrix technology.
5. It produces comparatively less sharper
images.
It produces sharp images.
6. It is comparatively less brighter It is more brighter (brightness is measured
in Nits)
7. It consumes more electricity. It consumes only one-third to one-half the
electricity of their CRT counter parts.
8. The standard size varies from 15 – 21
inch or large; though the actual
viewing screen will be about one inch
smaller than the rated size.
It’s standard size also varies from 15 -21
inch or large; though the viewing screen is
the same size as the rated display.

PRINTER

Printers are the primary and the most popular output devices used to prepare permanent
documents or Hard copy for human use. The speed of printing is measured in either cps
(characters per second) or ppm (pages per minute). The output produced by printers is
said to be either letter quality (as good as a typewriter), near letter quality, or draft
quality. Only daisy-wheel, ink-jet, and laser printers produce letter-quality type. Some
printers (daisy-wheel and line printers) can print only text. Other printers can print both
text and graphics. Some printers, notably dot-matrix printers, are limited to one or a few
fonts. In contrast, laser and ink-jet printers are capable of printing an almost unlimited
variety of fonts. Daisy-wheel printers can also print different fonts, but you need to
change the daisy wheel, making it difficult to mix fonts in the same document.

Classification of Printers-

• On the Basis of What they Print
• On the Basis of the Mechanism of Printing

On the Basis of What they Print

1. Character Printer: It prints one character at a time. It can print 30 to 400
characters per sec. e.g Dot Matrix Printers, Daisy Wheel Printer, Inkjet Printer
2. Line Printer: It prints one line of text at a time. It can print 300 to 3000 lines per
min e.g. Drum Printers or Chain Printers
3. Page Printer: It prints one page at a time. It can print 8 to 600 pages per minute. It
mostly uses cut sheets instead of continuous stationery. e.g. Laser Printer

On the Basis of Mechanism of Printing or How they Print

1 Impact Printers
2 Non-impact Printers

Impact Printer Non-Impact Printer
It uses electromechanical mechanism to cause hammers or pin stud to strike
against a ribbon and paper arrangement
(like typewriter).

It does not have any striking mechanism. It uses chemical, thermal, electrostatic beam
or inkjet technology for printers.
It is comparatively slower than non-
impact printer.

It is comparatively faster than impact printers.
It is too noisy because printing heads strike the paper. It does not make so much noise
It can produce more than once copy simultaneously (using stationery with It cannot produce more than one copy simultaneously.

interleaved carbon)

It is very economical.

It is comparatively expensive.
Print quality is comparatively low.

It has comparatively high print quality.
Examples: Dot Matrix Printers (DMP),
Line Printers, Daisy wheel printer
Examples: Thermal Printer, Laser Printer
& Inkjet Printer

DOT MATRIX PRINTERS

1. Characters are formed from a matrix of dots.
2. Each character is formed as the combination of x dots horizontally and y dots
vertically, so that a matrix of x and y is formed therefore, it is called DMP.
3. The speed is usually 30 - 550 characters per second (cps).
4. This is the cheapest and noisiest of the printer family. The standard of print
obtained is poor.
5. They are useful for low quality carbon copy printing.

DAISY WHEEL PRINTER
1. Molded metal characters like those in a typewriter are mounted on extensions
attached to a rotating wheel and are printed onto the paper by means of a hammer
and print ribbon.
2. The wheel is such that it rotates on its axis and then moves from left to right.
However, the wheels are removable. One can use wheels of different fonts
(because wheels are inexpensive)
3. This results in a great deal of movement and noise during the printing of

documents, so printing is slow (less than 90 cps).
4. The standard of print is similar to that produced by an electric typewriter.

DRUM PRINTER
1. An old line printer technology that used formed character images around a
cylindrical drum as its printing mechanism. When the desired character for the
selected position rotated around to the hammer line, the hammer hit the paper
from behind and pushed it into the ribbon and onto the character. Eg. Cash
Register
2. It has a small drum having a set of characters embossed on the drum, such that
each row belongs to a same character. So, it has a separate row for all characters
to be printed.
3. Printing is little bit wavy because the drum rotates continuously; due to which the
timing between character appearance at the desired position and hammer striking
may vary.
4. Drum is expensive therefore; one user cannot own more than one drum.

INKJET PRINTERS
1.

1) Characters are formed as a result of electrically charged or heated ink being
sprayed in fine jets onto the paper. Individual nozzles in the printing head produce
high resolution (up to 400 dots per inch or 400 dpi) dot matrix characters.
2. Inkjet printers use color cartridges which combine magenta, yellow and cyan inks
to create color tones. A black cartridge is also used for crisp monochrome output.
3. This method of printing can generate up to 200 cps and allows for good quality,

cheap color printing.
4. Being non-impact printers, they cannot print multi copies simultaneously.
5. Cartridges are easily replaceable.
6. It does not produce noise generally.
7. It is quite inexpensive.

THERMAL PRINTERS
1. Characters are formed by heated elements being placed in contact with special
heat sensitive paper forming darkened dots when the elements reach a critical
temperature. A fax machine uses a thermal printer
2. Thermal printer paper tends to darken over time due to exposure to sunlight and
heat. The standard of print produced is poor.
3. Thermal printers are widely used in battery powered equipment such as portable
calculators.

LASER PRINTERS
1. It is similar to a Xerox copier. Laser Printers use a laser beam and dry powdered
ink to produce a fine dot matrix pattern. This method of printing can generate
about 4 pages of A4 paper per minute.

2. The standard of print is very good and laser printers can also produce very good
quality printed graphic images too.
3. A photoconductive drum is initially charged and then a high intensity laser beam
is used to discharge selected areas on the drum. These discharged areas
correspond to the white areas of the printed document.

4. Toner is then applied to the laser exposed areas of drum. So, this whole process
creates an image of paper to the surface of drum. This image is then transferred
and permanently fused on paper, when paper comes in contact with the drum.
After this, the drum is automatically erased before the image of next page.
5. It is suitable for screen printing or Book publishing.
6. It cost ranges 7,000 to 9 lakhs.
7. Both black & white and colored laser printers are available.

PLOTTER

1.

1) Plotter is a graphics printer that draws images with ink pens.
2. These are output devices and are used to produce high resolution graphics and
drawings.
3. It uses one or more pens that can be raised, lowered and moved over the printing
media to draw graphics or text. The heart of the plotter is the printer head
assembly, consisting of a horizontal bar and, attached to it, the head assembly
holding the pen in use. The pen can be positioned horizontally by moving the pen
assembly along the bar. Vertical positioning is achieved by either moving the bar
(stationary page plotter) or the paper (rolling page plotter). Pen plotters are still

the most affordable printing device for CAD use and offer resolution unlike any
other printer. The lines are not made up of dots. They are actually drawn,
providing infinite resolution.
4. There are two types of Plotter-
a. Pen Plotter : In Pen Plotters, a special pen filled with one or more colors
is used for making drawing, diagram etc. In this type of plotter, paper is
fixed and pen moves across the page.
b. Inkjet Plotter : In inkjet plotters, the paper is placed on a drum and a jet of
ink of different colors is mounted on a carriage. In this type of plotter, Pen
is fixed, and paper moves forward and backward on drum.

Memory

A memory is the storage place where data and instructions can be stored into and
retrieved from whenever required by other functional blocks of a computer.

Types of Memory
? Primary Memory
? Secondary Memory

PRIMARY MEMORY: - It refers to computer’s memory. All the information is
processed and stored in chips.

Two Basic Kinds of Memory Chips:-

1 RAM CHIPS
2 ROM CHIPS

RAM CHIPS:-

1 Stands for Random Access Memory.

2 Both reading and writing can take place; therefore it is also called as “Read-
write” memory.
3 It holds information or data temporarily.
4 It is volatile i.e. the data stored in RAM will get lost, if the power is turned off.
5 The word "random" refers to the fact that any piece of data can be returned
quickly, and in a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether or
not it is related to the previous piece of data. This contrasts with storage
mechanisms such as tapes, magnetic disks and optical disks, which rely on the
physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head.

ROM CHIPS:-

1 It stands for Read Only Memory, because only reading can be done; writing is
not allowed.
2 Instructions are permanently imprinted on physical components by the
manufacturer and are not accessible or changeable by the user.
3 It is non-volatile i.e. the data will not get lost, if the power is turned off.
4 It contains the instructions for booting the computer & loading Operating system
from the hard into RAM.

SECONDARY STORAGE DE VICE OR MEDIA:-

Computer’s main memory is the primary storage. Additional storage facilities are needed
to store information and retrieve it as and when it is required. Such storage facilities are
referred as secondary storage media. It is used to store data permanently.
Secondary storage devices are -:
1 Optical disk
2 Magnetic disk ( Hard disk & Floppy Disk)
3 Magnetic tapes

OPTICAL DISK :-

1. An optical is an electronic data storage medium that can be written to and read
using a low-powered laser beam.
2. An optical disk is impressed with a series of spiral pits in a flat surface.
3. It is placed in CD-Drive; it is read by means of laser beam and light detector
which interprets the information etched on the surface of the disk.
4. Optical disks can store more data at lower costs therefore; they are still used as a
complement to magnetic storage media.
5. Examples: CD (Compact disk), DVD (Digital Video Disk)

Advantages:

1 It is physically harder to break or melt or warp.
2 It is not sensitive to being touched, though it can get too dirty or scratched to
be read. It can be cleaned.
3 It is entirely unaffected by magnetic fields.
4 Much powerful & preferred media for distributing software.
5 It can store 600 – 700 MB of data.

STRUCTURE OF COMPACT DISK (CD)

1. The base of CD is a clear hard plastic known as polycarbonate.
2. The top of the plastic disk is coated with a reflective material such as aluminium
that reflects the light of the reading laser. The entire disc is coated with a
protective lacquer & a label is printed on the top of the disc.
3. Disc diameter equals to 120 mm & center hole diameter of the disc is 15 mm.

4. The area closed to the center hole is called clamping area and no data is written in
this area. It is generally 26 mm to 33 mm wide.
5. The data area is approx. 38 mm wide & is divided into three sectors- table of
contents, program area & read-out area (end of disc)
6. Inside a CD is a flat light reflecting layer called "land". On the land are many
"pits" written in a spiral-shaped track. Lands (or reflective surface) and Pits (or
holes) are used to store information.
7. When the laser strikes a land, most of its light is reflected back to the sensor.
When the laser passes a pit, the light is diffused and less is reflected back to the
sensor. The intensity of the light reflected back is converted to the digital signals
your computer reads as 0s and 1s.
8. When you save photos, files, or MP3s to CDs using a CD burner on your PC, you
are also creating lands and pits to store the information.

DVD

1. DVD stands for Digital Video Disk
2. It is a type of optical disk technology similar to the CD-ROM. A DVD holds a
minimum of 4.7 GB of data, enough for a full-length movie.
3. DVDs are commonly used as a medium for digital representation of movies and
other multimedia presentations that combine sound with graphics.

MAGNETIC DISK :- It is a thin circular metal plate coated on both sides with a
magnetic material. It is similar to a gramophone record. It is of two types:-

FLOPPY DISK :-

1. It is made of flexible plastic which is coated with magnetic oxide. Flexible disk is
enclosed within a square plastic referred as cartridge, which gives handling
protection to the disk surface.
2. It is random access storage medium.
3. Data is stored in tracks (concentric) and sectors. Each sector holds 512 Bytes
worth of data.
4. If you open the “write protect slot or notch” then disk becomes write- protected.
It means no data can be stored further on the disk until the notch is closed again.
5. It may be single sided or double sided. But, Single-sided disks are not in use any

more. Floppy drives have two read/write heads – one for each surface. The
position of the heads relative to each other is fixed.
6. Density is the number of bytes that can be stored on each track. Double density
diskettes are no longer common. They are generally labelled DD or 2D. High
density disks are usually labelled HD
7. All disk drives have indicator lights that show when the disk is actually being
used. A diskette should never be removed while this light is on. You should
always glance at this light before removing a diskette.

Size Density
Tracks per
Side
Sectors
Storage
Capacity
5.25" Double 40 9 360 K
5.25" High 80 15 1.2 MB
3.5" Double 80 9 720 K
3.5" High 80 18 1.44 MB

Size : The first floppy developed was of 8 inches. Generally, it comes in two
size :-
• 5.25 inches
• 3.5 inches (standard size used nowdays; )

The total capacity of a disk is a multiplication of surfaces by tracks by sectors. So, a
3.5" high density disk can hold 2 x 80 x 18 x 512 = 1,474,560 bytes (1,024 = 1,440K).

HARD DISK :-

1. Hard disks are the most popular medium for secondary storage. It is made up of a
metal plate coated on both sides with a magnetic material.
2. It is known as “hard disk” because the plates are made up of metal.

3. A disk pack consists of a no. of these disks (3 or more) mounted about half an
inch apart from each other on a central shaft.
4. Each disk consists of a no. of invisible concentric circles called tracks. The data is
stored as magnetized spots arranged in concentric circles (tracks) on the disk.
Each track is divided into sectors.
5. The number of tracks and sectors on a disk is known as its “format”.
6.

6) Cylinder:. The two or more vertically adjacent tracks form an imaginary cylinder.
7. All the disk of a disk pack moves simultaneously, in the same direction and at
equal speed.
8. Although the length of each track is different but the number of characters stored
in each track is same.
9. The hard disk is direct-access storage medium.
10. As the disk rotates read/write heads move to the correct track.
The disk is sealed and lubricated and the head hovers on a cushion of air just
above the disk to avoid damage. These are therefore called floating heads.
11. Storage Capacity: It generally ranges from 10 to 200 GB.

Some Related Terminology:-
• Access Time :
1. Memory access time: It refers to the time taken by a character in
memory to be transferred to or from the CPU.
2. Disk access time: is an average of the time between initiating a
request and obtaining the first data character.
• Seek Time: The time it takes for a read/write head to move to a specific
data track

• Latency : The time between initiating a request for data and the
beginning of the actual data transfer. On a disk, latency is the time it takes
for the selected sector to come around and be positioned under the
read/write head.

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THE FOURTH BOOKE. [IV.105.]
A.D. 1609
To make Plaine
the True Proceedings of the Historie for 1609. we
must follow the examinations of Doctor
Simons, and two learned Orations
published by the Companie; with
the relation of the Right
Honourable the Lord
De la Ware.
What happened in the first government after the alteration in the time of
Captaine George Piercie their Governour.
The planting Point Comfort.
The day before Captaine Smith returned for England with the ships,
Captaine Davis arrived in a small Pinace, with some sixteene proper men
more: To these were added a company from James towne, under the
command of Captaine John Sickelmore alias Ratliffe, to inhabit Point
Comfort. Captaine Martin and Captaine West, having lost their boats and
neere halfe their men among the Salvages, were returned to James towne;

for the Salvages no sooner understood Smith was gone, but they all
revolted, and did spoile and murther all they incountered. Now wee were all
constrained to live onely on that Smith had onely for his owne Companie,
for the rest had consumed their proportions, and now they had twentie
Presidents with all their appurtenances: Master Piercie our new President,
was so sicke hee could neither goe nor stand. But ere all was consumed,
Captaine West and Captaine Sickelmore, each with a small ship and thirtie
or fortie men well appointed, sought abroad to trade. Sickelmore upon the
confidence of Powhatan, with about thirtie others as carelesse as himselfe,
were all slaine, onely Jeffrey Shortridge escaped, and Pokahontas the Kings
daughter saved a boy called Henry Spilman, that lived many yeeres after, by
her meanes, amongst the Patawomekes. Powhatan still as he found meanes,
cut off their Boats, denied them trade, so that Captaine West set saile for
England. Now we all found the losse of Captaine Smith, yea his greatest
maligners could now curse his losse: as for corne, provision and
contribution from the Salvages, we had nothing but mortall wounds, with
clubs and arrowes; as for our Hogs, Hens, Goats, Sheepe, Horse, or what
lived, our commanders, officers & Salvages daily consumed them, some
small proportions sometimes we tasted, till all was devoured; then swords,
armes, pieces, or any thing, wee traded with the Salvages, whose cruell
fingers were so oft imbrewed in our blouds, that what by their crueltie, our
Governours indiscretion, and the losse of our ships, of five hundred within
six moneths after Captaine Smiths departure, there remained not past sixtie
men, women and children, most miserable and poore creatures; and those
were preserved for the most part, by roots, herbes, acornes, walnuts, berries,
now and then a little fish: they that had startch in these extremities, made no
small use of it; yea, even the very skinnes of our horses. Nay, so great was
our famine, that a Salvage we slew, and buried, the poorer sort tooke
[IV.106.] him up againe and eat him, and so did divers one another boyled
and stewed with roots and herbs: And one amongst the rest did kill his wife,
powdered her, and had eaten part of her before it was knowne, for which
hee was executed, as hee well deserved; now whether shee was better
roasted, boyled or carbonado'd, I know not, but of such a dish as powdered
wife I never heard of. This was that time, which still to this day we called
the starving time; it were too vile to say, and scarce to be beleeved, what we
endured: but the occasion was our owne, for want of providence, industrie
and government, and not the barrennesse and defect of the Countrie, as is

generally supposed; for till then in three yeeres, for the numbers were
landed us, we had never from England provision sufficient for six moneths,
though it seemed by the bils of loading sufficient was sent us, such a glutton
is the Sea, and such good fellowes the Mariners; we as little tasted of the
great proportion sent us, as they of our want and miseries, yet
notwithstanding they ever over-swayed and ruled the businesse, though we
endured all that is said, and chiefly lived on what this good Countrie
naturally afforded; yet had wee beene even in Paradice it selfe with these
Governours, it would not have beene much better with us; yet there was
amongst us, who had they had the government as Captaine Smith
appointed, but that they could not maintaine it, would surely have kept us
from those extremities of miseries. This in ten daies more, would have
supplanted us all with death.
The arrivall of Sir Thomas Gates.
But God that would not this Countrie should be unplanted, sent Sir
Thomas Gates, and Sir George Sommers with one hundred and fiftie people
most happily preserved by the Bermudas to preserve us: strange it is to say
how miraculously they were preserved in a leaking ship, as at large you
may reade in the insuing Historie of those Ilands.
A.D. 1610
The government resigned to Sir Thomas Gates, 1610.
James towne abandoned. {MN}
When these two Noble Knights did see our miseries, being but
strangers in that Countrie, and could understand no more of the cause, but
by conjecture of our clamours and complaints, of accusing and excusing
one another: {MN} They embarked us with themselves, with the best
meanes they could, and abandoning James towne, set saile for England,
whereby you may see the event of the government of the former
Commanders left to themselves; although they had lived there many yeeres
as formerly hath beene spoken (who hindred now their proceedings,
Captaine Smith being gone.)

At noone they fell to the Ile of Hogs, and the next morning to Mulbery
point, at what time they descried the Long-boat of the Lord la Ware, for
God would not have it so abandoned. For this honourable Lord, then
Governour of the Countrie, met them with three ships exceedingly well
furnished with all necessaries fitting, who againe returned them to the
abandoned James towne. Out of the observations of William Simmons
Doctor of Divinitie.
The government devolved to the Lord la Ware.
The arivall of the Lord la Ware.
His Lordship arrived the ninth of June 1610. accompanied with Sir
Ferdinando Waynman, Captaine Houlcroft, Captaine Lawson, and divers
other Gentlemen of sort; the tenth he came up with his fleet, went on shore,
heard a Sermon, read his Commission, and entred into consultation for the
good of the Colonie, in which secret counsell we will a little leave them,
that we may duly observe the revealed counsell of God. Hee that shall but
turne up his eie, and behold the spangled canopie of heaven, or shall but
cast downe his eie, and consider the embroydered carpet of the earth, and
withall shall marke how the heavens heare the earth, and the earth the
Corne and Oile, and they relieve the necessities of man, [IV.107.] that man
will acknowledge Gods infinite providence: But hee that shall further
observe, how God inclineth all casuall events to worke the necessary helpe
of his Saints, must needs adore the Lords infinite goodnesse; never had any
people more just cause, to cast themselves at the very foot-stoole of God,
and to reverence his mercie, than this distressed Colonie; for if God had not
sent Sir Thomas Gates from the Bermudas, within foure daies they had
almost beene famished; if God had not directed the heart of that noble
Knight to save the Fort from fiering at their shipping, for many were very
importunate to have burnt it, they had beene destitute of a present harbour
and succour; if they had abandoned the Fort any longer time, and had not so
soone returned, questionlesse the Indians would have destroied the Fort,
which had beene the meanes of our safeties amongst them and a terror. If
they had set saile sooner, and had lanched into the vast Ocean, who would
have promised they should have incountered the Fleet of the Lord la Ware,

especially when they made for New found land, as they intended, a course
contrarie to our Navie approaching. If the Lord la Ware had not brought
with him a yeeres provision, what comfort would those poore soules have
received, to have beene relanded to a second distruction? This was the arme
of the Lord of Hosts, who would have his people passe the red Sea and
Wildernesse, and then to possesse the land of Canaan: It was divinely
spoken of Heathen Socrates, If God for man be carefull, why should man
bee over-distrustfull? for he hath so tempered the contrary qualities of the
Elements,
That neither cold things want heat, nor moist things dry,
Nor sad things spirits, to quicken them thereby,
Yet make they musicall content of contrarietie,
Which conquer'd, knits them in such links together,
They doe produce even all this whatsoever.
The Lord Governour, after mature deliberation delivered some few
words to the Companie, laying just blame upon them, for their haughtie
vanities and sluggish idlenesse, earnestly intreating them to amend those
desperate follies, lest hee should be compelled to draw the sword of Justice,
and to cut off such delinquents, which he had rather draw, to the shedding
of his vitall bloud, to protect them from injuries; heartning them with
relation of that store hee had brought with him, constituting officers of all
conditions, to rule over them, allotting every man his particular place, to
watch vigilantly, and worke painfully: This Oration and direction being
received with a generall applause, you might shortly behold the idle and
restie diseases of a divided multitude, by the unitie and authoritie of this
government to be substantially cured. Those that knew not the way to
goodnesse before, but cherished singularitie and faction, can now chalke
out the path of all respective dutie and service: every man endevoureth to
outstrip other in diligence: the French preparing to plant the Vines, the
English labouring in the Woods and grounds; every man knoweth his
charge, and dischargeth the same with alacritie. Neither let any man be
discouraged, by the relation of their daily labour (as though the sap of their
bodies should bee spent for other mens profit) the setled times of working,

to effect all themselves, or as the Adventurers need desire, required no more
paines than from six of the clocke in the morning, untill ten, and from two
in the afternoone, till foure, at both which times they are provided of
spirituall and corporall reliefe. First, they enter into the Church, and make
their praiers unto God, next they returne to their houses and receive their
proportion of food. Nor should it bee conceived that this businesse
excludeth Gentlemen, whose breeding never knew what a daies labour
meant, for though they cannot digge, use the Spade, nor practice the Axe,
yet may the staied spirits of any condition, finde how to imploy the force of
knowledge, the exercise of counsell, the operation and power of their best
breeding and qualities. The houses which are built, are as warme [IV.108.]
and defensive against wind and weather, as if they were tiled and slated,
being covered above with strong boards, and some matted round with
Indian mats. Our forces are now such as are able to tame the furie and
trecherie of the Salvages: Our Forts assure the Inhabitants, and frustrate all
assaylants. And to leave no discouragement in the heart of any, who
personally shall enter into this great action, I will communicate a double
comfort; first, Sir George Sommers, that worthy Admirall hath undertaken a
dangerous adventure for the good of the Colonie.
Sir George Sommers returne to the Bermudas.
Upon the 15. of June, accompanied with Captaine Samuel Argall, hee
returned in two Pinaces unto the Bermudas, promising (if by any meanes
God will open a way to that Iland of Rocks) that he would soone returne
with six moneths provision of flesh; with much crosse weather at last hee
there safely arrived, but Captaine Argall was forced backe againe to James
towne, whom the Lord De la Ware not long after sent to the River of
Patawomeke, to trade for Corne; where finding an English boy, one Henry
Spilman, a young Gentleman well descended, by those people preserved
from the furie of Powhatan, by his acquaintance had such good usage of
those kinde Salvages, that they fraughted his ship with Corne, wherewith he
returned to James towne.
The building Fort Henry and Fort Charles.
The other comfort is, that the Lord la Ware hath built two new Forts,
the one called Fort Henry, the other Fort Charles, in honour of our most

noble Prince, and his hopefull brother, upon a pleasant plaine, and neare a
little Rivilet they call Southampton River; they stand in a wholsome aire,
having plentie of Springs of sweet water, they command a great circuit of
ground, containing Wood, Pasture and Marsh, with apt places for Vines,
Corne and Gardens; in which Forts it is resolved, that all those that come
out of England, shall be at their first landing quartered, that the
wearisomnesse of the Sea, may bee refreshed in this pleasing part of the
Countrie, and Sir Thomas Gates hee sent for England. But to correct some
injuries of the Paspahegs, he sent Captaine Pearcie, Master Stacy, and fiftie
or threescore shot, where the Salvages flying, they burnt their houses, tooke
the Queene and her children prisoners, whom not long after they slew.
The fertilitie of the soile, the temperature of the climate, the forme of
government, the condition of our people, their daily invocating of the Name
of God being thus expressed; why should the successe, by the rules of
mortall judgement, bee disparaged? why should not the rich harvest of our
hopes be seasonably expected? I dare say, that the resolution of Caesar in
France, the designes of Alexander, the discoveries of Hernando Cortes in
the West, and of Emanuel King of Portugal in the East, were not encouraged
upon so firme grounds of state and possibilitie.
But his Lordship being at the fales, the Salvages assaulted his troopes
and slew three or foure of his men. Not long after, his Honour growing very
sicke, he returned for England the 28. of March; in the ship were about five
and fiftie men, but ere we arrived at Fyall, fortie of us were neare sicke to
death, of the Scurvie, Callenture, and other diseases: the Governour being
an English-man, kindly used us, but small reliefe we could get, but
Oranges, of which we had plenty, whereby within eight daies wee
recovered, and all were well and strong by that they came into England.
Written by William Box.
The Counsell of Virginia finding the smalnesse of that returne which
they hoped should have defrayed the charge of a new supply, entred into a
deep consultation, whether it were fit to enter into a new Contribution, or in
time to send for them home, and give over the action, and therefore they
adjured Sir Thomas Gates to deale plainly with them, who with a solemne
and a sacred oath replyed, That all things before reported were true, and that

all men know that wee stand at the devotion of politicke Princes and States,
who for their proper utilitie, devise all courses to grind our Merchants, and
by all pretences to confiscate their goods, and to draw from us all manner of
gaine by their inquisitive inventions, when in Virginia, a few yeeres labour
by planting and husbandry, will furnish [IV.109.] all our defects with
honour and securitie. Out of a Declaration published by the Counsell, 1610.
A.D. 1611.
LORD DE LA WARE'S RELATION
The government left againe to Captaine George Piercie, and the returne of
the Lord la Ware, with his Relation to the Councell.
1611. Sir Thomas Smith Treasurer.
The Relation of the Lord la Ware. {MN}
My Lords, now by accident returned from my charge at Virginia,
contrary either to my owne desire, or other mens expectations, who spare
not to censure me, in point of dutie, and to discourse and question the
reason, though they apprehend not the true cause of my returne, {MN} I am
forced out of a willingnesse to satisfie every man, to deliver unto your
Lordships and the rest of this assemblie, in what state I have lived ever
since my arrivall to the Colonie, what hath beene the just cause of my
sudden departure, and on what tearmes I have left the same, the rather
because I perceive, that since my comming into England, such a coldnesse
and irresolution is bred in many of the Adventurers, that some of them
seeke to withdraw their payments, by which the action must be supported,
making this my returne colour of their needlesse backwardnesse and unjust
protraction: which that you may the better understand, I was welcomed to
James towne by a violent ague; being cured of it, within three weekes after I
began to be distempered with other grievous sicknesses which successively
and severally assailed me, for besides a relapse into the former disease,
which with much more violence held me more than a moneth, and brought
me to greater weaknesse; the flux surprised mee, and kept me many daies,

then the crampe assaulted my weake body with strong paines, and after, the
gout; all those drew me to that weaknesse, being unable to stirre, brought
upon me the scurvie, which though in others it be a sicknesse of
slothfulnesse, yet was it in me an effect of weaknesse, which never left me,
till I was ready to leave the world.
In these extremities I resolved to consult with my friends, who finding
nature spent in me, and my body almost consumed, my paines likewise
daily increasing, gave me advice to preferre a hopefull recoverie, before an
assured ruine, which must necessarily have ensued, had I lived but twentie
daies longer in Virginia, wanting at that instant both food and Physicke, fit
to remedie such extraordinary diseases; wherefore I shipped my selfe with
Doctor Bohun and Captaine Argall, for Mevis in the West Indies, but being
crossed with Southerly winds, I was forced to shape my course for the
Westerne Iles, where I found helpe for my health, and my sicknesse
asswaged, by the meanes of fresh dyet, especially Oranges and Limons, and
undoubted remedie for that disease: then I intended to have returned backe
againe to Virginia, but I was advised not to hazard my selfe, before I had
perfectly recovered my strength: so I came for England; in which accident, I
doubt not but men of judgement will imagine, there would more prejudice
have happened by my death there, than I hope can doe by my returne.
100. Kine and 200. Swine sent to Virginia. {MN}
For the Colony I left it to the charge of Captaine George Piercie, a
Gentleman of honour and resolution, untill the comming of Sir Thomas
Dale, whose Commission was likewise to bee determined upon the arrivall
of Sir Thomas Gates, according to the order your Lordships appointed: the
number I left were about two hundred, the most in health, and provided of
at least ten moneths victuall, and the Countrie people tractable and friendly.
What other defects they had, I found by Sir Thomas Gates at the Cowes; his
Fleet was sufficiently furnished with supplies, but when it shall please God
that Sir Thomas Dale, and Sir Thomas Gates shall arrive in Virginia {MN}
with the extraordinarie supply of 100. Kine, and 200. Swine, besides store
of other provision, for the maintenance of the Colonie, there will appeare
that successe in the action, as shall give no man cause of distrust, that hath
already adventured, but incourage every good minde to further so good a

worke, as will redound both to the glory of God, to the credit of our nation,
and the comfort of all those that have beene instruments in the furthering of
it. Out of the Lord la Wares discourse, published by Authoritie, 1611.
A.D. 1611
SIR THOMAS DALE'S GOVERNMENT
The government surrendred to Sir Thomas Dale, who arrived in Virginia the
tenth of May, 1611. out of Master Hamors Booke.
1611. Sir Thomas Smith Treasurer.
The arrivall of Sir Thomas Dale. {MN}
Before the Lord la Ware arrived in England, the Councell and
Companie had dispatched away Sir Thomas Dale with three ships, men and
cattell, and all other provisions necessarie for a yeere; {MN} all which
arrived well the tenth of May 1611. where he found them growing againe to
their former estate of penurie, being so improvident as not to put Corne in
the ground for their bread, but trusted to the store, then furnished but with
three moneths provision; his first care therefore was to imploy all hands
about setting of Corne, at the two Forts at Kecoughtan, Henry and Charles,
whereby, the season then not fully past, though about the end of May, wee
had an indifferent crop of good Corne.
His preparation to build a new towne.
This businesse taken order for, and the care and trust of it committed to
his under-Officers, to James towne he hastened, where most of the
companie were at their daily and usuall works, bowling in the streets; these
hee imployed about necessarie workes, as felling of Timber, repayring their
houses ready to fall on their heads, and providing pales, posts and railes, to
impale his purposed new towne, which by reason of his ignorance, being
but newly arrived, hee had not resolved where to seat; therefore to better his
knowledge, with one hundred men he spent some time in viewing the River

of Nausamund, in despight of the Indians then our enemies; then our owne
River to the Fales, where upon a high land, invironed with the maine River,
some twelve miles from the Fales, by Arsahattock, he resolved to plant his
new towne.
Divers mutinie suppressed. {MN}
It was no small trouble to reduce his people so timely to good order,
being of so ill a condition, as may well witnesse his severitie and strict
imprinted booke of Articles, then needfull with all extremitie to be
executed; now much mitigated; so as if his Lawes had not beene so strictly
executed, I see not how the utter subversion of the Colonie should have
beene prevented, witnesse Webbes and Prices designe the first yeere, since
that of Abbots, and others, more dangerous than the former. Here I entreat
your patience for an Apologie, though not a pardon. This Jeffrey Abbots,
how ever this Author censures him, and the Governour executes him, I
know he had long served both in Ireland and Netherlands, here hee was a
Sargeant of my Companie, and I never saw in Virginia a more sufficient
Souldier, less turbulent, a better wit, more hardy or industrious, nor any
more forward to cut off them that sought to abandon the Countrie, or wrong
the Colonie; how ingratefully those deserts might bee rewarded, envied or
neglected, or his farre inferiors preferred to over-top him, I know not, but
such occasions might move a Saint, much more a man, to an unadvised
passionate impatience, but how ever, it seemes he hath beene punished for
his offences, that was never rewarded for his deserts. {MN} And even this
Summer Cole and Kitchins plot with three more, bending their course to
Ocanahowan, five daies journey from us, where they report are Spaniards
inhabiting. These were cut off by the Salvages, hired by us to hunt them
home to receive their deserts: So as Sir Thomas Dale hath not beene so
tyrannous nor severe by the halfe, as there was occasion, and just cause for
it, and though the manner was not usuall, wee were rather to have regard to
those, whom we would have terrified and made fearefull to commit the like
offences, than to the offenders justly condemned, for amongst them so
hardned in evill, the feare of a cruell, painfull and unusuall death more
restraines them, than death it selfe. Thus much I have proceeded of his
endeavour, untill the comming of Sir Thomas Gates, in preparing himselfe
to proceed as he intended.

[IV.111.] Now in England againe to second this noble Knight, the
Counsell and Companie with all possible expedition prepared for Sir
Thomas Gates six tall ships, with three hundred men, and one hundred Kine
and other Cattell, with munition and all other manner of provision that
could be thought needfull; and about the first or second of August, 1611.
arrived safely at James towne.
The government returned againe to Sir Thomas Gates, 1611.
The second arrivall of Sir Thomas Gates.
These worthy Knights being met, after their welcoming salutations, Sir
Thomas Dale acquainted him what he had done, and what he intended,
which designe Sir Thomas Gates well approving, furnished him with three
hundred and fiftie men, such as himselfe made choice of. In the beginning
of September, 1611. hee set saile, and arrived where hee intended to build
his new towne: within ten or twelve daies he had invironed it with a pale,
and in honour of our noble Prince Henry, called it Henrico. The next worke
he did, was building at each corner of the Towne, a high commanding
Watch-house, a Church, and Store-houses; which finished, hee began to
thinke upon convenient houses for himselfe and men, which with all
possible speed hee could he effected, to the great content of his companie,
and all the Colonie.
The building of Henrico.
This towne is situated upon a necke of a plaine rising land, three parts
invironed with the maine River, the necke of land well impaled, makes it
like an Ile; it hath three streets of well-framed houses, a handsome Church,
and the foundation of a better laid, to bee built of Bricke, besides Store-
houses, Watch-houses, and such like: Upon the verge of the River there are
five houses, wherein live the honester sort of people, as Farmers in
England, and they keepe continuall centinell for the townes securitie. About
two miles from the towne, into the Maine, is another pale, neere two miles

in length, from River to River, guarded with severall Commanders, with a
good quantitie of Corne-ground impailed, sufficiently secured to maintaine
more than I suppose will come this three yeeres.
On the other side of the River, for the securitie of the towne, is
intended to be impaled for the securitie of our Hogs, about two miles and a
halfe, by the name of Hope in Faith, and Coxendale, secured by five of our
manner of Forts, which are but Palisadoes, called Charitie Fort, Mount
Malado, a guest house for sicke people, a high seat and wholsome aire
Elisabeth Fort, and Fort Patience: And here hath Master Whitaker chosen
his Parsonage, impaled a faire framed Parsonage, and one hundred acres
called Rocke hall, but these are not halfe finished.
The building the Bermudas. {MN}
About Christmas following, in this same yeere 1611. in regard of the
injurie done us by them of Apamatuck, Sir Thomas Dale, without the losse
of any, except some few Salvages, tooke it and their Corne, being but five
miles by land from Henrico, and considering how commodious it might be
for us, resolved to possesse and plant it, {MN} and at the instant called it
the new Bermudas, whereunto hee hath laid out and annexed to the
belonging freedome and corporation for ever, many miles of Champian and
Woodland ground in severall hundreds, as the upper and nether hundreds,
Rochdale hundred, West Sherly hundred, and Digs his hundred. In the
nether hundred he first began to plant, for there is the most Corne-ground,
and with a pale of two miles, cut over from River to River, whereby we
have secured eight English miles in compasse; upon which circuit, within
halfe a mile of each other, are many faire houses already built, besides
particular mens houses neere to the number of fiftie. Rochdale, by a crosse
pale welnigh foure miles long, is also planted with houses along the pale, in
which hundred our Hogs and Cattell have twentie miles circuit to graze in
securely. The building of the Citie is referred till our harvest be in, which he
intends to make a retreat against any forraigne enemie.
About fiftie miles from these is James towne, upon [IV.112.] a fertill
peninsula, which although fomerly scandaled for an unhealthfull aire, wee
finde it as healthfull as any other part of the Countrie; it hath two rowes of
houses of framed timber, and some of them two stories, and a garret higher,

three large Store-houses joined together in length, and hee hath newly
strongly impaled the towne. This Ile, and much ground about it, is much
inhabited: To Kecoughtan we accounted it fortie miles, where they live well
with halfe that allowance the rest have from the store, because of the
extraordinarie quantitie of Fish, Fowle and Deere; as you may reade at large
in the Discoveries of Captaine Smith. And thus I have truly related unto you
the present estate of that small part of Virginia wee frequent and possesse.
A.D. 1612
Sir Thomas Smith Treasurer.
Captaine Argalls arrivall. {MN-1}
How Pocahontas was taken prisoner. {MN-2}/
Since there was a ship fraughted with provision, and fortie men; and
another since then with the like number and provision, to stay twelve
moneths in the Countrie, with Captaine Argall, which was sent not long
after. {MN-1} After hee had recreated and refreshed his Companie, hee was
sent to the River Patawomeake, to trade for Corne, the Salvages about us
having small quarter, but friends and foes as they found advantage and
opportunitie: But to conclude our peace, thus it happened. Captaine Argall,
having entred into a great acquaintance with Japazaws, an old friend of
Captaine Smiths, and so to all our Nation, ever since hee discovered the
Countrie: hard by him there was Pocahontas, whom Captaine Smiths
Relations intituleth the Numparell of Virginia, and though she had beene
many times a preserver of him and the whole Colonie, yet till this accident
shee was never seene at James towne since his departure, being at
Patawomeke, as it seemes, {MN-2} thinking her selfe unknowne, was
easily by her friend Japazaws perswaded to goe abroad with him and his
wife to see the ship, for Captaine Argall had promised him a Copper Kettle
to bring her but to him, promising no way to hurt her, but keepe her till they
could conclude a peace with her father; the Salvage for this Copper Kettle
would have done any thing, it seemed by the Relation; for though she had
seene and beene in many ships, yet hee caused his wife to faine how
desirous she was to see one, and that hee offered to beat her for her
importunitie, till she wept. But at last he told her, if Pocahontas would goe

with her, hee was content: and thus they betraied the poore innocent
Pocahontas aboord, where they were all kindly feasted in the Cabbin.
Japazaws treading oft on the Captaines foot, to remember he had done his
part, the Captaine when he saw his time, perswaded Pocahontas to the Gun-
roome, faining to have some conference with Japazaws, which was onely
that she should not perceive hee was any way guiltie of her captivitie: so
sending for her againe, hee told her before her friends, she must goe with
him, and compound peace betwixt her Countrie and us, before she ever
should see Powhatan, whereat the old Jew and his wife began to howle and
crie as fast as Pocahontas, that upon the Captaines faire perswasions, by
degrees pacifying her selfe, and Japazaws and his wife, with the Kettle and
other toies, went merrily on shore, and shee to James towne. A messenger
forthwith was sent to her father, that his daughter Pocahontas he loved so
dearely, he must ransome with our men, swords, peeces, tooles, &c. hee
trecherously had stolne.
Seven English returned from Powhatan prisoners. {MN}
This unwelcome newes much troubled Powhatan, because hee loved
both his daughter and our commodities well, yet it was three moneths after
ere hee returned us any answer: {MN} then by the perswasion of the
Councell, he returned seven of our men, with each of them an unserviceable
Musket, and sent us word, that Powhatan when wee would deliver his
daughter, hee would make us satisfaction for all injuries done us, and give
us five hundred bushels of Corne, and for ever be friends with us. That he
sent, we received in part of payment, and returned him this answer: That his
daughter should be well used, but we could not beleeve the rest of our
armes were either lost or stolne from him, and therefore till hee sent them,
we would keepe his daughter.
Sir Thomas Dale his voyage to Paumaunke. {MN}
This answer, it seemed, much displeased him, for we [IV.113.] heard
no more from him a long time after, when with Captaine Argals ship, and
some other vessels belonging to the Colonie,{MN} Sir Thomas Dale, with a
hundred and fiftie men well appointed, went up into his owne River, to his
chiefe habitation, with his daughter; with many scornfull bravado's they
affronted us, proudly demanding why wee came thither; our reply was, Wee

had brought his daughter, and to receive the ransome for her that was
promised, or to have it perforce. They nothing dismayed thereat, told us, We
were welcome if wee came to fight, for they were provided for us, but
advised us, if wee loved our lives to retire; else they would use us as they
had done Captaine Ratcliffe: We told them, wee would presently have a
better answer; but we were no sooner within shot of the shore than they let
flie their Arrowes among us in the ship.
A man shot in the forehead.
Being thus justly provoked, wee presently manned our Boats, went on
shore, burned all their houses, and spoiled all they had we could finde; and
so the next day proceeded higher up the River, where they demanded why
wee burnt their houses, and wee, why they shot at us: They replyed, it was
some stragling Salvage, with many other excuses, they intended no hurt, but
were our friends: We told them, wee came not to hurt them, but visit them
as friends also. Upon this we concluded a peace, and forthwith they
dispatched messengers to Powhatan, whose answer, they told us, wee must
expect foure and twentie houres ere the messengers could returne: Then
they told us, our men were runne away for feare we would hang them, yet
Powhatans men were runne after them; as for our Swords and Peeces, they
should be brought us the next day, which was only but to delay time; for the
next day they came not. Then we went higher, to a house of Powhatans,
called Matchot, where we saw about foure hundred men well appointed;
here they dared us to come on shore, which wee did; no shew of feare they
made at all, nor offered to resist our landing, but walking boldly up and
downe amongst us, demanded to conferre with our Captaine, of his
comming in that manner, and to have truce till they could but once more
send to their King to know his pleasure, which if it were not agreeable to
their expectation, then they would fight with us, and defend their owne as
they could, which was but onely to deferre the time, to carrie away their
provision; yet wee promised them truce till the next day at noone, and then
if they would fight with us, they should know when we would begin by our
Drums and Trumpets.
Two of Powhatans sonnes come to see Pocahontas.

Upon this promise, two of Powhatans sonnes came unto us to see their
sister, at whose sight, seeing her well, though they heard to the contrarie,
they much rejoiced, promising they would perswade her father to redeeme
her, and for ever be friends with us. And upon this, the two brethren went
aboord with us, and we sent Master John Rolfe and Master Sparkes to
Powhatan, to acquaint him with the businesse; kindly they were entertained,
but not admitted the presence of Powhatan, but they spoke with
Opechancanough, his brother and successor; hee promised to doe the best
he could to Powhatan, all might be well. So it being Aprill, and time to
prepare our ground and set our Corne, we returned to James Towne,
promising the forbearance of their performing their promise, till the next
harvest.
A.D. 1613.
Sir Thomas Smith Treasurer.
The marriage of Pocahontas to Master John Rolfe.
Long before this, Master John Rolfe, an honest Gentleman, and of
good behaviour, had beene in love with Pocahontas, and she with him,
which thing at that instant I made knowne to Sir Thomas Dale by a letter
from him, wherein hee intreated his advice, and she acquainted her brother
with it, which resolution Sir Thomas Dale well approved: the brute of this
mariage came soone to the knowledge of Powhatan, a thing acceptable to
him, as appeared by his sudden consent, for within ten daies he sent
Opachisco, an old Uncle of hers, and two of his sons, to see the manner of
the marriage, and to doe in that behalfe what they were requested, for the
confirmation thereof, as his deputie; which was accordingly done about the
first of Aprill: And ever since wee have had friendly trade and commerce,
as well with Powhatan himselfe, as all his subjects.
The Chicahamanias desire friendship.
Besides this, by the meanes of Powhatan, we became [IV.114.] in
league with our next neighbours, the Chicahamanias, a lustie and a daring
people, free of themselves. These people, so soone as they heard of our

peace with Powhatan, sent two messengers with presents to Sir Thomas
Dale, and offered him their service, excusing all former injuries, hereafter
they would ever be King James his subjects, and relinquish the name of
Chickahamania, to be called Tassautessus, as they call us, and Sir Thomas
Dale there Governour, as the Kings Deputie; onely they desired to be
governed by their owne Lawes, which is eight of their Elders as his
substitutes. This offer he kindly accepted, and appointed the day hee would
come to visit them.
When the appointed day came, Sir Thomas Dale and Captaine Argall
with fiftie men well appointed, went to Chickahamania, where wee found
the people expecting our comming, they used us kindly, and the next
morning sate in counsell, to conclude their peace upon these conditions:
Articles of Peace.
First, they should for ever bee called Englishmen, and bee true subjects
to King James and his Deputies.
Secondly, neither to kill nor detaine any of our men, nor cattell, but
bring them home.
Thirdly, to bee alwaies ready to furnish us with three hundred men,
against the Spaniards or any.
Fourthly, they shall not enter our townes, but send word they are new
Englishmen.
Fiftly, that every fighting man, at the beginning of harvest, shall bring
to our store two bushels of Corne, for tribute, for which they shall receive
so many Hatchets
Lastly, the eight chiefe men should see all this performed, or receive
the punishment themselves: for their diligence they should have a red coat,
a copper chaine, and King James his picture, and be accounted his
Noblemen.

All this they concluded with a generall assent, and a great shout to
confirme it: then one of the old men began an Oration, bending his speech
first to the old men, then to the young, and then to the women and children,
to make them understand how strictly they were to observe these
conditions, and we would defend them from the furie of Powhatan, or any
enemie whatsoever, and furnish them with Copper, Beads, and Hatchets;
but all this was rather for feare Powhatan and we, being so linked together,
would bring them againe to his subjection; the which to prevent, they did
rather chuse to be protected by us, than tormented by him, whom they held
a Tyrant. And thus wee returned againe to James towne.
The benefit of libertie in the planters.
Wiliam Spence the first Farmer in Virginia. {MN}
When our people were fed out of the common store, and laboured
jointly together, glad was he could slip from his labour, or slumber over his
taske he cared not how, nay, the most honest among them would hardly take
so much true paines in a weeke, as now for themselves they will doe in a
day, neither cared they for the increase, presuming that howsoever the
harvest prospered, the generall store must maintaine them, so that wee
reaped not so much Corne from the labours of thirtie, as now three or foure
doe provide for themselves. To prevent which, Sir Thomas Dale hath
allotted every man three Acres of cleare ground, in the nature of Farmes,
except the Bermudas, who are exempted, but for one moneths service in the
yeere, which must neither bee in seed-time, nor harvest; for which doing, no
other dutie they pay yeerely to the store, but two barrels and a halfe of
Corne {MN} (from all those Farmers, whereof the first was William
Spence, an honest, valiant, and an industrious man, and hath continued from
1607. to this present) from those is expected such a contribution to the
store, as wee shall neither want for our selves, nor to entertaine our
supplies; for the rest, they are to worke eleven moneths for the store, and
hath one moneth onely allowed them to get provision to keepe them for
twelve, except two bushels of Corne they have out of the store; if those can
live so, why should any feare starving, and it were much better to denie
them passage, that would not ere they come, bee content to ingage
themselves to those conditions: for onely from the slothfull and idle drones,
[IV.115.] and none else, hath sprung the manifold imputations, Virginia

innocently hath undergone; and therefore I would deter such from comming
here, that cannot well brooke labour, except they will undergoe much
punishment and penurie, if they escape the skurvie: but for the industrious,
there is reward sufficient, and if any thinke there is nothing but bread, I
referre you to his relations that discovered the Countrie first.
A.D. 1614.
Sir Thomas Smith Treasurer.
The government left to Sir Thomas Dale upon
Sir Thomas Gates returne for England.
Captaine Argalls voyage to Port Royall.
Sir Thomas Dale understanding there was a plantation of Frenchmen in
the north part of Virginia, about the degrees of 45. sent Captaine Argall to
Port Royall and Sancta Crux, where finding the Frenchmen abroad
dispersed in the Woods, surprized their Ship and Pinnace, which was but
newly come from France, wherein was much good apparel, and other
provision, which he brought to James towne, but the men escaped, and lived
among the Salvages of those Countries.
It pleased Sir Thomas Dale, before my returne to England, because I
would be able to speake somewhat of my owne knowledge, to give mee
leave to visit Powhatan and his Court: being provided, I had Thomas
Salvage with mee, for my Interpreter, with him and two Salvages for
guides, I went from the Bermuda in the morning, and came to Matchot the
next night, where the King lay upon the River of Pamaunke; his
entertainment was strange to me, the boy he knew well, and told him; My
child, I gave you leave, being my boy, to goe see your friends, and these
foure yeeres I have not seene you, nor heard of my owne man Namoutack I
sent to England, though many ships since have beene returned thence:
Having done with him, hee began with mee, and demanded for the chaine
of pearle he sent his brother Sir Thomas Dale at his first arrivall, which was
a token betwixt them, when ever hee should send a messenger from

himselfe to him, he should weare that chaine about his necke, since the
peace was concluded, otherwaies he was to binde him and send him home.
Master Hamars journey to Powhatan.
It is true Sir Thomas Dale had sent him such word, and gave his Page
order to give it me, but he forgot it, and till this present I never heard of it,
yet I replyed I did know there was such an order, but that was when upon a
sudden he should have occasion to send an Englishman without an Indian
Guide; but if his owne people should conduct his messenger, as two of his
did me who knew my message, it was sufficient; with which answer he was
contented, and so conducted us to his house, where was a guard of two
hundred Bow-men, that alwaies attend his person. The first thing he did, he
offered me a pipe of Tobacco, then asked mee how his brother Sir Thomas
Dale did, and his daughter, and unknowne sonne, and how they lived, loved
and liked; I told him his brother was well, and his daughter so contented,
she would not live againe with him; whereat he laughed, and demanded the
cause of my comming: I told him my message was private, and I was to
deliver it onely to himselfe and Papaschicher, one of my guides that was
acquainted with it; instantly he commanded all out of the house, but onely
his two Queenes, that alwaies sit by him, and bade me speake on.
His message to Powhatan.
I told him, by my Interpreter, Sir Thomas Dale hath sent you two
pieces of Copper, five strings of white and blue Beads, five woodden
Combes, ten Fish-hookes, a paire of Knives, and that when you would send
for it, hee would give you a Grind-stone; all this pleased him: but then I told
him his brother Dale, hearing of the fame of his youngest daughter, desiring
in any case he would send her by me unto him, in testimonie of his love, as
well for that he intended to marry her, as the desire her sister had to see her,
because being now one people, and hee desirous for ever to dwell in his
Countrie, he conceived there could not be a truer assurance of peace and
friendship, than in such a naturall band of an united union.
I needed not entreat his answer by his oft interrupting [IV.116.] mee in
my speech, and presently with much gravitie he thus replyed.

Powhatans answer.
I gladly accept your salute of love and peace, which while I live, I
shall exactly keepe, his pledges thereof I receive with no lesse thanks,
although they are not so ample as formerly he had received; but for my
daughter, I have sold her within this few daies to a great Werowance, for
two bushels of Rawrenoke, three daies journie from me. I replyed, I knew
his greatnesse in restoring the Rawrenoke, might call her againe to gratifie
his brother, and the rather, because she was but twelve yeeres old, assuring
him, besides the band of peace, hee should have for her, three times the
worth of the Rawrenoke, in Beads, Copper, Hatchets, &c. His answer was,
he loved his daughter as his life, and though hee had many children, hee
delighted in none so much as shee, whom he should not often behold, he
could not possibly live, which she living with us he could not do, having
resolved upon no termes to put himselfe into our hands, or come amongst
us; therefore desired me to urge him no further, but returne his brother this
answer: That I desire no firmer assurance of his friendship, than the promise
hee hath made, from me he hath a pledge, one of my daughters, which so
long as she lives shall be sufficient, when she dies, he shall have another: I
hold it not a brotherly part to desire to bereave me of my two children at
once. Farther, tell him though he had no pledge at all, hee need not distrust
any injurie from me or my people; there have beene too many of his men
and mine slaine, and by my occasion there shall never be more, (I which
have power to performe it, have said it) although I should have just cause,
for I am now old, & would gladly end my daies in peace; if you offer me
injurie, any countrie is large enough to goe from you: Thus much I hope
will satisfie my brother. Now because you are wearie, and I sleepie, wee
will thus end. So commanding us victuall and lodging, we rested that night,
and the next morning he came to visit us, and kindly conducted us to the
best cheere hee had. William Parker.
William Parker recovered.
While I here remained, by chance came an Englishman, whom there
had beene surprized three yeeres agoe at Fort Henry, growne so like, both in
complexion and habit like a Salvage, I knew him not, but by his tongue: hee
desired mee to procure his libertie, which I intended, and so farre urged

Powhatan, that he grew discontented, and told mee, You have one of my
daughters, and I am content, but you cannot see one of your men with mee,
but you must have him away, or breake friendship; if you must needs have
him, you shall goe home without guides, and if any evill befall you, thanke
your selves: I told him I would, but if I returned not well, hee must expect a
revenge, and his brother might have just cause to suspect him. So in passion
he left me till supper, and then gave me such as hee had with a cheereful
countenance: About midnight hee awaked us, and promised in the morning
my returne with Parker; but I must remember his brother to send him ten
great piece of Copper, a Shaving-knife, a Frowe, a Grind-stone, a Net, Fish-
hookes, and such toies; which lest I should forget, he caused me write in a
table-booke he had; however he got it, it was a faire one, I desired hee
would give it me; he told me, no, it did him much good in shewing to
strangers, yet in the morning when we departed, having furnished us well
with provision, he gave each of us a Bucks skin as well dressed as could be,
and sent two more to his sonne and daughter: And so we returned to James
towne. Written by Master Ralph Hamor and John Rolph.
From a letter of Sir Thomas Dale and Mater Whittakers.
I have read the substance of this relation, in a Letter written by Sir
Thomas Dale, another by Master Whitaker and a third by Master John
Rolfe; how carefull they were to instruct her in Christianity, and how
capable and desirous shee was thereof, after she had beene some time thus
tutored, shee never had desire to goe to her father, nor could well endure the
society of her owne nation: the true affection she constantly bare her
husband was much, and the strange apparitions and violent passions he
endured for her love, as he deeply protested, was wonderful, and she openly
renounced her countries [IV.117.] idolatry, confessed the faith of Christ, and
was baptized, but either the coldnesse of the adventurers, or the bad usage
of that was collected, or both, caused this worthy Knight to write thus. Oh
why should so many Princes and Noblemen ingage themselves, and thereby
intermedling herein, have caused a number of soules transport themselves,
and be transported hither? Why should they, I say, relinquish this so
glorious an action: for if their ends be to build God a Church, they ought to
persevere; if otherwise, yet their honour ingageth them to be constant;
howsoever they stand affected, here is enough to content them. These are

the things have animated me to stay a little season from them, I am bound
in conscience to returne unto; leaving all contenting pleasures and mundall
delights, to reside here with much turmoile, which I will rather doe than see
Gods glory diminished, my King and Country dishonoured, and these poore
soules I have in charge revived, which would quickly happen if I should
leave them; so few I have with me fit to command or manage the businesse:
Master Whitaker their Preacher complaineth, and much museth, that so few
of our English Ministers, that were so hot against the surplice and
subscription come hether, where neither is spoken of. Doe they not wilfully
hide their talents, or keepe themselves at home, for feare of losing a few
pleasures; be there not any among them of Moses his minde, and of the
Apostles, that forsooke all to follow Christ, but I refer them to the Judge of
all hearts, and to the King that shall reward every one according to his
talent. From Virginia, June 18. 1614.
The businesse being brought to this perfection, Captaine Argall
returned for England, in the latter end of June, 1614. arriving in England,
and bringing this good tidings to the Councell and company by the
assistances of Sir Thomas Gates, that also had returned from Virginia but
the March before; it was presently concluded, that to supply this good
successe with all expedition, the standing Lottery should be drawne with all
diligent conveniency, and that posterity may remember upon occasion to
use the like according to the declaration, I thinke it not amisse to remember
thus much.
A.D. 1615.
Sir Thomas Smith Treasurer.
The Contents of the declaration of the Lottery
published by the Counsell.
It is apparent to the world, by how many former Proclamations, we
manifested our intents, to have drawn out the great standing Lottery long
before this, which not falling out as we desired, and others expected, whose
monies are adventured therein, we thought good therefore for the avoiding

all unjust and sinister constructions, to resolve the doubts of all indifferent
minded, in three speciall points for their better satisfaction.
But ere I goe any farther, let us remember there was a running Lottery,
used a long time in Saint Pauls Church-yard, where this stood, that brought
into the Treasury good summes of mony dayly, though the Lot was but
small.
Now for the points, the first is, for as much as the Adventurers came in
so slackly for the yeere past, without prejudice to the generality, in losing
the blankes and prises, we were forced to petition to the honourable Lords,
who out of their noble care to further this Plantation, have recommended
their Letsenters to the Countries, Cities, and good townes in England, which
we hope by adding in their voluntary Adventurers, will sufficiently supply
us.
The second for satisfaction to all honest well affected minds, is, that
though this expectation answer not our hopes, yet wee have not failed in our
Christian care, the good of that Colony, to whom we have lately sent two
sundry supplies, and were they but now supplied with more hands, wee
should soone resolve the division of the Country by Lot, and so lessen the
generall charge.
The third is our constant resolution, that seeing our credits are so farre
ingaged to the honourable Lords and [IV.118.] the whole State, for the
drawing this great Lottery, which we intend shall be without delay, the 26.
of June next, desiring all such as have undertaken with bookes to solicit
their friends, that they will not with-hold their monies till the last moneth be
expired, lest we be unwillingly forced to proportion a lesse value and
number of our Blankes and Prises which hereafter followeth.
Welcomes.
Crownes.
To him that first shall be drawne out with a blanke, 100
To the second, 50
To the third, 25

To him that every day during the drawing of this Lottery,
  shall bee first drawne out with a blanke, 10
Prizes Crownes.
      1 Great Prize of 4500
      2 Great Prizes, each of   2000
      4 Great Prizes, each of1000
      6 Great Prizes, each of 500
    10 Prizes, each of 300
    20 Prizes, each of 200
  100 Prizes, each of 100
  200 Prizes, each of  50
  400 Prizes, each of  20
1000 Prizes, each of  10
1000 Prizes, each of   8
1000 Prizes, each of   6
4000 Prizes, each of   4
1000 Prizes, each of   3
1000 Prizes, each of   2
Rewards.
Crownes.
To him that shall be last drawne out
with a blanke, 25
To him that putteth in the greatest Lot,
under one name, 400
To him that putteth in the second
greatest number, 300
To him that putteth in the third
greatest number, 200
To him that putteth in the fourth
greatest number, 100

If divers be of equall number, their rewards are to be divided proportionally.
Addition of new Rewards.
Crownes.
The blanke that shall bee drawne out next
before the great Prize shall have 25
The blanke that shall be drawne out next
after the said great Prize 25
The blancks that shall be drawne out
immediatly before the two next great
Prizes, shall have each of them 20
The severall blankes next after them,
each shall have 20
The severall blankes next before the
foure great Prizes, each shall have 15
The severall blankes next after them,
each shall have 15
The severall blankes next before the
six great Prizes, each shall have 10
The severall blankes next after them,
each shall have 10
[IV.119.] The prizes, welcomes, and rewards, shall be payed in ready
Mony, Plate, or other goods reasonably rated; if any dislike of the plate or
goods, he shall have mony, abating only the tenth part, except in small
prizes of ten Crownes or under.
The mony for the Adventurers is to be paied to Sir Thomas Smith,
Knight, and Treasurer for Virginia, or such Officers as he shall appoint in
City or Country, under the common seale of the company for the receit
thereof.

All prizes, welcomes and rewards drawne where ever they dwell, shall
of the Treasurer have present pay, and whosoever under one name or poesie
payeth three pound in ready money, shall receive six shillings and eight
pence, or a silver spoone of that value at his choice.
A Spanish Ship in Virginia.
About this time it chanced a Spanish ship, beat too and againe before
point Comfort, and at last sent a shore their boat, as desirous of a Pilot.
Captaine James Davis the governor, immediatly gave them one, but he was
no sooner in the boat, but away they went with him, leaving three of their
companions behind them; this sudden accident occasioned some distrust,
and a strict examination of those three thus left, yet with as good usage as
our estate could afford them. They only confessed having lost their
Admirall, accident had forced them into those parts, and two of them were
Captaines, and in chiefe authority in the fleet: thus they lived till one of
them was found to be an Englishman, and had been the Spaniards Pilot for
England in 88. and having here induced some male-contents, to beleeve his
projects, to run away with a small barke, which was apprehended, some
executed, and he expecting but the Hangmans curtesie, directly confessed
that two or three Spanish ships was at Sea, purposely to discover the estate
of the Colony, but their Commission was not to be opened till they arrived
in the Bay, so that of any thing more he was utterly ignorant. One of the
Spaniards at last dyed, the other was sent for England but this reprieved, till
Sir Thomas Dale hanged him at Sea in his voyage home-ward; the English
Pilot they carried for Spaine, whom after a long time imprisonment, with
much sute was returned for England.
1616.
Sir Thomas Smith Treasurer.
Whilst those things were effecting, Sir Thomas Dale, having setled to
his thinking all things in good order, made choice of one Master George
Yearly, to be Deputy-Governour in his absence, and so returned for
England, accompanied with Pocahontas the Kings Daughter, and Master
Rolfe her husband, and arrived at Plimmoth the 12. of June, 1616.

The government left to Captaine Yearly.
A digression.
Now a little to commentary upon all these proceedings, let me leave
but this as a caveat by the way; if the alteration of government hath
subverted great Empires, how dangerous is it then in the infancy of a
common-weale? The multiplicity of Governors is a great damage to any
State, but uncertaine daily changes are burdensome, because their
entertainments are chargeable, and many will make hay whilst the sunne
doth shine, how ever it shall fare with the generality.
This deare bought Land with so much bloud and cost, hath onely made
some few rich, and all the rest losers. But it was intended at the first, the
first undertakers should be first preferred and rewarded, and the first
adventurers satisfied, and they of all the rest are the most neglected; and
those that never adventured a groat, never see the Country, nor ever did any
service for it, imploied in their places, adorned with their deserts, and
inriched with their ruines; and when they are fed fat, then in commeth
others so leane as they were, who through their omnipotency doe as much.
Thus what one Officer doth, another undoth, only ayming at their owne
ends, thinking all the world derides his dignity, cannot fill his Coffers being
in authority with any thing. Every man hath His minde free, but he can
never be a true member to that [IV. 120.] estate, that to enrich himselfe
beggers all the Countrie. Which bad course, there are many yet in this noble
plantation, whose true honour and worth as much scornes it, as the others
loves it; for the Nobilitie and Gentrie, there is scarce any of them expects
any thing but the prosperitie of the action: and there are some Merchants
and others, I am confidently perswaded, doe take more care and paines, nay,
and at their continuall great charge, than they could be hired to for the love
of money, so honestly regarding the generall good of this great worke, they
would hold it worse than sacrilege, to wrong it but a shilling, or extort upon
the common souldier a penny. But to the purpose, and to follow the
Historie.

The government of Captaine Yearley.
Twelve Salvages slaine, Twelve prisoners taken, and peace concluded.
Eleven men cast away. {MN-2}
A bad president. {MN-3}
Mr. George Yearly now invested Deputie Governour by Sir Thomas
Dale, applied himselfe for the most part in planting Tobacco, as the most
present commoditie they could devise for a present gaine, so that every man
betooke himselfe to the best place he could for the purpose: now though Sir
Thomas Dale had caused such an abundance of corne to be planted, that
every man had sufficient, yet the supplies were sent us, came so
unfurnished, as quickly eased us of our superfluitie. To relieve their
necessities, he sent to the Chickahamanias for the tribute Corne Sir Thomas
Dale and Captaine Argall had conditioned for with them: But such a bad
answer they returned him, that hee drew together one hundred of his best
shot, with whom he went to Chickahamania; the people in some places used
him indifferently, but in most places with much scorne and contempt,
telling him he was but Sir Thomas Dales man, and they had payed his
Master according to condition, but to give any to him they had no such
order, neither would they obey him as they had done his Master; after he
had told them his authoritie, and that he had the same power to enforce
them that Dale had, they dared him to come on shore to fight, presuming
more of his not daring, than their owne valours. Yearly seeing their
insolencies, made no great difficultie to goe on shore at Ozinies, and they as
little to incounter him: but marching from thence towards Mamanahunt,
they put themselves in the same order they see us, lead by their Captaine
Kissanacomen, Governour of Ozinies, & so marched close along by us,
each as threatning other who should first begin. But that night we quartered
against Mamanahunt, and they passed the River. The next day we followed
them; there are few places in Virginia had then more plaine ground together,
nor more plentie of Corne, which although it was but newly gathered, yet
they had hid it in the woods where we could not finde it: a good time we
spent thus in arguing the cause, the Salvages without feare standing in
troupes amongst us, seeming as if their countenances had beene sufficient to
dant us: what other practises they had I know not; but to prevent the worst,
our Captaine caused us all to make ready, and upon the word, to let flie
among them, where he appointed: others also he commanded to seize on

them they could for prisoners; all which being done according to our
direction, {MN-1} the Captaine gave the word, and wee presently
discharged, where twelve lay, some dead, the rest for life sprawling on the
ground, twelve more we tooke prisoners, two whereof were brothers, two of
their eight Elders, the one tooke by Sergeant Boothe, the other by Robert a
Polonian; Neere one hundred bushels of Corne we had for their ransomes,
which was promised the Souldiers for a reward, but it was not performed:
now Opechankanough had agreed with our Captaine for the subjecting of
those people, that neither hee nor Powhatan could ever bring to their
obedience, and that he should make no peace with them without his advice:
in our returne by Ozinies with our prisoners wee met Opechankanough,
who with much adoe, fained with what paines hee had procured their peace,
the which to requite, they called him the King of Ozinies, and brought him
from all parts many presents of Beads, Copper, and such trash as they had;
here as at many other times wee were beholding to Captaine Henry Spilman
our Interpreter, a Gentleman had lived long time in this Countrie, and
sometimes a prisoner among the Salvages, and done much good service,
though but badly rewarded. From hence we marcht [IV.121] towards James
towne, {MN-2} we had three Boats loaded with Corne and other luggage,
the one of them being more willing to be at James towne with the newes
than the other, was overset, and eleven men cast away with the Boat, Corne
and all their provision; notwithstanding this put all the rest of the Salvages
in that feare, especially in regard of the great league we had with
Opechankanough, that we followed our labours quietly, and in such
securitie, that divers salvages of other Nations, daily frequented us with
what provisions they could get, and would guide our men on hunting, and
oft hunt for us themselves. {MN-3} Captaine Yearly had a Salvage or two
so well trained up to their peeces, they were as expert as any of the English,
and one hee kept purposely to kill him fowle. There were divers others had
Salvages in like manner for their men. Thus we lived together, as if wee had
beene one people, all the time Captaine Yearley staied with us, but such
grudges and discontents daily increased among our selves, that upon the
arrivall of Captaine Argall, sent by the Councell and Companie to bee our
Governour, Captaine Yearley returned for England in the yeere 1617. From
the writings of Captaine Nathaniel Powell, William Cantrill, Sergeant
Boothe, Edward Gurganey.

Pocahontas instructions.
During this time, the Lady Rebecca, alias Pocahontas, daughter to
Powhatan, by the diligent care of Master John Rolfe her husband and his
friends, was taught to speake such English as might well bee understood,
well instructed in Christianitie, and was become very formall and civill
after our English manner; shee had also by him a childe which she loved
most dearely, and the Treasurer and Company tooke order both for the
maintenance of her and it, besides there were divers persons of great ranke
and qualitie had beene very kinde to her; and before she arrived at London,
Captaine Smith to deserve her former courtesies, made her qualities knowne
to the Queenes most excellent Majestie and her Court, and writ a little
booke to this effect to the Queene: An abstract whereof followeth.
To the most high and vertuous Princesse Queene
Anne of Great Brittanie.
Most admired Queene,
The love I beare my God, my King and Countrie, hath so oft
emboldened mee in the worst of extreme dangers, that now honestie doth
constraine mee presume thus farre beyond my selfe, to present your
Majestic this short discourse: if ingratitude be a deadly poyson to all honest
vertues, I must bee guiltie of that crime if I should omit any meanes to bee
thankfull. So it is,
A relation to Queene Anne of Pocahontas.
That some ten yeeres agoe being in Virginia, and taken prisoner by the
power of Powhatan their chiefe King, I received from this great Salvage
exceeding great courtesie, especially from his sonne Nantaquans, the most
manliest, comeliest, boldest spirit, I ever saw in a Salvage, and his sister
Pocahontas, the Kings most deare and wel-beloved daughter, being but a
childe of twelve or thirteene yeeres of age, whose compassionate pitifull
heart, of my desperate estate, gave me much cause to respect her: I being
the first Christian this proud King and his grim attendants ever saw: and

thus inthralled in their barbarous power, I cannot say I felt the least
occasion of want that was in the power of those my mortall foes to prevent,
notwithstanding al their threats. After some six weeks fatting amongst those
Salvage Courtiers, at the minute of my execution, she hazarded the beating
out of her owne braines to save mine, and not onely that, but so prevailed
with her father, that I was safely conducted to James towne, where I found
about eight and thirtie miserable poore and sicke creatures, to keepe
possession of all those large territories of Virginia, such was the weaknesse
of this poore Commonwealth, as had the Salvages not fed us, we directly
had starved.
And this reliefe, most gracious Queene, was commonly [IV.122.]
brought us by this Lady Pocahontas, notwithstanding all these passages
when inconstant Fortune turned our peace to warre, this tender Virgin
would still not spare to dare to visit us, and by her our jarres have beene oft
appeased, and our wants still supplyed; were it the policie of her father thus
to imploy her, or the ordinance of God thus to make her his instrument, or
her extraordinarie affection to our Nation, I know not: but of this I am sure;
when her father with the utmost of his policie and power, sought to surprize
mee, having but eighteene with mee, the darke night could not affright her
from comming through the irkesome woods, and with watered eies gave me
intelligence, with her best advice to escape his furie; which had hee
knowne, hee had surely slaine her. James towne with her wild traine she as
freely frequented, as her fathers habitation; and during the time of two or
three yeeres, she next under God, was still the instrument to preserve this
Colonie from death, famine and utter confusion, which if in those times had
once beene dissolved, Virginia might have line as it was at our first arrivall
to this day. Since then, this businesse having beene turned and varied by
many accidents from that I left it at: it is most certaine, after a long and
troublesome warre after my departure, betwixt her father and our Colonie,
all which time shee was not heard of, about two yeeres after shee her selfe
was taken prisoner, being so detained neere two yeeres longer, the Colonie
by that meanes was relieved, peace concluded, and at last rejecting her
barbarous condition, was maried to an English Gentleman, with whom at
this present she is in England; the first Christian ever of that Nation, the
first Virginian ever spake English, or had a childe in mariage by an

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