The art &architecture of the vijaynagar empire
UdayDokras2
2,176 views
50 slides
Feb 20, 2022
Slide 1 of 50
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
About This Presentation
The art &architecture of the vijaynagar empire
Slide Content
1
The Art & Architecture of the Vijaynagar Empire
Dr Uday Dokras
The Art & Architecture of the Vijaynagar Empire
Dr Uday Dokras
2
Virupaksha temple By 1500 CE,
Hampi-Vijayanagara was the world's second-largest medieval-era city after Beijing, and probably India's richest at that
time, attracting traders from Persia and Portugal. The Vijayanagara Empire was defeated by a coalition of Muslim
sultanates; its capital was conquered, pillaged and destroyed by sultanate armies in 1565, after which Hampi remained in
ruins.
Gandaberunda emblem in the Mysore Palace. This is now the official emblem of Karnataka state in India
1. Vijayanagar Empire: A Hindu state based in the Deccan plateau region of South India
that reigned from 1336–1646 CE, when it was conquered by the Muslim Sultans of
Bijapur and Golkonda.
2. gopuram: A monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in
Southern India.
3. hippogryphs: A legendary creature that has the front half of an eagle and the hind half of a
horse.
4. Chronicles left by Persian and European travellers, particularly Portuguese, say that it was
a prosperous, wealthy & grand city near the Tungabhadra River, with temples, farms &
trading markets.
5. By 1500 CE, Hampi-Vijayanagara was world's second-largest medieval-era city after
Beijing, and probably India's richest, attracting traders from Persia and Portugal. *)The
Vijayanagara Empire was defeated by a coalition of Muslim sultanates and was destroyed
and ruined
6. Now I would discuss about some of the important sites to watch in Hampi
7. Virupaksha temple and market complex
8. The Virupaksha temple is the oldest shrine, the principal destination for pilgrims and
tourists, and remains an active Hindu worship site. *)The temple is a collection of smaller
Virupaksha temple By 1500 CE,
Hampi-Vijayanagara was the world's second-largest medieval-era city after Beijing, and probably India's richest at that
time, attracting traders from Persia and Portugal. The Vijayanagara Empire was defeated by a coalition of Muslim
sultanates; its capital was conquered, pillaged and destroyed by sultanate armies in 1565, after which Hampi remained in
ruins.
Gandaberunda emblem in the Mysore Palace. This is now the official emblem of Karnataka state in India
1. Vijayanagar Empire: A Hindu state based in the Deccan plateau region of South India
that reigned from 1336–1646 CE, when it was conquered by the Muslim Sultans of
Bijapur and Golkonda.
2. gopuram: A monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in
Southern India.
3. hippogryphs: A legendary creature that has the front half of an eagle and the hind half of a
horse.
4. Chronicles left by Persian and European travellers, particularly Portuguese, say that it was
a prosperous, wealthy & grand city near the Tungabhadra River, with temples, farms &
trading markets.
5. By 1500 CE, Hampi-Vijayanagara was world's second-largest medieval-era city after
Beijing, and probably India's richest, attracting traders from Persia and Portugal. *)The
Vijayanagara Empire was defeated by a coalition of Muslim sultanates and was destroyed
and ruined
6. Now I would discuss about some of the important sites to watch in Hampi
7. Virupaksha temple and market complex
8. The Virupaksha temple is the oldest shrine, the principal destination for pilgrims and
tourists, and remains an active Hindu worship site. *)The temple is a collection of smaller
3
temples, a regularly repainted, 50-metre (160 ft) high gopuram, a Hindu monastery
dedicated to
9. Vidyaranya of Advaita Vedanta tradition, a water tank (Manmatha), a community kitchen,
other monuments and a 750 metres (2,460 ft)-long ruined stone market with a monolithic
Nandi shrine on the east end. *) The market was Probable richest in entire India during
Mediaval age.
10. Krishna temple, Narasimha and Linga *)The Krishna temple, also called Balakrishna
temple, on the other side of Hemakuta hill, is about 1 kilometre south of Virupaksha
temple. *)It is dated to 1515 CE; this part of the Hampi complex is called Krishnapura in
inscriptions
11. Lakshmi Narasimha Temple
12. The Narasimha monolith originally had goddess Lakshmi with him, but it shows signs of
extensive damage and a carbon-stained floor—evidence of attempts to burn the shrine
down.
13. The statue has been cleaned and parts of the shrine have been restored
14. This is Gaint Shiva Linga
15. Achyutaraya temple and market complex
16. The Achyutaraya temple, also called the Tiruvengalanatha temple is 1 kilometre east of
Virupaksha temple and close to the Tungabhadra River. It is referred to be in Achyutapura
and is dated to 1534 CE. Its one of the largest complexes here
17. Vitthala temple and market complex *)The Vitthala temple and market complex is over 3
kilometres north-east of the Virupaksha temple near the banks of the Tungabhadra River. It
is the most artistically sophisticated Hindu temple in Hampi, and is part of the sacred
centre.
18. Near Temple, The Garuda shrine in the form of stone chariot at Vitthala temple which is
one of the World famous Sites.
19. Hemakuta hill monuments -The Hemakuta hill lies between the Virupaksha temple
complex to the north and Krishna temple to the south. Its a collection of modestly sized
monuments that are the best examples for pre-Vijayanagara and early-Vijayanagara
temples and construction.
20. Hazara Rama temple-The Hazara Rama temple, referred to as the Ramachandra temple in
inscriptions, occupied the western part of the urban core in the royal centre section of
Hampi. This temple was dedicated to Rama. It was the ceremonial temple for the royal
family.
21. 1 -Outer walls of the Hazara Rama temple show Hindu festive procession 2- Jain tirthankar
relief inside the temple.
22. There are also Areas like-Kodandarama temple and riverside monuments *)Pattabhirama
temple complex Mahanavami platform, public square complex
23. Water infrastructure -The Square Water Pavilion, also called the Queen's Bath, is in the
south-east of the royal centre.
temples, a regularly repainted, 50-metre (160 ft) high gopuram, a Hindu monastery
dedicated to
9. Vidyaranya of Advaita Vedanta tradition, a water tank (Manmatha), a community kitchen,
other monuments and a 750 metres (2,460 ft)-long ruined stone market with a monolithic
Nandi shrine on the east end. *) The market was Probable richest in entire India during
Mediaval age.
10. Krishna temple, Narasimha and Linga *)The Krishna temple, also called Balakrishna
temple, on the other side of Hemakuta hill, is about 1 kilometre south of Virupaksha
temple. *)It is dated to 1515 CE; this part of the Hampi complex is called Krishnapura in
inscriptions
11. Lakshmi Narasimha Temple
12. The Narasimha monolith originally had goddess Lakshmi with him, but it shows signs of
extensive damage and a carbon-stained floor—evidence of attempts to burn the shrine
down.
13. The statue has been cleaned and parts of the shrine have been restored
14. This is Gaint Shiva Linga
15. Achyutaraya temple and market complex
16. The Achyutaraya temple, also called the Tiruvengalanatha temple is 1 kilometre east of
Virupaksha temple and close to the Tungabhadra River. It is referred to be in Achyutapura
and is dated to 1534 CE. Its one of the largest complexes here
17. Vitthala temple and market complex *)The Vitthala temple and market complex is over 3
kilometres north-east of the Virupaksha temple near the banks of the Tungabhadra River. It
is the most artistically sophisticated Hindu temple in Hampi, and is part of the sacred
centre.
18. Near Temple, The Garuda shrine in the form of stone chariot at Vitthala temple which is
one of the World famous Sites.
19. Hemakuta hill monuments -The Hemakuta hill lies between the Virupaksha temple
complex to the north and Krishna temple to the south. Its a collection of modestly sized
monuments that are the best examples for pre-Vijayanagara and early-Vijayanagara
temples and construction.
20. Hazara Rama temple-The Hazara Rama temple, referred to as the Ramachandra temple in
inscriptions, occupied the western part of the urban core in the royal centre section of
Hampi. This temple was dedicated to Rama. It was the ceremonial temple for the royal
family.
21. 1 -Outer walls of the Hazara Rama temple show Hindu festive procession 2- Jain tirthankar
relief inside the temple.
22. There are also Areas like-Kodandarama temple and riverside monuments *)Pattabhirama
temple complex Mahanavami platform, public square complex
23. Water infrastructure -The Square Water Pavilion, also called the Queen's Bath, is in the
south-east of the royal centre.
4
24. There were also fountains and community kitchens. - Below One is Stable of Elephants and
other is Lotus Mahal.
25. There are also Jain monuments like Ganagitti Jain temple and Tomb of Ahmad Khan.
26. THE THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE ARE:
27. THE PRINCIPAL DEITY WAS VITTHLA A FORM OF LORD "VISHNU".
28. THE TEMPLE HAS SEVERAL HALLS AND A SHRINE DESIGNED AS A
CHARIOT.
29. A CHARACTERISTIC FEA TURE OF THE TEMPLE IS COMPLEXES IS THE
CHARIOT STREETS THAT EXTENDED FROM THE TEMPLE GOPURAM IN A
STRAIGHT LINE.
INTRODUCTION
The Vijayanagara Empire, also called Karnata Kingdom, was based in the Deccan
Plateau region in South India. It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka
Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, members of a pastoralist cowherd community that
claimed Yadava lineage. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the
southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. At its peak, it
subjugated almost all of South India's ruling families and pushed the sultans of the Deccan
beyond the Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab region, in addition to annexing modern
day Odisha (ancient Kalinga) from the Gajapati Kingdom thus becoming a notable power. It
lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in the Battle of
Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its
capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage
Site in Karnataka, India. The wealth and fame of the empire inspired visits by and writings of
medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolò de' Conti. These
travelogues, contemporary literature and epigraphy in the local languages and modern
archeological excavations at Vijayanagara has provided ample information about the history and
power of the empire.
The empire's legacy includes monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is
the group at Hampi. Different temple building traditions in South and Central India were merged
into the Vijayanagara architecture style. This synthesis inspired architectural innovations in the
construction of Hindu temples. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new
technologies to the region such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's
patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil,
and Sanskrit with topics such as astronomy, mathematics, medicine, fiction, musicology,
historiography and theater gaining popularity. The classical music of Southern India, Carnatic
music, evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in the history of
Southern India that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor.
Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Hindu states of the Deccan –
the Yadava Empire of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, and the Pandyan
Empire of Madurai – were repeatedly raided and attacked by Muslims from the north. By 1336
24. There were also fountains and community kitchens. - Below One is Stable of Elephants and
other is Lotus Mahal.
25. There are also Jain monuments like Ganagitti Jain temple and Tomb of Ahmad Khan.
26. THE THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE ARE:
27. THE PRINCIPAL DEITY WAS VITTHLA A FORM OF LORD "VISHNU".
28. THE TEMPLE HAS SEVERAL HALLS AND A SHRINE DESIGNED AS A
CHARIOT.
29. A CHARACTERISTIC FEA TURE OF THE TEMPLE IS COMPLEXES IS THE
CHARIOT STREETS THAT EXTENDED FROM THE TEMPLE GOPURAM IN A
STRAIGHT LINE.
INTRODUCTION
The Vijayanagara Empire, also called Karnata Kingdom, was based in the Deccan
Plateau region in South India. It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka
Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, members of a pastoralist cowherd community that
claimed Yadava lineage. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the
southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. At its peak, it
subjugated almost all of South India's ruling families and pushed the sultans of the Deccan
beyond the Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab region, in addition to annexing modern
day Odisha (ancient Kalinga) from the Gajapati Kingdom thus becoming a notable power. It
lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in the Battle of
Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its
capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage
Site in Karnataka, India. The wealth and fame of the empire inspired visits by and writings of
medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolò de' Conti. These
travelogues, contemporary literature and epigraphy in the local languages and modern
archeological excavations at Vijayanagara has provided ample information about the history and
power of the empire.
The empire's legacy includes monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is
the group at Hampi. Different temple building traditions in South and Central India were merged
into the Vijayanagara architecture style. This synthesis inspired architectural innovations in the
construction of Hindu temples. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new
technologies to the region such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's
patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil,
and Sanskrit with topics such as astronomy, mathematics, medicine, fiction, musicology,
historiography and theater gaining popularity. The classical music of Southern India, Carnatic
music, evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in the history of
Southern India that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor.
Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Hindu states of the Deccan –
the Yadava Empire of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, and the Pandyan
Empire of Madurai – were repeatedly raided and attacked by Muslims from the north. By 1336
5
the upper Deccan region (modern-day Maharashtra and Telangana) had been defeated by armies
of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate.
Further south in the Deccan region, Hoysala commander Singeya Nayaka-III declared
independence after the Muslim forces of the Delhi Sultanate defeated and captured the territories
of the Yadava Empire in 1294 CE. He created the Kampili
kingdom near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra River in the northeastern parts of present-
day Karnataka state. The kingdom collapsed after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate and
upon their defeat, the populace committed a jauhar (ritual mass suicide) in c. 1327–28. The
Vijayanagara Kingdom was founded in 1336 CE as a successor to the hitherto prosperous Hindu
kingdoms of the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, and the Yadavas with the breakaway Kampili
Kingdom adding a new dimension to the resistance to the Muslim invasion of South India.
Two theories have been proposed regarding the linguistic origins of the Vijayanagara
empire. One is that Harihara I and Bukka-I, the founders of the empire, were Kannadigas and
commanders in the army of the Hoysala Empire stationed in the Tungabhadra region to ward off
Muslim invasions from Northern India. Another theory is that Harihara and Bukkaraya
were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom, who took control of the
northern parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline. They were believed to have been
captured by the army of Ulugh Khan at Warangal. According to tradition, based on a Telugu-
narrative, the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at
the Sringeri monastery, to fight the Muslim invasion of South India, but the role of Vidyaranya
in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is not certain.
Architecture
Virupaksha temple, Raja Gopura (main tower over entrance gate) at Hampi, Karnataka
the upper Deccan region (modern-day Maharashtra and Telangana) had been defeated by armies
of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate.
Further south in the Deccan region, Hoysala commander Singeya Nayaka-III declared
independence after the Muslim forces of the Delhi Sultanate defeated and captured the territories
of the Yadava Empire in 1294 CE. He created the Kampili
kingdom near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra River in the northeastern parts of present-
day Karnataka state. The kingdom collapsed after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate and
upon their defeat, the populace committed a jauhar (ritual mass suicide) in c. 1327–28. The
Vijayanagara Kingdom was founded in 1336 CE as a successor to the hitherto prosperous Hindu
kingdoms of the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, and the Yadavas with the breakaway Kampili
Kingdom adding a new dimension to the resistance to the Muslim invasion of South India.
Two theories have been proposed regarding the linguistic origins of the Vijayanagara
empire. One is that Harihara I and Bukka-I, the founders of the empire, were Kannadigas and
commanders in the army of the Hoysala Empire stationed in the Tungabhadra region to ward off
Muslim invasions from Northern India. Another theory is that Harihara and Bukkaraya
were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom, who took control of the
northern parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline. They were believed to have been
captured by the army of Ulugh Khan at Warangal. According to tradition, based on a Telugu-
narrative, the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at
the Sringeri monastery, to fight the Muslim invasion of South India, but the role of Vidyaranya
in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is not certain.
Architecture
Virupaksha temple, Raja Gopura (main tower over entrance gate) at Hampi, Karnataka
6
Typical dravidian style Shikhara (superstructure) over shrines at the Raghunatha temple in
Hampi/Typical dravidian shrine and mantapa of the Vijayanagara period at Balakrishna temple
in Ha mpi
Vijayanagara architecture of 1336–1565 CE was a notable building idiom that developed
during the rule of the imperial Hindu Vijayanagara Empire. The empire ruled South India, from
their regal capital at Vijayanagara, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in
modern Karnataka, India. The empire built temples, monuments, palaces and other structures
across South India, with a largest concentration in its capital. The monuments in and
around Hampi, in the Vijayanagara principality, are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In addition to building new temples, the empire added new structures and made modifications to
hundreds of temples across South India. Some structures at Vijayanagara are from the pre-
Vijayanagara period. The Mahakuta hill temples are from the Western Chalukya era. The region
around Hampi had been a popular place of worship for centuries before the Vijayanagara period
with earliest records dating from 689 CE when it was known as Pampa Tirtha after the local
river God Pampa.
There are hundreds of monuments in the core area of the capital city. Of these, 56 are protected
by UNESCO, 654 monuments are protected by the government of Karnataka and another 300
await protection.
Salient features
Early 14th century Shiva temples on Hemakuta hill built during the rule of Harihara Raya I
incorporates the stepped Kadamba style nagara shikhara (superstructure)/ The mid-14th century
Vidyashankara temple at Sringeri, one of the earliest temples built by the kings of the empire
Typical dravidian style Shikhara (superstructure) over shrines at the Raghunatha temple in
Hampi/Typical dravidian shrine and mantapa of the Vijayanagara period at Balakrishna temple
in Ha mpi
Vijayanagara architecture of 1336–1565 CE was a notable building idiom that developed
during the rule of the imperial Hindu Vijayanagara Empire. The empire ruled South India, from
their regal capital at Vijayanagara, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in
modern Karnataka, India. The empire built temples, monuments, palaces and other structures
across South India, with a largest concentration in its capital. The monuments in and
around Hampi, in the Vijayanagara principality, are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In addition to building new temples, the empire added new structures and made modifications to
hundreds of temples across South India. Some structures at Vijayanagara are from the pre-
Vijayanagara period. The Mahakuta hill temples are from the Western Chalukya era. The region
around Hampi had been a popular place of worship for centuries before the Vijayanagara period
with earliest records dating from 689 CE when it was known as Pampa Tirtha after the local
river God Pampa.
There are hundreds of monuments in the core area of the capital city. Of these, 56 are protected
by UNESCO, 654 monuments are protected by the government of Karnataka and another 300
await protection.
Salient features
Early 14th century Shiva temples on Hemakuta hill built during the rule of Harihara Raya I
incorporates the stepped Kadamba style nagara shikhara (superstructure)/ The mid-14th century
Vidyashankara temple at Sringeri, one of the earliest temples built by the kings of the empire
7
Typical shrine at Hazare Rama temple in Hampi/ A typical Vijayanagara style pillared maha
mantapa (main hall) at Someshvara temple at Kolar
Pillared open mantapa incorporating Hoysala style "staggered square" layout at Vittala temple in
Hampi/ Typical large open pillared hall at Ananthasayana temple in Ananthasayanagudi, Bellary
district, Karnataka
An open mantapa with yali columns at the Vittala temple in Hampi
Vijayanagara architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly and civic architecture,
as can the associated sculptures and paintings. The Vijayanagara style is a combination of
the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when
these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past.
.
For the approximately 400 years during the rule of the Western Chalukya and
the Hoysalas empires, the most popular material for temple construction was
chloritic schist or soapstone. This was also true for sculpture as soapstone is soft and easily
carved. During the Vijayanagar period the local hard granite was preferred in
Typical shrine at Hazare Rama temple in Hampi/ A typical Vijayanagara style pillared maha
mantapa (main hall) at Someshvara temple at Kolar
Pillared open mantapa incorporating Hoysala style "staggered square" layout at Vittala temple in
Hampi/ Typical large open pillared hall at Ananthasayana temple in Ananthasayanagudi, Bellary
district, Karnataka
An open mantapa with yali columns at the Vittala temple in Hampi
Vijayanagara architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly and civic architecture,
as can the associated sculptures and paintings. The Vijayanagara style is a combination of
the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when
these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past.
.
For the approximately 400 years during the rule of the Western Chalukya and
the Hoysalas empires, the most popular material for temple construction was
chloritic schist or soapstone. This was also true for sculpture as soapstone is soft and easily
carved. During the Vijayanagar period the local hard granite was preferred in
8
the Badami Chalukya style, although soapstone was used for a few reliefs and sculptures.
material for the temple structure. Because granite is prone to flaking, few pieces of individual
sculptures reached the high levels of quality seen in previous centuries. To cover the unevenness
of the stone used in sculptures, artists employed plaster to give the rough surface a smooth finish
and then painted it with lively colours.
Vijayanagara temples are usually surrounded by a strong enclosure. Small shrines consist simply
of a garbhagriha (sanctum) and a porch. Medium -sized temples have
a garbhagriha, shukanasi (antechamber), a navaranga (antrala) connecting the sanctum and
outer mandapa (hall), and a rangamantapa (enclosed pillared hall). Large temples have tall
Rayagopuram built with wood, brick and stucco in Chola style. The term Raya is added to
indicate a gopura built by Vijayanagar Rayas. The top of the gopuram has
a shalashikhara resembling a barrel made to rest on its side. Large life-size figures of men,
woman, Gods and Goddesses adorn the gopuram. This Tamil dravida-influenced style became
popular during the rule of king Krishnadevaraya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed
over the next 200 years. Examples of Rayagopuram are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur and
the temples at Srisailam and Srirangam. In addition to these structures, medium-size temples
have a closed circumambulatory (Pradakshinapatha) passage around the sanctum, an
open mahamantapa (large hall), a kalyanamantapa (ceremonial hall) and a temple tank to serve
the needs of annual celebrations.
Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (Yali) — horses
standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their backs. The horses on some
pillars stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the pillar are usually carvings
from Hindu mythology.
[8]
Pillars that do not have such hippogryphs are generally rectangular
with mythology themed decoration on all sides. Some pillars have a cluster of smaller pillars
around a central pillar shaft. The bottom supports of these pillars have engravings
of Gods and Goddesses. Carvings of hippogryphs clearly show the adroitness of the artists who
created them.
The Mandapas are built on square or polygonal plinths with carved friezes that are four to five
feet high and have ornate stepped entrances on all four sides with miniature elephants or
with Yali balustrades (parapets). The Mantapas are supported by ornate pillars. The 1,000-
pillared style with large halls supported by numerous pillars was popular. The 1,000-pillared
Jain basadi at Mudabidri is an example. Larger temples have a separate shrine for the female
deity. Some examples of this are the Hazara Rama, Balakrishna and Vitthala temples at Hampi.
Some shrines in the Vitthalapura area inside Vijayanagara were consecrated specifically for
Tamil Alwar saints and for the great Vaishnava saint, Ramanujacharya. Architecturally they are
different in that each shrine has an image depicting the saint for whose worship the temple was
built. Each shrine has its own enclosure and a separate kitchen and pilgrim feeding hall. The
water storage tank inside the royal center, the [stepwell stepped tank] called, "Pushkarni", is a
recent archaeological discovery. The stepped tank is fashioned with finished chlorite schist slabs
arranged in a symmetrical formation with steps and landings descending to the water on all four
sides. This is clearly a Western Chalukya-Hoysala style tank and is seen in many parts of
present-day Karnataka. The inscriptions on the slabs indicate the material was brought from
outside the Vijayanagara area.
the Badami Chalukya style, although soapstone was used for a few reliefs and sculptures.
material for the temple structure. Because granite is prone to flaking, few pieces of individual
sculptures reached the high levels of quality seen in previous centuries. To cover the unevenness
of the stone used in sculptures, artists employed plaster to give the rough surface a smooth finish
and then painted it with lively colours.
Vijayanagara temples are usually surrounded by a strong enclosure. Small shrines consist simply
of a garbhagriha (sanctum) and a porch. Medium -sized temples have
a garbhagriha, shukanasi (antechamber), a navaranga (antrala) connecting the sanctum and
outer mandapa (hall), and a rangamantapa (enclosed pillared hall). Large temples have tall
Rayagopuram built with wood, brick and stucco in Chola style. The term Raya is added to
indicate a gopura built by Vijayanagar Rayas. The top of the gopuram has
a shalashikhara resembling a barrel made to rest on its side. Large life-size figures of men,
woman, Gods and Goddesses adorn the gopuram. This Tamil dravida-influenced style became
popular during the rule of king Krishnadevaraya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed
over the next 200 years. Examples of Rayagopuram are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur and
the temples at Srisailam and Srirangam. In addition to these structures, medium-size temples
have a closed circumambulatory (Pradakshinapatha) passage around the sanctum, an
open mahamantapa (large hall), a kalyanamantapa (ceremonial hall) and a temple tank to serve
the needs of annual celebrations.
Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (Yali) — horses
standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their backs. The horses on some
pillars stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the pillar are usually carvings
from Hindu mythology.
[8]
Pillars that do not have such hippogryphs are generally rectangular
with mythology themed decoration on all sides. Some pillars have a cluster of smaller pillars
around a central pillar shaft. The bottom supports of these pillars have engravings
of Gods and Goddesses. Carvings of hippogryphs clearly show the adroitness of the artists who
created them.
The Mandapas are built on square or polygonal plinths with carved friezes that are four to five
feet high and have ornate stepped entrances on all four sides with miniature elephants or
with Yali balustrades (parapets). The Mantapas are supported by ornate pillars. The 1,000-
pillared style with large halls supported by numerous pillars was popular. The 1,000-pillared
Jain basadi at Mudabidri is an example. Larger temples have a separate shrine for the female
deity. Some examples of this are the Hazara Rama, Balakrishna and Vitthala temples at Hampi.
Some shrines in the Vitthalapura area inside Vijayanagara were consecrated specifically for
Tamil Alwar saints and for the great Vaishnava saint, Ramanujacharya. Architecturally they are
different in that each shrine has an image depicting the saint for whose worship the temple was
built. Each shrine has its own enclosure and a separate kitchen and pilgrim feeding hall. The
water storage tank inside the royal center, the [stepwell stepped tank] called, "Pushkarni", is a
recent archaeological discovery. The stepped tank is fashioned with finished chlorite schist slabs
arranged in a symmetrical formation with steps and landings descending to the water on all four
sides. This is clearly a Western Chalukya-Hoysala style tank and is seen in many parts of
present-day Karnataka. The inscriptions on the slabs indicate the material was brought from
outside the Vijayanagara area.
9
P A L A C E S
Much of what is known today of Vijayanagara palaces is drawn from archaeological excavations
at Hampi as no royal palace structures have survived.
[14]
Most palaces stand in their own
compound defined by high tapering walls made of stone or layered earth. Palaces are approached
through a sequence of courts with passageways and doorways requiring multiple changes in
direction. All palaces face east or north. The larger palaces have side extensions giving the
complex a symmetrical shape.
Palaces were built on raised platforms made of granite. The platforms have multiple tiers of
mouldings with well-decorated friezes. The decorations can be floral, Kirtimukha shapes (demon
faces), geese, elephants and occasionally human figures. Pillars, beams and rafters inside the
palace were made of wood as evidenced by ash discovered in excavations. The roof was made of
brick or lime concrete, while copper and ivory were used for finials. Palaces commonly consisted
of multiple levels with each flight of stairs decorated by balustrades on either side, with
either yali (imaginary beast) or elephant sculptures. The entrance steps into palaces and
temple mantapas were similarly decorated. Water tanks inside the palace complex have
decorative water spouts such as the carved torso of the Nandi with a gaping mouth to allow water
flow into the tank.Other structures commonly found inside a palace complex are wells and
shrines.
The courtly architecture generally show secular styles with Islamic influences. Examples are the
Lotus Mahal palace, Elephant stables, and watch towers. Courtly buildings and domed structures
were built with mortar mixed with stone rubble.
The impact of this style of architecture was seen well into the 17th century when the successive
Nayaka kingdoms continued to encourage pillars with hippogryphs and granite became the main
building material.
While the empire is well known for its monuments in the regal capital Vijayanagara (a UNESCO
World Heritage Site), it also built temples in other regions of Karnataka including the coastal
region (called Karavali) where the Vijayanagara idiom mingled with local styles. A List of these
temples and their approximate time of construction is given in the article List of Vijayanagara
era temples in Karnataka.
In Andhra Pradesh the empire built the Mallikarjuna Temple at Srisailam, Upper Narasimha
Temple and Lower Narasimha Temple at Ahobilam, Veera Bhadra Temple
at Lepakshi and Venkateswara Temple at Tirupati and others. In Tamil Nadu the empire built the
Vijayaraghava Permal temple modeled after the famous temples at Tirupati with statues of
Krishnadevaraya in Thayar Sanithi pillars facing each other.
P A L A C E S
Much of what is known today of Vijayanagara palaces is drawn from archaeological excavations
at Hampi as no royal palace structures have survived.
[14]
Most palaces stand in their own
compound defined by high tapering walls made of stone or layered earth. Palaces are approached
through a sequence of courts with passageways and doorways requiring multiple changes in
direction. All palaces face east or north. The larger palaces have side extensions giving the
complex a symmetrical shape.
Palaces were built on raised platforms made of granite. The platforms have multiple tiers of
mouldings with well-decorated friezes. The decorations can be floral, Kirtimukha shapes (demon
faces), geese, elephants and occasionally human figures. Pillars, beams and rafters inside the
palace were made of wood as evidenced by ash discovered in excavations. The roof was made of
brick or lime concrete, while copper and ivory were used for finials. Palaces commonly consisted
of multiple levels with each flight of stairs decorated by balustrades on either side, with
either yali (imaginary beast) or elephant sculptures. The entrance steps into palaces and
temple mantapas were similarly decorated. Water tanks inside the palace complex have
decorative water spouts such as the carved torso of the Nandi with a gaping mouth to allow water
flow into the tank.Other structures commonly found inside a palace complex are wells and
shrines.
The courtly architecture generally show secular styles with Islamic influences. Examples are the
Lotus Mahal palace, Elephant stables, and watch towers. Courtly buildings and domed structures
were built with mortar mixed with stone rubble.
The impact of this style of architecture was seen well into the 17th century when the successive
Nayaka kingdoms continued to encourage pillars with hippogryphs and granite became the main
building material.
While the empire is well known for its monuments in the regal capital Vijayanagara (a UNESCO
World Heritage Site), it also built temples in other regions of Karnataka including the coastal
region (called Karavali) where the Vijayanagara idiom mingled with local styles. A List of these
temples and their approximate time of construction is given in the article List of Vijayanagara
era temples in Karnataka.
In Andhra Pradesh the empire built the Mallikarjuna Temple at Srisailam, Upper Narasimha
Temple and Lower Narasimha Temple at Ahobilam, Veera Bhadra Temple
at Lepakshi and Venkateswara Temple at Tirupati and others. In Tamil Nadu the empire built the
Vijayaraghava Permal temple modeled after the famous temples at Tirupati with statues of
Krishnadevaraya in Thayar Sanithi pillars facing each other.
10
Typical Vijayanagara style dravida shikhara (south Indian style tower over shrine) at the
Someshvara temple at Kolar (14th century)/ Yali pillars at Ranganatha temple, Rangasthala,
Chikkaballapur district, Karnataka
Yali pillars at Ranganatha temple in Neerthadi, Chitradurga district, Karnataka/Yali pillars of
a mantapa at Vittala temple, Hampi
1. Pillared hall in Veera Bhadra temple, Lepakshi
2. A mantapa with hippogryphs at Melkote
3. Ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa in Cheluva Narayana temple, Melkote
4. Pillared hall in Raghunatha temple, Hampi
Kudure Gombe (horse doll) mantapa in Hampi/Elephant balustrade leading to
open mantapa in Raghunatha temple in Hampi/Yali pillars with Hippogryphs at Hampi
Typical Vijayanagara style dravida shikhara (south Indian style tower over shrine) at the
Someshvara temple at Kolar (14th century)/ Yali pillars at Ranganatha temple, Rangasthala,
Chikkaballapur district, Karnataka
Yali pillars at Ranganatha temple in Neerthadi, Chitradurga district, Karnataka/Yali pillars of
a mantapa at Vittala temple, Hampi
1. Pillared hall in Veera Bhadra temple, Lepakshi
2. A mantapa with hippogryphs at Melkote
3. Ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa in Cheluva Narayana temple, Melkote
4. Pillared hall in Raghunatha temple, Hampi
Kudure Gombe (horse doll) mantapa in Hampi/Elephant balustrade leading to
open mantapa in Raghunatha temple in Hampi/Yali pillars with Hippogryphs at Hampi
11
Yali pillars in Aghoreshwara Temple at Ikkeri in Shimoga District/Market place
at Hampi and the sacred tank located near the Krishna temple
Temple car at the Vittala temple in Hampi
Vijayanagara architecture, according to art critic Percy Brown is a vibrant combination and
blossoming of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in
previous centuries. Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development
of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the
ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and
the Rayagopura (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability
since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. An open-air theatre of monuments at its
capital at Vijayanagara is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In the 14th century, the kings continued to build vesara or Deccan-style monuments but later
incorporated Dravida-style gopuras to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha
temple (underground temple) of Bukka and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya are examples
of Deccan architecture.
[170]
The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their
work. At Hampi, the Vitthala and Hazara Ramaswamy temples are examples of their
pillared Kalyanamantapa style. A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and
serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty. The Vitthala temple took several decades to
complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings.
Yali pillars in Aghoreshwara Temple at Ikkeri in Shimoga District/Market place
at Hampi and the sacred tank located near the Krishna temple
Temple car at the Vittala temple in Hampi
Vijayanagara architecture, according to art critic Percy Brown is a vibrant combination and
blossoming of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in
previous centuries. Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development
of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the
ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and
the Rayagopura (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability
since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. An open-air theatre of monuments at its
capital at Vijayanagara is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In the 14th century, the kings continued to build vesara or Deccan-style monuments but later
incorporated Dravida-style gopuras to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha
temple (underground temple) of Bukka and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya are examples
of Deccan architecture.
[170]
The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their
work. At Hampi, the Vitthala and Hazara Ramaswamy temples are examples of their
pillared Kalyanamantapa style. A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and
serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty. The Vitthala temple took several decades to
complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings.
12
Aerial view of the Meenakshi Temple, Madurai. The temple was rebuilt by the Nayaks rulers
under the Vijayanagar Empire
Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving and consecration of
large monoliths such as the Sasivekaalu (mustard) Ganesha and Kadalekaalu (ground nut)
Ganesha at Hampi, the Gommateshwara (Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur, and
the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. The Vijayanagara temples of Kolar, Kanakagiri, Sringeri and other
towns of Karnataka; the temples of Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara
Temple and Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh ; and the temples
of Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are examples of this style.
Vijayanagara art includes wall-paintings such as the Dashavatara and Girijakalyana (marriage
of Parvati, Shiva's consort) in the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi, the Shivapurana murals (tales of
Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi, and those at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples
at Kanchi. This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a new idiom of art not seen in
earlier centuries, a focus on reliefs in addition to sculpture differing from that previously in
India.
An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the
presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates
on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the
architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are
many arches, domes and vaults that show these influences. The concentration of structures
like pavilions, stables and towers suggests they were for use by royalty. The decorative details of
these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th
century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to
have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been Muslim
architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare
periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. The "Great Platform" (Mahanavami
Dibba) has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian
Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants.
Hoysala architecture is the building style in Hindu temple architecture developed under the rule
of the Hoysala Empire between the 11th and 14th centuries, in the region known today
as Karnataka, a state of India. Hoysala influence was at its peak in the 13th century, when it
dominated the Southern Deccan Plateau region. Large and small temples built during this era
remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava
Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava
Temple at Somanathapura. Other examples of Hoysala craftsmanship are the temples
at Belavadi, Amruthapura, Hosaholalu, Mosale, Arasikere, Basaralu, Kikkeri and Nuggehalli. St
Aerial view of the Meenakshi Temple, Madurai. The temple was rebuilt by the Nayaks rulers
under the Vijayanagar Empire
Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving and consecration of
large monoliths such as the Sasivekaalu (mustard) Ganesha and Kadalekaalu (ground nut)
Ganesha at Hampi, the Gommateshwara (Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur, and
the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. The Vijayanagara temples of Kolar, Kanakagiri, Sringeri and other
towns of Karnataka; the temples of Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara
Temple and Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh ; and the temples
of Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are examples of this style.
Vijayanagara art includes wall-paintings such as the Dashavatara and Girijakalyana (marriage
of Parvati, Shiva's consort) in the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi, the Shivapurana murals (tales of
Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi, and those at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples
at Kanchi. This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a new idiom of art not seen in
earlier centuries, a focus on reliefs in addition to sculpture differing from that previously in
India.
An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the
presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates
on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the
architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are
many arches, domes and vaults that show these influences. The concentration of structures
like pavilions, stables and towers suggests they were for use by royalty. The decorative details of
these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th
century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to
have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been Muslim
architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare
periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. The "Great Platform" (Mahanavami
Dibba) has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian
Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants.
Hoysala architecture is the building style in Hindu temple architecture developed under the rule
of the Hoysala Empire between the 11th and 14th centuries, in the region known today
as Karnataka, a state of India. Hoysala influence was at its peak in the 13th century, when it
dominated the Southern Deccan Plateau region. Large and small temples built during this era
remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava
Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava
Temple at Somanathapura. Other examples of Hoysala craftsmanship are the temples
at Belavadi, Amruthapura, Hosaholalu, Mosale, Arasikere, Basaralu, Kikkeri and Nuggehalli. St
13
udy of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the
impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct.
Temples built prior to Hoysala independence in the mid-12th century reflect significant Western
Chalukya influences, while later temples retain some features salient to Western Chalukya
architecture but have additional inventive decoration and ornamentation, features unique to
Hoysala artisans. Some three hundred temples are known to survive in present-day Karnataka
state and many more are mentioned in inscriptions, though only about seventy have been
documented. The greatest concentration of these are in the Malnad (hill) districts, the native
home of the Hoysala kings.
Hoysala architecture is classified by the influential scholar Adam Hardy as part of the Karnata
Dravida tradition, a trend within Dravidian architecture in the Deccan that is distinct from
the Tamil style of further south. Other terms for the tradition are Vesara, and Chalukya
architecture, divided into early Badami Chalukya architecture and the Western Chalukya
architecture which immediately preceded the Hoysalas. The whole tradition covers a period of
about seven centuries began in the 7th century under the patronage of the Chalukya
dynasty of Badami, developed further under the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta during the 9th and
10th centuries and the Western Chalukyas (or Later Chalukyas) of Basavakalyan in the 11th and
12th centuries. Its final development stage and transformation into an independent style was
during the rule of the Hoysalas in the 12th and 13th centuries.
[7]
Medieval inscriptions displayed
prominently at temple locations give information about donations made toward the maintenance
of the temple, details of consecration and on occasion, even architectural details
Vishnu with Lakshmi (Lakshminarayana) at Halebidu
Shiva, Parvati, Nandi at Halebidu
Hinduism is a combination of secular and sacred beliefs, rituals, daily practices and traditions
that has evolved over the course of over two thousand years and embodies complex symbolism
combining the natural world with philosophy.
Hindu temples began as simple shrines housing a deity and by the time of the Hoysalas had
evolved into well-articulated edifices in which worshippers sought transcendence of the daily
world. Hoysala temples were not limited to any specifically organised tradition of Hinduism and
encouraged pilgrims of different Hindu devotional movements. The Hoysalas usually dedicated
their temples to Shiva or to Vishnu (two of the popular Hindu gods), but they occasionally built
some temples dedicated to the Jain faith as well. Worshippers of Shiva are called Shaivas and
worshippers of Vishnu are called Vaishnavas. While King Vishnuvardhana and his descendants
were Vaishnava by faith,records show that the Hoysalas maintained religious harmony by
building as many temples dedicated to Shiva as they did to Vishnu.
Most of these temples have secular features with broad themes depicted in their sculptures. This
can be seen in the famous Chennakesava Temple at Belur dedicated to Vishnu and in
the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu dedicated to Shiva. The Kesava temple
at Somanathapura is different in that its ornamentation is strictly Vaishnava. Generally
Vaishnava temples are dedicated to Keshava (or to Chennakeshava, meaning "Beautiful
Vishnu") while a small number are dedicated to Lakshminarayana and Lakshminarasimha
(Narayana and Narasimha both being Avatars, or physical manifestations, of Vishnu)
udy of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the
impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct.
Temples built prior to Hoysala independence in the mid-12th century reflect significant Western
Chalukya influences, while later temples retain some features salient to Western Chalukya
architecture but have additional inventive decoration and ornamentation, features unique to
Hoysala artisans. Some three hundred temples are known to survive in present-day Karnataka
state and many more are mentioned in inscriptions, though only about seventy have been
documented. The greatest concentration of these are in the Malnad (hill) districts, the native
home of the Hoysala kings.
Hoysala architecture is classified by the influential scholar Adam Hardy as part of the Karnata
Dravida tradition, a trend within Dravidian architecture in the Deccan that is distinct from
the Tamil style of further south. Other terms for the tradition are Vesara, and Chalukya
architecture, divided into early Badami Chalukya architecture and the Western Chalukya
architecture which immediately preceded the Hoysalas. The whole tradition covers a period of
about seven centuries began in the 7th century under the patronage of the Chalukya
dynasty of Badami, developed further under the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta during the 9th and
10th centuries and the Western Chalukyas (or Later Chalukyas) of Basavakalyan in the 11th and
12th centuries. Its final development stage and transformation into an independent style was
during the rule of the Hoysalas in the 12th and 13th centuries.
[7]
Medieval inscriptions displayed
prominently at temple locations give information about donations made toward the maintenance
of the temple, details of consecration and on occasion, even architectural details
Vishnu with Lakshmi (Lakshminarayana) at Halebidu
Shiva, Parvati, Nandi at Halebidu
Hinduism is a combination of secular and sacred beliefs, rituals, daily practices and traditions
that has evolved over the course of over two thousand years and embodies complex symbolism
combining the natural world with philosophy.
Hindu temples began as simple shrines housing a deity and by the time of the Hoysalas had
evolved into well-articulated edifices in which worshippers sought transcendence of the daily
world. Hoysala temples were not limited to any specifically organised tradition of Hinduism and
encouraged pilgrims of different Hindu devotional movements. The Hoysalas usually dedicated
their temples to Shiva or to Vishnu (two of the popular Hindu gods), but they occasionally built
some temples dedicated to the Jain faith as well. Worshippers of Shiva are called Shaivas and
worshippers of Vishnu are called Vaishnavas. While King Vishnuvardhana and his descendants
were Vaishnava by faith,records show that the Hoysalas maintained religious harmony by
building as many temples dedicated to Shiva as they did to Vishnu.
Most of these temples have secular features with broad themes depicted in their sculptures. This
can be seen in the famous Chennakesava Temple at Belur dedicated to Vishnu and in
the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu dedicated to Shiva. The Kesava temple
at Somanathapura is different in that its ornamentation is strictly Vaishnava. Generally
Vaishnava temples are dedicated to Keshava (or to Chennakeshava, meaning "Beautiful
Vishnu") while a small number are dedicated to Lakshminarayana and Lakshminarasimha
(Narayana and Narasimha both being Avatars, or physical manifestations, of Vishnu)
14
with Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu, seated at his feet. Temples dedicated to Vishnu are always
named after the deity.
The Shaiva temples have a Shiva linga, symbol of fertility and the universal symbol of Shiva, in
the shrine. The names of Shiva temples can end with the suffix eshwara meaning "Lord of". The
name "Hoysaleswara", for instance, means "Lord of Hoysala". The temple can also be named
after the devotee who commissioned the construction of the temple, an example being the
Bucesvara temple at Koravangala, named after the devotee Buci. The most striking sculptural
decorations are the horizontal rows of mouldings with detailed relief, and intricately carved
images of gods, goddesses and their attendants on the outer temple wall panels.
The Doddagaddavalli Lakshmi Devi ("Goddess of Wealth") Temple is an exception as it is
dedicated to neither Vishnu nor Shiva. The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty (of
present-day south Karnataka) by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of
followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a
decreased interest in Jainism. However, two notable locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala
territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The Hoysalas built Jain temples to satisfy
the needs of its Jain population, a few of which have survived in Halebidu containing icons of
Jain tirthankaras. They constructed stepped wells called Pushkarni or Kalyani, the ornate tank at
Hulikere being an example. The tank has twelve minor shrines containing Hindu deities.
The two main deities found in Hoysala temple sculpture are Shiva and Vishnu in their various
forms and avatars (incarnations). Shiva is usually shown with four arms holding a trident and a
small drum among other emblems that symbolise objects worshiped independently of the divine
image with which they are associated. Any male icon portrayed in this way is Shiva although a
female icon may sometimes be portrayed with these attributes as Shiva's consort, Parvati.
Various depictions of Lord Shiva exist: showing him naked (fully or partially), in activities such
as slaying a demon (Andhaka) or dancing on the head of a slain elephant (Gajasura) and holding
its skin up behind his back. He is often accompanied by his consort Parvati or shown
with Nandi the bull. He may be represented as Bhairava, another of Shiva's many manifestations.
A male figure depicted holding certain objects such as a conch (symbol of eternal, heavenly
space) and a wheel (eternal time and destructive power) is Vishnu. If a female figure is depicted
holding these objects, she is seen as his consort, Lakshmi. In all the depictions Vishnu is holding
four objects: a conch, a wheel, a lotus and a Kaumodaki (mace). These can be held in any of the
icon's hands, making possible twenty-four different forms of Vishnu, each with a unique
name.
[19]
Apart from these, Vishnu is depicted in any of his ten avataras, which include Vishnu
sitting on Anantha (the celestial snake and keeper of life energy also known as Shesha), Vishnu
with Lakshmi seated on his lap (Lakshminarayana), with the head of a lion disembowelling a
demon on his lap (Lakshminarasimha), with head of a boar walking over a demon (Varaha), in
the Krishna avatar (as Venugopala or the cow herder playing the Venu (flute), dancing on the
head of the snake Kaliya, lifting a hill such as Govardhana), with his feet over head of a small
figure (Vamana), along with Indra riding an elephant, with Lakshmi seated on Garuda, and the
eagle (stealing the parijata tree).
TEMPLE COMPLEXES
with Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu, seated at his feet. Temples dedicated to Vishnu are always
named after the deity.
The Shaiva temples have a Shiva linga, symbol of fertility and the universal symbol of Shiva, in
the shrine. The names of Shiva temples can end with the suffix eshwara meaning "Lord of". The
name "Hoysaleswara", for instance, means "Lord of Hoysala". The temple can also be named
after the devotee who commissioned the construction of the temple, an example being the
Bucesvara temple at Koravangala, named after the devotee Buci. The most striking sculptural
decorations are the horizontal rows of mouldings with detailed relief, and intricately carved
images of gods, goddesses and their attendants on the outer temple wall panels.
The Doddagaddavalli Lakshmi Devi ("Goddess of Wealth") Temple is an exception as it is
dedicated to neither Vishnu nor Shiva. The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty (of
present-day south Karnataka) by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of
followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a
decreased interest in Jainism. However, two notable locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala
territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The Hoysalas built Jain temples to satisfy
the needs of its Jain population, a few of which have survived in Halebidu containing icons of
Jain tirthankaras. They constructed stepped wells called Pushkarni or Kalyani, the ornate tank at
Hulikere being an example. The tank has twelve minor shrines containing Hindu deities.
The two main deities found in Hoysala temple sculpture are Shiva and Vishnu in their various
forms and avatars (incarnations). Shiva is usually shown with four arms holding a trident and a
small drum among other emblems that symbolise objects worshiped independently of the divine
image with which they are associated. Any male icon portrayed in this way is Shiva although a
female icon may sometimes be portrayed with these attributes as Shiva's consort, Parvati.
Various depictions of Lord Shiva exist: showing him naked (fully or partially), in activities such
as slaying a demon (Andhaka) or dancing on the head of a slain elephant (Gajasura) and holding
its skin up behind his back. He is often accompanied by his consort Parvati or shown
with Nandi the bull. He may be represented as Bhairava, another of Shiva's many manifestations.
A male figure depicted holding certain objects such as a conch (symbol of eternal, heavenly
space) and a wheel (eternal time and destructive power) is Vishnu. If a female figure is depicted
holding these objects, she is seen as his consort, Lakshmi. In all the depictions Vishnu is holding
four objects: a conch, a wheel, a lotus and a Kaumodaki (mace). These can be held in any of the
icon's hands, making possible twenty-four different forms of Vishnu, each with a unique
name.
[19]
Apart from these, Vishnu is depicted in any of his ten avataras, which include Vishnu
sitting on Anantha (the celestial snake and keeper of life energy also known as Shesha), Vishnu
with Lakshmi seated on his lap (Lakshminarayana), with the head of a lion disembowelling a
demon on his lap (Lakshminarasimha), with head of a boar walking over a demon (Varaha), in
the Krishna avatar (as Venugopala or the cow herder playing the Venu (flute), dancing on the
head of the snake Kaliya, lifting a hill such as Govardhana), with his feet over head of a small
figure (Vamana), along with Indra riding an elephant, with Lakshmi seated on Garuda, and the
eagle (stealing the parijata tree).
TEMPLE COMPLEXES
15
Hoysala stepped temple tank (Kalyani) at Hulikere, Karnataka
Temple profile – staggered square plan mantapa at Kedareshvara Temple, Balligavi/Akkana
Basadi at Shravanbelgola
The focus of a temple is the centre or sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha) where the image of the
deity resides, so temple architecture is designed to move the devotee from outside to the
garbhagriha through ambulatory passageways for circumambulation and halls or chambers
(mantapas) that become increasingly sacred as the deity is approached. Hoysala temples have
distinct parts that are merged to form a unified organic whole, in contrast to the temples of Tamil
country where different parts of a temple stand independently. Although superficially unique,
Hoysala temples resemble each other structurally. They are characterised by a complex profusion
of sculpture decorating all the temple parts chiselled of soft soapstone (chloritic schist), a good
material for intricate carving, executed mostly by local craftsmen, and exhibit architectural
features that distinguish them from other temple architectures of South India.
Most Hoysala temples have a plain covered entrance porch supported by lathe turned (circular or
bell-shaped) pillars which were sometimes further carved with deep fluting and moulded with
decorative motifs. The temples may be built upon a platform raised by about a metre called a
"jagati". The jagati, apart from giving a raised look to the temple, serves as
a pradakshinapatha or "circumambulation path" for circumambulation around the temple, as
the garbagriha (inner sanctum) provides no such feature.
[22]
Such temples will have an additional
set of steps leading to an open mantapa (open hall) with parapet walls. A good example of this
style is the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The jagati which is in unity with the rest of the
temple
[23]
follows a star-shaped design and the walls of the temple follow a zig-zag pattern, a
Hoysala innovation.
Hoysala stepped temple tank (Kalyani) at Hulikere, Karnataka
Temple profile – staggered square plan mantapa at Kedareshvara Temple, Balligavi/Akkana
Basadi at Shravanbelgola
The focus of a temple is the centre or sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha) where the image of the
deity resides, so temple architecture is designed to move the devotee from outside to the
garbhagriha through ambulatory passageways for circumambulation and halls or chambers
(mantapas) that become increasingly sacred as the deity is approached. Hoysala temples have
distinct parts that are merged to form a unified organic whole, in contrast to the temples of Tamil
country where different parts of a temple stand independently. Although superficially unique,
Hoysala temples resemble each other structurally. They are characterised by a complex profusion
of sculpture decorating all the temple parts chiselled of soft soapstone (chloritic schist), a good
material for intricate carving, executed mostly by local craftsmen, and exhibit architectural
features that distinguish them from other temple architectures of South India.
Most Hoysala temples have a plain covered entrance porch supported by lathe turned (circular or
bell-shaped) pillars which were sometimes further carved with deep fluting and moulded with
decorative motifs. The temples may be built upon a platform raised by about a metre called a
"jagati". The jagati, apart from giving a raised look to the temple, serves as
a pradakshinapatha or "circumambulation path" for circumambulation around the temple, as
the garbagriha (inner sanctum) provides no such feature.
[22]
Such temples will have an additional
set of steps leading to an open mantapa (open hall) with parapet walls. A good example of this
style is the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The jagati which is in unity with the rest of the
temple
[23]
follows a star-shaped design and the walls of the temple follow a zig-zag pattern, a
Hoysala innovation.
16
Devotees can first complete a ritual circumambulation on the jagati starting from the main
entrance by walking in a clockwise direction (towards the left) before entering the mantapa,
following the sculptural clockwise-sequenced reliefs on the outer temple walls depicting a
sequence of epic scenes from the Hindu epics. Temples that are not built on a jagati can have
steps flanked by elephant balustrades (parapets) that lead to the mantapa from ground level. An
example of a temple that does not exhibit the raised platform is the Bucesvara temple in
Korvangla, Hassan District. In temples with two shrines (dvikuta), the vimanas (the shrines
or cellae) may be placed either next to each other or on opposite sides The Lakshmidevi temple
at Doddagaddavalli is unique to Hoysala architecture as it has four shrines around a common
centre and a fifth shrine within the same complex for the deity Bhairava (a form of Shiva). In
addition, four minor shrines exist at each corner of the courtyard (prakaram).
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
Mantapa
Ornate lintel over mantapa entrance in Chennakeshava temple, Belur/ Ornate bay ceiling in
mantapa in the Veera Narayana Temple, Belavadi, a common feature in Hoysala temples
The mantapa is the hall where groups of people gather during prayers. The entrance to
the mantapa normally has a highly ornate overhead lintel called a makaratorana (makara is an
imaginary beast and torana is an overhead decoration).
[22]
The open mantapa which serves the
purpose of an outer hall (outer mantapa) is a regular feature in larger Hoysala temples leading to
an inner small closed mantapa and the shrines. The open mantapas which are often spacious
have seating areas (asana) made of stone with the mantapa's parapet wall acting as a back rest.
The seats may follow the same staggered square shape of the parapet wall. The ceiling here is
supported by numerous pillars that create many bays. The shape of the open mantapa is best
described as staggered-square and is the style used in most Hoysala temples.
[31]
Even the
smallest open mantapa has 13 bays. The walls have parapets that have half pillars supporting the
outer ends of the roof which allow plenty of light making all the sculptural details visible.
The mantapa ceiling is generally ornate with sculptures, both mythological and floral. The
ceiling consists of deep and domical surfaces and contains sculptural depictions of banana bud
motifs and other such decorations.
Devotees can first complete a ritual circumambulation on the jagati starting from the main
entrance by walking in a clockwise direction (towards the left) before entering the mantapa,
following the sculptural clockwise-sequenced reliefs on the outer temple walls depicting a
sequence of epic scenes from the Hindu epics. Temples that are not built on a jagati can have
steps flanked by elephant balustrades (parapets) that lead to the mantapa from ground level. An
example of a temple that does not exhibit the raised platform is the Bucesvara temple in
Korvangla, Hassan District. In temples with two shrines (dvikuta), the vimanas (the shrines
or cellae) may be placed either next to each other or on opposite sides The Lakshmidevi temple
at Doddagaddavalli is unique to Hoysala architecture as it has four shrines around a common
centre and a fifth shrine within the same complex for the deity Bhairava (a form of Shiva). In
addition, four minor shrines exist at each corner of the courtyard (prakaram).
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
Mantapa
Ornate lintel over mantapa entrance in Chennakeshava temple, Belur/ Ornate bay ceiling in
mantapa in the Veera Narayana Temple, Belavadi, a common feature in Hoysala temples
The mantapa is the hall where groups of people gather during prayers. The entrance to
the mantapa normally has a highly ornate overhead lintel called a makaratorana (makara is an
imaginary beast and torana is an overhead decoration).
[22]
The open mantapa which serves the
purpose of an outer hall (outer mantapa) is a regular feature in larger Hoysala temples leading to
an inner small closed mantapa and the shrines. The open mantapas which are often spacious
have seating areas (asana) made of stone with the mantapa's parapet wall acting as a back rest.
The seats may follow the same staggered square shape of the parapet wall. The ceiling here is
supported by numerous pillars that create many bays. The shape of the open mantapa is best
described as staggered-square and is the style used in most Hoysala temples.
[31]
Even the
smallest open mantapa has 13 bays. The walls have parapets that have half pillars supporting the
outer ends of the roof which allow plenty of light making all the sculptural details visible.
The mantapa ceiling is generally ornate with sculptures, both mythological and floral. The
ceiling consists of deep and domical surfaces and contains sculptural depictions of banana bud
motifs and other such decorations.
17
Open Mantapa with shining, lathe-turned pillars at Amrutesvara Temple, Amruthapura
If the temple is small it will consist of only a closed mantapa (enclosed with walls extending all
the way to the ceiling) and the shrine. The closed mantapa, well decorated inside and out, is
larger than the vestibule connecting the shrine and the mantapa and has four lathe-turned pillars
to support the ceiling, which may be deeply domed. The four pillars divide the hall into nine
bays. The nine bays result in nine decorated ceilings.
[33]
Pierced stone screens
(Jali or Latticework) that serve as windows in the navaranga (hall)
and Sabhamantapa (congregation hall) is a characteristic Hoysala stylistic element.
A porch adorns the entrance to a closed mantapa, consisting of an awning supported by two half-
pillars (engaged columns) and two parapets, all richly decorated. The closed mantapa is
connected to the shrines by a vestibule, a square area that also connects the shrines. Its outer
walls are decorated, but as the size the vestibule is not large, this may not be a conspicuous part
of the temple. The vestibule also has a short tower called the sukanasi or "nose" upon which is
mounted the Hoysala emblem. In Belur and Halebidu, these sculptures are quite large and are
placed at all doorways.
The outer and inner mantapa (open and closed) have circular lathe-turned pillars having four
brackets at the top. Over each bracket stands sculptured figures called salabhanjika or madanika.
The pillars may also exhibit ornamental carvings on the surface and no two pillars are alike. This
is how Hoysala art differs from the work of their early overlords, the Western Chalukyas, who
added sculptural details to the circular pillar base and left the top plain. The lathe-turned pillars
are 16, 32, or 64-pointed; some are bell-shaped and have properties that reflect light. The
Parsvanatha Basadi at Halebidu is a good example. According to Brown, the pillars with four
monolithic brackets above them carry images of salabhanjikas and madanikas (sculpture of a
woman, displaying stylised feminine features). This is a common feature of Chalukya-Hoysala
temples. According to Sastri, the shape of the pillar and its capital, the base of which is square
and whose shaft is a monolith that is lathe turned to render different shapes, is a "remarkable
feature" of Hoysala art.
Vimana
Open Mantapa with shining, lathe-turned pillars at Amrutesvara Temple, Amruthapura
If the temple is small it will consist of only a closed mantapa (enclosed with walls extending all
the way to the ceiling) and the shrine. The closed mantapa, well decorated inside and out, is
larger than the vestibule connecting the shrine and the mantapa and has four lathe-turned pillars
to support the ceiling, which may be deeply domed. The four pillars divide the hall into nine
bays. The nine bays result in nine decorated ceilings.
[33]
Pierced stone screens
(Jali or Latticework) that serve as windows in the navaranga (hall)
and Sabhamantapa (congregation hall) is a characteristic Hoysala stylistic element.
A porch adorns the entrance to a closed mantapa, consisting of an awning supported by two half-
pillars (engaged columns) and two parapets, all richly decorated. The closed mantapa is
connected to the shrines by a vestibule, a square area that also connects the shrines. Its outer
walls are decorated, but as the size the vestibule is not large, this may not be a conspicuous part
of the temple. The vestibule also has a short tower called the sukanasi or "nose" upon which is
mounted the Hoysala emblem. In Belur and Halebidu, these sculptures are quite large and are
placed at all doorways.
The outer and inner mantapa (open and closed) have circular lathe-turned pillars having four
brackets at the top. Over each bracket stands sculptured figures called salabhanjika or madanika.
The pillars may also exhibit ornamental carvings on the surface and no two pillars are alike. This
is how Hoysala art differs from the work of their early overlords, the Western Chalukyas, who
added sculptural details to the circular pillar base and left the top plain. The lathe-turned pillars
are 16, 32, or 64-pointed; some are bell-shaped and have properties that reflect light. The
Parsvanatha Basadi at Halebidu is a good example. According to Brown, the pillars with four
monolithic brackets above them carry images of salabhanjikas and madanikas (sculpture of a
woman, displaying stylised feminine features). This is a common feature of Chalukya-Hoysala
temples. According to Sastri, the shape of the pillar and its capital, the base of which is square
and whose shaft is a monolith that is lathe turned to render different shapes, is a "remarkable
feature" of Hoysala art.
Vimana
18
Outer wall panel with six horizontal mouldings at Somanathapura/Star shaped Vimana (shrine)
at Hosaholalu
The vimana, also called the cella, contains the most sacred shrine wherein resides the image of
the presiding deity. The vimana is often topped by a tower which is quite different on the outside
than on the inside. Inside, the vimana is plain and square, whereas outside it is profusely
decorated and can be either stellate ("star-shaped") or shaped as a staggered square, or feature a
combination of these designs, giving it many projections and recesses that seem to multiply as
the light falls on it. Each projection and recess has a complete decorative articulation that is
rhythmic and repetitive and composed of blocks and mouldings, obscuring the tower profile.
Depending on the number of shrines (and hence on the number of towers), the temples are
classified as ekakuta (one), dvikuta (two), trikuta (three), chatushkuta (four)
and panchakuta (five). Most Hoysala temples are ekakuta, dvikuta or trikuta, the Vaishnava ones
mostly being trikuta. There are cases where a temple is trikuta but has only one tower over the
main shrine (in the middle). So the terminology trikuta may not be literally accurate.
[
In temples
with multiple disconnected shrines, such as the twin temples at Mosale, all essential parts are
duplicated for symmetry and balance.
The highest point of the temple (kalasa) has the shape of a water pot and stands on top of the
tower. This portion of the vimana is often lost due to age and has been replaced with a metallic
pinnacle. Below the kalasa is a large, highly- sculptured structure resembling a dome which is
made from large stones and looks like a helmet. It may be 2 m by 2 m in size and follows the
shape of the shrine. Below this structure are domed roofs in a square plan, all of them much
smaller and crowned with small kalasas. They are mixed with other small roofs of different
shapes and are ornately decorated. The tower of the shrine usually has three or four tiers of rows
of decorative roofs while the tower on top of the sukanasi has one less tier, making the tower
look like an extension of the main tower (Foekema calls it the "nose"). One decorated roof tier
runs on top of the wall of a closed mantapa above the heavy eaves of an open mantapa and
above the porches.
Below the superstructure of the vimana are temple "eaves" projecting half a meter from the wall.
Below the eaves two different decorative schemes may be found, depending on whether a temple
was built in the early or the later period of the empire. In the early temples built prior to the 13th
century, there is one eave and below this are decorative miniature towers. A panel of Hindu
Outer wall panel with six horizontal mouldings at Somanathapura/Star shaped Vimana (shrine)
at Hosaholalu
The vimana, also called the cella, contains the most sacred shrine wherein resides the image of
the presiding deity. The vimana is often topped by a tower which is quite different on the outside
than on the inside. Inside, the vimana is plain and square, whereas outside it is profusely
decorated and can be either stellate ("star-shaped") or shaped as a staggered square, or feature a
combination of these designs, giving it many projections and recesses that seem to multiply as
the light falls on it. Each projection and recess has a complete decorative articulation that is
rhythmic and repetitive and composed of blocks and mouldings, obscuring the tower profile.
Depending on the number of shrines (and hence on the number of towers), the temples are
classified as ekakuta (one), dvikuta (two), trikuta (three), chatushkuta (four)
and panchakuta (five). Most Hoysala temples are ekakuta, dvikuta or trikuta, the Vaishnava ones
mostly being trikuta. There are cases where a temple is trikuta but has only one tower over the
main shrine (in the middle). So the terminology trikuta may not be literally accurate.
[
In temples
with multiple disconnected shrines, such as the twin temples at Mosale, all essential parts are
duplicated for symmetry and balance.
The highest point of the temple (kalasa) has the shape of a water pot and stands on top of the
tower. This portion of the vimana is often lost due to age and has been replaced with a metallic
pinnacle. Below the kalasa is a large, highly- sculptured structure resembling a dome which is
made from large stones and looks like a helmet. It may be 2 m by 2 m in size and follows the
shape of the shrine. Below this structure are domed roofs in a square plan, all of them much
smaller and crowned with small kalasas. They are mixed with other small roofs of different
shapes and are ornately decorated. The tower of the shrine usually has three or four tiers of rows
of decorative roofs while the tower on top of the sukanasi has one less tier, making the tower
look like an extension of the main tower (Foekema calls it the "nose"). One decorated roof tier
runs on top of the wall of a closed mantapa above the heavy eaves of an open mantapa and
above the porches.
Below the superstructure of the vimana are temple "eaves" projecting half a meter from the wall.
Below the eaves two different decorative schemes may be found, depending on whether a temple
was built in the early or the later period of the empire. In the early temples built prior to the 13th
century, there is one eave and below this are decorative miniature towers. A panel of Hindu
19
deities and their attendants are below these towers, followed by a set of five different mouldings
forming the base of the wall. In the later temples there is a second eave running about a metre
below the upper eaves with decorative miniature towers placed between them. The wall images
of gods are below the lower eaves, followed by six different mouldings of equal size. This is
broadly termed "horizontal treatment".The six mouldings at the base are divided in two sections.
Going from the very base of the wall, the first horizontal layer contains a procession of
elephants, above which are horsemen and then a band of foliage. The second horizontal section
has depictions of the Hindu epics and Puranic scenes executed with detail. Above this are two
friezes of yalis or makaras (imaginary beasts) and hamsas (swans). The vimana (tower) is
divided into three horizontal sections and is even more ornate than the walls.
Sculpture
Sthamba buttalika, Hoysala art at Belur/ Madanika bracket at Belur
In Hoysala art Hardy identifies two conspicuous departures from the more austere Western
(Later) Chalukya art:ornamental elaboration and a profusion of iconography with figure
sculptures, both of which are found in abundance even on the superstructure over the shrine.
Their medium, the soft chlorite schist (Soapstone) enabled a virtuoso carving style. Hoysala
artists are noted for their attention to sculptural detail be it in the depiction of themes from
the Hindu epics and deities or in their use of motifs such
as yali, kirtimukha (gargoyles), aedicula (miniature decorative towers)
on pilaster, makara (aquatic monster), birds (hamsa), spiral foliage, animals such as lions,
elephants and horses, and even general aspects of daily life such as hair styles in vogue
Salabhanjika, a common form of Hoysala sculpture, is an old Indian tradition going back to
Buddhist sculpture. Sala is the sala tree and bhanjika is the chaste maiden. In the Hoysala
idiom, madanika figures are decorative objects put at an angle on the outer walls of the temple
near the roof so that worshipers circumambulating the temple can view them.
The sthamba buttalikas are pillar images that show traces of Chola art in the Chalukyan touches.
Some of the artists working for the Hoysalas may have been from Chola country, a result of the
expansion of the empire into Tamil-speaking regions of Southern India. The image of mohini on
deities and their attendants are below these towers, followed by a set of five different mouldings
forming the base of the wall. In the later temples there is a second eave running about a metre
below the upper eaves with decorative miniature towers placed between them. The wall images
of gods are below the lower eaves, followed by six different mouldings of equal size. This is
broadly termed "horizontal treatment".The six mouldings at the base are divided in two sections.
Going from the very base of the wall, the first horizontal layer contains a procession of
elephants, above which are horsemen and then a band of foliage. The second horizontal section
has depictions of the Hindu epics and Puranic scenes executed with detail. Above this are two
friezes of yalis or makaras (imaginary beasts) and hamsas (swans). The vimana (tower) is
divided into three horizontal sections and is even more ornate than the walls.
Sculpture
Sthamba buttalika, Hoysala art at Belur/ Madanika bracket at Belur
In Hoysala art Hardy identifies two conspicuous departures from the more austere Western
(Later) Chalukya art:ornamental elaboration and a profusion of iconography with figure
sculptures, both of which are found in abundance even on the superstructure over the shrine.
Their medium, the soft chlorite schist (Soapstone) enabled a virtuoso carving style. Hoysala
artists are noted for their attention to sculptural detail be it in the depiction of themes from
the Hindu epics and deities or in their use of motifs such
as yali, kirtimukha (gargoyles), aedicula (miniature decorative towers)
on pilaster, makara (aquatic monster), birds (hamsa), spiral foliage, animals such as lions,
elephants and horses, and even general aspects of daily life such as hair styles in vogue
Salabhanjika, a common form of Hoysala sculpture, is an old Indian tradition going back to
Buddhist sculpture. Sala is the sala tree and bhanjika is the chaste maiden. In the Hoysala
idiom, madanika figures are decorative objects put at an angle on the outer walls of the temple
near the roof so that worshipers circumambulating the temple can view them.
The sthamba buttalikas are pillar images that show traces of Chola art in the Chalukyan touches.
Some of the artists working for the Hoysalas may have been from Chola country, a result of the
expansion of the empire into Tamil-speaking regions of Southern India. The image of mohini on
20
one of the pillars in the mantapa (closed hall) of the Chennakeshava temple is an example of
Chola art.
General life themes are portrayed on wall panels such as the way horses were reined, the type of
stirrup used, the depiction of dancers, musicians, instrumentalists, and rows of animals such as
lions and elephants (where no two animals are identical). Perhaps no other temple in the country
depicts the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics more effectively than the Hoysaleshwara temple at
Halebidu..
Erotica was a subject the Hoysala artist handled with discretion. There is no exhibitionism in
this, and erotic themes were carved into recesses and niches, generally miniature in form, making
them inconspicuous. These erotic representations are associated with the Shakta practice
Apart from these sculptures, entire sequences from the Hindu epics (commonly
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata) have been sculpted in a clockwise direction starting at the
main entrance.
[48]
The right to left sequence is the same direction taken by the devotees in their
ritual circumambulation as they wind inward toward the inner sanctum. Depictions from
mythology such as the epic hero Arjuna shooting fish, the elephant-headed god Ganesha, the Sun
god Surya, the weather and war god Indra, and Brahma with Sarasvati are common. Also
frequently seen in these temples is Durga, with several arms holding weapons given to her by
other gods, in the act of killing a buffalo (a demon in a buffalo's form) and Harihara (a fusion of
Shiva and Vishnu) holding a conch, wheel, and trident. Many of these friezes were signed by the
artisans, the first known instance of signed artwork in India.
Kirtimukha decoration (demon faces) on tower at Amrutesvara Temple, Amruthapura
Ornate lintel and door jamb relief at entrance to inner mantapa in the Harihareshwara Temple at
Harihar
According to Settar, surveys in modern times have indicated that 1000–1500 structures were
built by the Hoysalas, of which about a hundred temples have survived to date. The Hoysala
style is an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, which was popular in the 10th and 11th
centuries. It is distinctively Dravidian, and according to Brown, owing to its features, Hoysala
architecture qualifies as an independent style. While the Hoysalas introduced innovative features
into their architecture, they also borrowed features from earlier builders of Karnata like
one of the pillars in the mantapa (closed hall) of the Chennakeshava temple is an example of
Chola art.
General life themes are portrayed on wall panels such as the way horses were reined, the type of
stirrup used, the depiction of dancers, musicians, instrumentalists, and rows of animals such as
lions and elephants (where no two animals are identical). Perhaps no other temple in the country
depicts the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics more effectively than the Hoysaleshwara temple at
Halebidu..
Erotica was a subject the Hoysala artist handled with discretion. There is no exhibitionism in
this, and erotic themes were carved into recesses and niches, generally miniature in form, making
them inconspicuous. These erotic representations are associated with the Shakta practice
Apart from these sculptures, entire sequences from the Hindu epics (commonly
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata) have been sculpted in a clockwise direction starting at the
main entrance.
[48]
The right to left sequence is the same direction taken by the devotees in their
ritual circumambulation as they wind inward toward the inner sanctum. Depictions from
mythology such as the epic hero Arjuna shooting fish, the elephant-headed god Ganesha, the Sun
god Surya, the weather and war god Indra, and Brahma with Sarasvati are common. Also
frequently seen in these temples is Durga, with several arms holding weapons given to her by
other gods, in the act of killing a buffalo (a demon in a buffalo's form) and Harihara (a fusion of
Shiva and Vishnu) holding a conch, wheel, and trident. Many of these friezes were signed by the
artisans, the first known instance of signed artwork in India.
Kirtimukha decoration (demon faces) on tower at Amrutesvara Temple, Amruthapura
Ornate lintel and door jamb relief at entrance to inner mantapa in the Harihareshwara Temple at
Harihar
According to Settar, surveys in modern times have indicated that 1000–1500 structures were
built by the Hoysalas, of which about a hundred temples have survived to date. The Hoysala
style is an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, which was popular in the 10th and 11th
centuries. It is distinctively Dravidian, and according to Brown, owing to its features, Hoysala
architecture qualifies as an independent style. While the Hoysalas introduced innovative features
into their architecture, they also borrowed features from earlier builders of Karnata like
21
the Kadambas, Western Chalukyas. These features included the use of chloritic schist
or soapstone as a basic building material.
Other features were the stepped style of vimana tower called the Kadamba shikhara, which was
inherited from the Kadambas. Hoysala sculptors made use of the effect of light and shade on
carved walls, which poses a challenge for photography of the temples.
[13]
The artistry of the
Hoysalas in stone has been compared to the finesse of an ivory worker or a goldsmith. The
abundance of jewellery worn by the sculpted figures and the variety of hairstyles and
headdresses depicted give a fair idea of the lifestyles of the Hoysala times.
CRAFTSMEN
Elephant balustrades in the Bucesvara temple. A temple plan without jagati at Korvangla
Vasantha mantapa, an ornate 13th century contribution from the Hoysala era to the pre-
existing Uma-Maheshvara shrine at the Bhoga Nandeeshwara Temple complex, Chikkaballapura
district
While medieval Indian artisans preferred to remain anonymous, Hoysala artisans signed their
works, which has given researchers details about their lives, families, guilds, etc. Apart from the
architects and sculptors, people of other guilds such as goldsmiths, ivory carvers, carpenters, and
silversmiths also contributed to the completion of temples. The artisans were from diverse
geographical backgrounds and included famous locals. Prolific architects included Amarashilpi
Jakanachari,
[55]
a native of Kaidala in Tumkur district, who also built temples for the Western
Chalukyas. Ruvari Malithamma built the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura and worked on forty
other monuments, including the Amruteshwara temple at Amruthapura. Malithamma specialised
in ornamentation, and his works span six decades. His sculptures were typically signed in
shorthand as Malli or simply Ma.
Dasoja and his son Chavana from Balligavi were the architects of Chennakesava Temple at
Belur; Kedaroja was the chief architect of the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu. Their influence
is seen in other temples built by the Hoysalas as well. Names of other locals found in inscriptions
are Maridamma, Baicoja, Caudaya, Nanjaya and Bama, Malloja, Nadoja,
the Kadambas, Western Chalukyas. These features included the use of chloritic schist
or soapstone as a basic building material.
Other features were the stepped style of vimana tower called the Kadamba shikhara, which was
inherited from the Kadambas. Hoysala sculptors made use of the effect of light and shade on
carved walls, which poses a challenge for photography of the temples.
[13]
The artistry of the
Hoysalas in stone has been compared to the finesse of an ivory worker or a goldsmith. The
abundance of jewellery worn by the sculpted figures and the variety of hairstyles and
headdresses depicted give a fair idea of the lifestyles of the Hoysala times.
CRAFTSMEN
Elephant balustrades in the Bucesvara temple. A temple plan without jagati at Korvangla
Vasantha mantapa, an ornate 13th century contribution from the Hoysala era to the pre-
existing Uma-Maheshvara shrine at the Bhoga Nandeeshwara Temple complex, Chikkaballapura
district
While medieval Indian artisans preferred to remain anonymous, Hoysala artisans signed their
works, which has given researchers details about their lives, families, guilds, etc. Apart from the
architects and sculptors, people of other guilds such as goldsmiths, ivory carvers, carpenters, and
silversmiths also contributed to the completion of temples. The artisans were from diverse
geographical backgrounds and included famous locals. Prolific architects included Amarashilpi
Jakanachari,
[55]
a native of Kaidala in Tumkur district, who also built temples for the Western
Chalukyas. Ruvari Malithamma built the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura and worked on forty
other monuments, including the Amruteshwara temple at Amruthapura. Malithamma specialised
in ornamentation, and his works span six decades. His sculptures were typically signed in
shorthand as Malli or simply Ma.
Dasoja and his son Chavana from Balligavi were the architects of Chennakesava Temple at
Belur; Kedaroja was the chief architect of the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu. Their influence
is seen in other temples built by the Hoysalas as well. Names of other locals found in inscriptions
are Maridamma, Baicoja, Caudaya, Nanjaya and Bama, Malloja, Nadoja,
22
Siddoja,
[59]
Masanithamma, Chameya and Rameya. Artists from Tamil country included
Pallavachari and Cholavachari.
Temples of the Hoysala Empire
Kadamba shikara (tower)with Kalasa (pinnacle) on top at Lakshmi Devi Temple,
Doddagaddavalli
Pierced stone window screens at Somanathapura/ Stellate plan of shrine in Chennakeshava
Temple, Aralaguppe, Karnataka
Name Location
Perio
d
King Deity
Lakshmidevi
Doddagaddaval
li
1113
Vishnuvardhan
a
Lakshmi
Chennakesava Belur 1117
Vishnuvardhan
a
Vishnu
Siddoja,
[59]
Masanithamma, Chameya and Rameya. Artists from Tamil country included
Pallavachari and Cholavachari.
Temples of the Hoysala Empire
Kadamba shikara (tower)with Kalasa (pinnacle) on top at Lakshmi Devi Temple,
Doddagaddavalli
Pierced stone window screens at Somanathapura/ Stellate plan of shrine in Chennakeshava
Temple, Aralaguppe, Karnataka
Name Location
Perio
d
King Deity
Lakshmidevi
Doddagaddaval
li
1113
Vishnuvardhan
a
Lakshmi
Chennakesava Belur 1117
Vishnuvardhan
a
Vishnu
23
Hoysaleswara Halebidu 1120
Vishnuvardhan
a
Shiva
Basadi complex Halebidu
1133,
1196
Vishnuvardhan
a, Veera
Ballala II
Parshvanatha, Shantinatha, Adin
atha
Rameshvara Koodli
12th
c.
Vishnuvardhan
a
Shiva
Brahmeshwara Kikkeri 1171 Narasimha I Shiva
Bucheshvara Koravangala 1173
Veera Ballala
II
Shiva
Akkana Basadi
Shravanabelago
la
1181
Veera Ballala
II
Parshvanatha
Amruteshwara Amruthapura 1196
Veera Ballala
II
Shiva
Shantinatha
Basadi
Jinanathapura 1200
Veera Ballala
II
Shantinatha
Nageshvara-
Chennakeshava
Mosale 1200
Veera Ballala
II
Shiva, Vishnu
Veeranarayana Belavadi 1200
Veera Ballala
II
Vishnu
Hoysaleswara Halebidu 1120
Vishnuvardhan
a
Shiva
Basadi complex Halebidu
1133,
1196
Vishnuvardhan
a, Veera
Ballala II
Parshvanatha, Shantinatha, Adin
atha
Rameshvara Koodli
12th
c.
Vishnuvardhan
a
Shiva
Brahmeshwara Kikkeri 1171 Narasimha I Shiva
Bucheshvara Koravangala 1173
Veera Ballala
II
Shiva
Akkana Basadi
Shravanabelago
la
1181
Veera Ballala
II
Parshvanatha
Amruteshwara Amruthapura 1196
Veera Ballala
II
Shiva
Shantinatha
Basadi
Jinanathapura 1200
Veera Ballala
II
Shantinatha
Nageshvara-
Chennakeshava
Mosale 1200
Veera Ballala
II
Shiva, Vishnu
Veeranarayana Belavadi 1200
Veera Ballala
II
Vishnu
24
Kedareshwara Halebidu 1200
Veera Ballala
II
Shiva
Ishvara (Shiva) Arsikere 1220
Veera Ballala
II
Shiva
Harihareshwara Harihar 1224
Vira
Narasimha II
Shiva, Vishnu
Mallikarjuna Basaralu 1234
Vira
Narasimha II
Shiva
Someshvara Haranhalli 1235
Vira
Someshwara
Shiva
Lakshminarasimh
a
Haranhalli 1235
Vira
Someshwara
Vishnu
Panchalingeshwa
ra
[
Govindanhalli 1238
Vira
Someshwara
Shiva
Lakshminarasimh
a
Nuggehalli 1246
Vira
Someshwara
Vishnu
Sadashiva Nuggehalli 1249
Vira
Someshwara
Shiva
Lakshminarayana Hosaholalu 1250
Vira
Someshwara
Vishnu
Kedareshwara Halebidu 1200
Veera Ballala
II
Shiva
Ishvara (Shiva) Arsikere 1220
Veera Ballala
II
Shiva
Harihareshwara Harihar 1224
Vira
Narasimha II
Shiva, Vishnu
Mallikarjuna Basaralu 1234
Vira
Narasimha II
Shiva
Someshvara Haranhalli 1235
Vira
Someshwara
Shiva
Lakshminarasimh
a
Haranhalli 1235
Vira
Someshwara
Vishnu
Panchalingeshwa
ra
[
Govindanhalli 1238
Vira
Someshwara
Shiva
Lakshminarasimh
a
Nuggehalli 1246
Vira
Someshwara
Vishnu
Sadashiva Nuggehalli 1249
Vira
Someshwara
Shiva
Lakshminarayana Hosaholalu 1250
Vira
Someshwara
Vishnu
25
Lakshminarasimh
a
Javagallu 1250
Vira
Someshwara
Vishnu
Chennakesava Aralaguppe 1250
Vira
Someshwara
Vishnu
Kesava Somanathapura 1268 Narasimha III Vishnu
Architecture in the Vijayanagar Empire
The Vijayanagar Empire ruled in South India from 1336 until 1646 and left a lasting legacy of
architecture, sculpture, and painting. Vijayanagar architecture is a vibrant combination of the
Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles , which evolved from prior empires in earlier
centuries. It is also influenced by later Deccan and Dravidian styles.
Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had
been for the Badami Chalukyas.
Vijayanagar temples are characterized by ornate pillared halls and rayagopurams, or
monumental towers adorned with life-sized figures of gods and goddesses that stand at the
entrance of the temple.
The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar is generally made of mortar mixed with stone
rubble and often shows secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches , domes , and vaults .
balustrade: A row of balusters topped by a rail, serving as an open parapet, as along the
edge of a balcony, terrace, bridge, staircase, or the eaves of a building.
monolithic: Formed of a single massive rock or stone.
Background: The Vijayanagar Empire
The Vijayanagar Empire was a Hindu empire based in the Deccan plateau region of South India.
Established in 1336 by Harihara I (who ruled from 1336–1356 CE), it enjoyed its greatest
political and cultural prominence under Emperor Krishna Deva Raya (who ruled from 1509–
1529 CE) and lasted until 1646, when it was conquered by the Muslim Sultans of Bijapur and
Golkonda.
The empire’s patronage enabled its fine arts and literature to rise to new heights, and its legacy of
sculpture, painting, and architecture influenced the development of the arts in South India long
after the empire came to an end. There were great innovations in Hindu temple construction
Lakshminarasimh
a
Javagallu 1250
Vira
Someshwara
Vishnu
Chennakesava Aralaguppe 1250
Vira
Someshwara
Vishnu
Kesava Somanathapura 1268 Narasimha III Vishnu
Architecture in the Vijayanagar Empire
The Vijayanagar Empire ruled in South India from 1336 until 1646 and left a lasting legacy of
architecture, sculpture, and painting. Vijayanagar architecture is a vibrant combination of the
Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles , which evolved from prior empires in earlier
centuries. It is also influenced by later Deccan and Dravidian styles.
Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had
been for the Badami Chalukyas.
Vijayanagar temples are characterized by ornate pillared halls and rayagopurams, or
monumental towers adorned with life-sized figures of gods and goddesses that stand at the
entrance of the temple.
The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar is generally made of mortar mixed with stone
rubble and often shows secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches , domes , and vaults .
balustrade: A row of balusters topped by a rail, serving as an open parapet, as along the
edge of a balcony, terrace, bridge, staircase, or the eaves of a building.
monolithic: Formed of a single massive rock or stone.
Background: The Vijayanagar Empire
The Vijayanagar Empire was a Hindu empire based in the Deccan plateau region of South India.
Established in 1336 by Harihara I (who ruled from 1336–1356 CE), it enjoyed its greatest
political and cultural prominence under Emperor Krishna Deva Raya (who ruled from 1509–
1529 CE) and lasted until 1646, when it was conquered by the Muslim Sultans of Bijapur and
Golkonda.
The empire’s patronage enabled its fine arts and literature to rise to new heights, and its legacy of
sculpture, painting, and architecture influenced the development of the arts in South India long
after the empire came to an end. There were great innovations in Hindu temple construction
26
during this period, and many diverse temple building traditions and styles in South India came
together in the Vijayanagar style of architecture, the finest examples of which are to be found in
the capital Hampi.
Vijayanagar Architecture
Vijayanagar era architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly, and civic
architecture. Its style is a harmonious combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola
styles that evolved in earlier centuries and represents a return to the simplicity and serenity of the
past. Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had
been for the Badami Chalukyas; however, soapstone, which was soft and easily carved, was also
used for reliefs and sculptures.
Temples
Vijayanagar temples are surrounded by strong enclosures and characterized by ornate
pillared kalyanamandapa (marriage halls); tall rayagopurams (carved monumental towers at the
entrance of the temple) built of wood, brick, and stucco in the Chola style; and adorned with life-
sized figures of gods and goddesses. This dravida style became popular during the reign of
Krishnadeva Raya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over the next two centuries.
Vijayanagar temples are also known for their carved pillars , which depict charging horses,
figures from Hindu mythology, and yali (hippogriphs). Some of the larger temples are dedicated
to a male deity , with a separate shrine intended for the worship of his female counterpart. Some
famous temples exemplifying the Vijayanagar style include the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi
and the Hazara Rama temple of Deva Raya I.
during this period, and many diverse temple building traditions and styles in South India came
together in the Vijayanagar style of architecture, the finest examples of which are to be found in
the capital Hampi.
Vijayanagar Architecture
Vijayanagar era architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly, and civic
architecture. Its style is a harmonious combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola
styles that evolved in earlier centuries and represents a return to the simplicity and serenity of the
past. Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had
been for the Badami Chalukyas; however, soapstone, which was soft and easily carved, was also
used for reliefs and sculptures.
Temples
Vijayanagar temples are surrounded by strong enclosures and characterized by ornate
pillared kalyanamandapa (marriage halls); tall rayagopurams (carved monumental towers at the
entrance of the temple) built of wood, brick, and stucco in the Chola style; and adorned with life-
sized figures of gods and goddesses. This dravida style became popular during the reign of
Krishnadeva Raya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over the next two centuries.
Vijayanagar temples are also known for their carved pillars , which depict charging horses,
figures from Hindu mythology, and yali (hippogriphs). Some of the larger temples are dedicated
to a male deity , with a separate shrine intended for the worship of his female counterpart. Some
famous temples exemplifying the Vijayanagar style include the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi
and the Hazara Rama temple of Deva Raya I.
27
Virupaksha Temple, Hampi: This temple has a particularly fine example of the tall, ornate
rayagopuram popularized by Vijayanagar architecture.
Horse Pillars in Vijayanagar Temple: Kudure gombe (horse doll) pillars in a mantapa at
Hampi
Pillars at Chandikesvara Temple in Hampi: Pillars of Vijayanagar temples are often engraved
with images of yali, or hippogriffs.
Virupaksha Temple, Hampi: This temple has a particularly fine example of the tall, ornate
rayagopuram popularized by Vijayanagar architecture.
Horse Pillars in Vijayanagar Temple: Kudure gombe (horse doll) pillars in a mantapa at
Hampi
Pillars at Chandikesvara Temple in Hampi: Pillars of Vijayanagar temples are often engraved
with images of yali, or hippogriffs.
28
Palaces and Courtly Architecture
No royal palace structures from the Vijayanagar period have survived intact, and most of what is
known about them has been drawn from archaeological excavations at Hampi. Most of the
palaces faced east or north and stood within compounds surrounded by high, tapering stone and
earth walls. They were built on raised granite platforms with multiple tiers of mouldings
decorated with carved friezes . Palaces usually spanned multiple levels and had tall flights of
stairs flanked on either side by balustrades carved with yali and elephants. Pillars and beams
were made of wood and the roofs of brick and lime concrete. The courtly architecture of
Vijayanagar was generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often shows secular
styles with Islamic-influenced arches, domes, and vaults.
Sculpture in the Vijayanagar Empire
Vijayanagar sculpture can most commonly be seen in the reliefs, pillars, and monolithic statues
of temples.
The mingling of South Indian styles under the Vijayanagar Empire resulted in a richness
not seen in earlier centuries, including a focus on reliefs and sculpture that surpassed that
seen previously in India.
Soapstone, which was soft and easily carved, was commonly used for reliefs and
sculptures. To cover the unevenness of the stone, artists employed brightly painted plaster
to smooth over and finish rough surfaces.
Sculpture was integrally linked with architecture in the creation of Vijayanagar temples.
Large life-size figures of men, women, gods, and goddesses adorn many Vijayagara
temples, and temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (yali)
and other elements of Hindu mythology.
Another element of the Vijayanagar style is the carving and consecration of large
monolithic statues, such as the Sasivekalu Ganesha and Kadalekalu Ganesha at Hampi.
Vijayanagar Sculpture
The Vijayanagar Empire’s patronage enabled its fine arts and literature to rise to new heights. Its
legacy of sculpture, painting, and architecture influenced the development of the arts in South
India long after the empire came to an end. The mingling of South Indian styles resulted in a
richness not seen in earlier centuries, including a focus on reliefs in addition to sculpture that
surpassed that seen previously in India.
Sculpture Material
Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice for architecture;
however, soapstone, which was soft and easily carved, was commonly used for reliefs and
sculptures. While the use of granite reduced the density of sculptured works, granite was a more
Palaces and Courtly Architecture
No royal palace structures from the Vijayanagar period have survived intact, and most of what is
known about them has been drawn from archaeological excavations at Hampi. Most of the
palaces faced east or north and stood within compounds surrounded by high, tapering stone and
earth walls. They were built on raised granite platforms with multiple tiers of mouldings
decorated with carved friezes . Palaces usually spanned multiple levels and had tall flights of
stairs flanked on either side by balustrades carved with yali and elephants. Pillars and beams
were made of wood and the roofs of brick and lime concrete. The courtly architecture of
Vijayanagar was generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often shows secular
styles with Islamic-influenced arches, domes, and vaults.
Sculpture in the Vijayanagar Empire
Vijayanagar sculpture can most commonly be seen in the reliefs, pillars, and monolithic statues
of temples.
The mingling of South Indian styles under the Vijayanagar Empire resulted in a richness
not seen in earlier centuries, including a focus on reliefs and sculpture that surpassed that
seen previously in India.
Soapstone, which was soft and easily carved, was commonly used for reliefs and
sculptures. To cover the unevenness of the stone, artists employed brightly painted plaster
to smooth over and finish rough surfaces.
Sculpture was integrally linked with architecture in the creation of Vijayanagar temples.
Large life-size figures of men, women, gods, and goddesses adorn many Vijayagara
temples, and temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (yali)
and other elements of Hindu mythology.
Another element of the Vijayanagar style is the carving and consecration of large
monolithic statues, such as the Sasivekalu Ganesha and Kadalekalu Ganesha at Hampi.
Vijayanagar Sculpture
The Vijayanagar Empire’s patronage enabled its fine arts and literature to rise to new heights. Its
legacy of sculpture, painting, and architecture influenced the development of the arts in South
India long after the empire came to an end. The mingling of South Indian styles resulted in a
richness not seen in earlier centuries, including a focus on reliefs in addition to sculpture that
surpassed that seen previously in India.
Sculpture Material
Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice for architecture;
however, soapstone, which was soft and easily carved, was commonly used for reliefs and
sculptures. While the use of granite reduced the density of sculptured works, granite was a more
29
durable material for the temple structure. Because granite is prone to flaking, few pieces of
individual sculptures reached the high levels of quality seen in previous centuries. In order to
cover the unevenness of the stone used in sculptures, artists employed brightly painted plaster to
smooth over and finish rough surfaces.
Temple Sculpture
Sculpture was integrally linked with architecture in the creation of Vijayanagar temples. Large
life-size figures of men, women, gods, and goddesses adorn the gopuram of many Vijayagara
temples. Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (yali)—horses
standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their backs. The horses on some
pillars stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the pillar are often carvings from Hindu
mythology.
Another element of the Vijayanagar style is the carving and consecration of large monolithic
statues, such as the Sasivekalu Ganesha and Kadalekalu Ganesha at Hampi; the Gommateshvara
(Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur; and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. Examples of this
style can also be seen in the Vijayanagara temples of Kolar, Kanakagiri, Shringeri and other
towns of Karnataka; the temples of Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara, and
Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh; and the temples of Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi, and
Srirangam in Tamil Nadu.
Painting in the Vijayanagar Empire
Painting in the Vijayanagar Empire, which evolved into the Mysore style of painting, is best
illustrated in the elaborate wall paintings of temples.
The Vijayanagar school of painting is renowned for its frescoes of Hindu gods and goddesses
and scenes from Hindu mythology on temple walls and ceilings.Absorbing the local artistic
traditions and customs, the Vijayanagar school of painting gradually evolved into many styles of
painting in South India, including the Mysore and Tanjore schools of painting.
Mysore paintings are known for their elegance, muted colors, and attention to detail; they are
characterized by delicate lines , intricate brush strokes, graceful delineation of figures, and the
discreet use of bright vegetable colors and lustrous gold leaf .Vijayanagar painting is most
commonly represented in elaborate manuscripts and wall paintings in Hindu temples.Mysore
painting: An important form of classical South Indian art that originated in and around a town
with this name in Karnataka, and evolved from the paintings of Vijayanagar times during the
reign of the Vijayanagar Kings. These paintings are made by artisans of the chitrakar caste,
within the Newar community of the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal; traditionally painters and mask
makers.
The Vijayanagar School and Mysore Painting
durable material for the temple structure. Because granite is prone to flaking, few pieces of
individual sculptures reached the high levels of quality seen in previous centuries. In order to
cover the unevenness of the stone used in sculptures, artists employed brightly painted plaster to
smooth over and finish rough surfaces.
Temple Sculpture
Sculpture was integrally linked with architecture in the creation of Vijayanagar temples. Large
life-size figures of men, women, gods, and goddesses adorn the gopuram of many Vijayagara
temples. Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (yali)—horses
standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their backs. The horses on some
pillars stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the pillar are often carvings from Hindu
mythology.
Another element of the Vijayanagar style is the carving and consecration of large monolithic
statues, such as the Sasivekalu Ganesha and Kadalekalu Ganesha at Hampi; the Gommateshvara
(Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur; and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. Examples of this
style can also be seen in the Vijayanagara temples of Kolar, Kanakagiri, Shringeri and other
towns of Karnataka; the temples of Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara, and
Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh; and the temples of Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi, and
Srirangam in Tamil Nadu.
Painting in the Vijayanagar Empire
Painting in the Vijayanagar Empire, which evolved into the Mysore style of painting, is best
illustrated in the elaborate wall paintings of temples.
The Vijayanagar school of painting is renowned for its frescoes of Hindu gods and goddesses
and scenes from Hindu mythology on temple walls and ceilings.Absorbing the local artistic
traditions and customs, the Vijayanagar school of painting gradually evolved into many styles of
painting in South India, including the Mysore and Tanjore schools of painting.
Mysore paintings are known for their elegance, muted colors, and attention to detail; they are
characterized by delicate lines , intricate brush strokes, graceful delineation of figures, and the
discreet use of bright vegetable colors and lustrous gold leaf .Vijayanagar painting is most
commonly represented in elaborate manuscripts and wall paintings in Hindu temples.Mysore
painting: An important form of classical South Indian art that originated in and around a town
with this name in Karnataka, and evolved from the paintings of Vijayanagar times during the
reign of the Vijayanagar Kings. These paintings are made by artisans of the chitrakar caste,
within the Newar community of the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal; traditionally painters and mask
makers.
The Vijayanagar School and Mysore Painting
30
In addition to architecture and sculpture, the Vijayanagar emperors were enthusiastic patrons of
painting. The Vijayanagar school of painting was renowned for its frescoes of Hindu
mythological themes on temple walls and ceilings. The rulers of Vijayanagar encouraged
literature, art, architecture, religious, and philosophical discussions. With the fall of the
Vijayanagar empire after the Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE, the artists who were under royal
patronage migrated to various other places such as Mysore, Tanjore, and Surpur.
Absorbing the local artistic traditions and customs, the Vijayanagar school of painting gradually
evolved into many styles of painting in South India, including the Mysore and Tanjore schools of
painting. Mysore painting, an important form of South Indian classical painting, developed out of
Vijayanagar painting and originated in the southern town of Mysore, in Karnataka, during the
reign of the Vijayanagar emperors.
Characteristics of Vijayanagar Painting
Mysore paintings are known for their elegance, muted colors, and attention to detail. Popular
themes include Hindu gods and goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology. The paintings are
characterized by delicate lines, intricate brush strokes, graceful delineation of figures, and the
discreet use of bright vegetable colors and lustrous gold leaf. More than mere decorative pieces,
the paintings are designed to inspire feelings of devotion and humility in the viewer . The
painter’s individual skill in giving expression to various emotions is therefore of paramount
importance to this style of painting.
The ancient painters in Mysore prepared their own materials. The colors were from natural
sources of vegetable, mineral, leaves, stones, and flowers. Brushes were made with squirrel hairs
for delicate work, and for superfine lines, a brush made of pointed blades of a special variety of
grass was used. Due to the long lasting quality of the earth and vegetable colors used, the
original Mysore paintings still retain their freshness and luster even today.
Wall Paintings
Vijayanagar art includes wall paintings such as the Dashavatara (the Ten Avatars of Vishnu) and
the Girijakalyana (the marriage of Parvati, Shiva’s consort) in the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi;
the Shivapurana murals (the Tales of Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi; and those at
the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi.
In addition to architecture and sculpture, the Vijayanagar emperors were enthusiastic patrons of
painting. The Vijayanagar school of painting was renowned for its frescoes of Hindu
mythological themes on temple walls and ceilings. The rulers of Vijayanagar encouraged
literature, art, architecture, religious, and philosophical discussions. With the fall of the
Vijayanagar empire after the Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE, the artists who were under royal
patronage migrated to various other places such as Mysore, Tanjore, and Surpur.
Absorbing the local artistic traditions and customs, the Vijayanagar school of painting gradually
evolved into many styles of painting in South India, including the Mysore and Tanjore schools of
painting. Mysore painting, an important form of South Indian classical painting, developed out of
Vijayanagar painting and originated in the southern town of Mysore, in Karnataka, during the
reign of the Vijayanagar emperors.
Characteristics of Vijayanagar Painting
Mysore paintings are known for their elegance, muted colors, and attention to detail. Popular
themes include Hindu gods and goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology. The paintings are
characterized by delicate lines, intricate brush strokes, graceful delineation of figures, and the
discreet use of bright vegetable colors and lustrous gold leaf. More than mere decorative pieces,
the paintings are designed to inspire feelings of devotion and humility in the viewer . The
painter’s individual skill in giving expression to various emotions is therefore of paramount
importance to this style of painting.
The ancient painters in Mysore prepared their own materials. The colors were from natural
sources of vegetable, mineral, leaves, stones, and flowers. Brushes were made with squirrel hairs
for delicate work, and for superfine lines, a brush made of pointed blades of a special variety of
grass was used. Due to the long lasting quality of the earth and vegetable colors used, the
original Mysore paintings still retain their freshness and luster even today.
Wall Paintings
Vijayanagar art includes wall paintings such as the Dashavatara (the Ten Avatars of Vishnu) and
the Girijakalyana (the marriage of Parvati, Shiva’s consort) in the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi;
the Shivapurana murals (the Tales of Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi; and those at
the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi.
31
Painted Ceiling, Virupaksha Temple: 15th century painting, depicting scenes from Hindu
mythology in red and gold.
Manuscripts
The most famous of the manuscripts detailing the various nuances of the Mysore school is the
Sritattvanidhi, a voluminous work of 1500 pages prepared under the patronage of Mummadi
Krishnaraja Wodeyar. This pictorial digest is a compendium of illustrations of gods, goddesses,
and mythological figures with instructions to painters on an incredible range of topics concerning
composition placement, color choice, individual attributes, and mood. The seasons, eco-
happenings, animals, and plant world are also effectively depicted in these paintings as co-
themes or contexts.
Other Sanskrit literary sources such as the Visnudharmottara Purana , Abhilasitarthacintamani,
and Sivatatvaratnakara also highlight the objectives and principles of painting, methods of
preparing pigments , brushes, qualifications of the chitrakar (the traditional community of
painters), and the technique to be followed.
Hampi has been ranked second in New York Times must-see Global Destinations. At the
height of the Vijayanagar Empire in the 16th century, Hampi thrived as one of the largest and
richest cities in the world. Its architectural legacy lives on in the southwestern state of Karnataka
Painted Ceiling, Virupaksha Temple: 15th century painting, depicting scenes from Hindu
mythology in red and gold.
Manuscripts
The most famous of the manuscripts detailing the various nuances of the Mysore school is the
Sritattvanidhi, a voluminous work of 1500 pages prepared under the patronage of Mummadi
Krishnaraja Wodeyar. This pictorial digest is a compendium of illustrations of gods, goddesses,
and mythological figures with instructions to painters on an incredible range of topics concerning
composition placement, color choice, individual attributes, and mood. The seasons, eco-
happenings, animals, and plant world are also effectively depicted in these paintings as co-
themes or contexts.
Other Sanskrit literary sources such as the Visnudharmottara Purana , Abhilasitarthacintamani,
and Sivatatvaratnakara also highlight the objectives and principles of painting, methods of
preparing pigments , brushes, qualifications of the chitrakar (the traditional community of
painters), and the technique to be followed.
Hampi has been ranked second in New York Times must-see Global Destinations. At the
height of the Vijayanagar Empire in the 16th century, Hampi thrived as one of the largest and
richest cities in the world. Its architectural legacy lives on in the southwestern state of Karnataka
32
with over 1,000 well-preserved stone monuments, including Hindu temples, forts and
palaces.Spread over 16 miles near the banks of the Tungabhadra River, and surrounded by a sea
of granite boulders, the Unesco World Heritage site has been notoriously difficult to reach, until
now.TruJet recently began daily direct flights from Hyderabad and Bangalore to Ballari, a 25-
mile drive from Hampi.
One of the notable features of the Vittala Temple is the Musical Pillars-Musical Pillared Hall
The most elegant achievements of the Kingdom was the 56 Musical Pillared Hall, which is in the
Vijaya Vittala Temple, enclosure which striking the pillars brings out the 7 Musical Chords and
the Stone Chariot carved out of a single Granite rock is an achievement in the field of
architecture as one wonders of how the Wheels of a Granite Rock carved Chariot to rotated. The
large Ranga Mandapa is well known for its 56 musical pillars. These pillars are also known as
SaReGaMa pillars, which are attributed to the musical notes emerging out of them. The pillars
produce musical tones when struck with a thumb.
The Temple is also called as the Vijaya Vittala Temple and is dedicated to Lord Vishnu
The political history of medieval Karnataka spans the 4th to the 16th centuries, when the
empires that evolved in the Karnataka region of India made a lasting impact on the subcontinent.
Before this, alien empires held sway over the region, and the nucleus of power was outside
modern Karnataka. The medieval era can be broadly divided into several periods: The earliest
native kingdoms and imperialism; the successful domination of the Gangetic plains in northern
India and rivalry with the empires of Tamilakam over the Vengi region; and the domination of
the southern Deccan and consolidation against Muslim invasion. The origins of the rise of the
Karnataka region as an independent power date back to the fourth-century birth of the Kadamba
Dynasty of Banavasi, the earliest of the native rulers to conduct administration in the native
language of Kannada in addition to the official Sanskrit. This is the historical starting point in
studying the development of the region as an enduring geopolitical entity and of Kannada as an
important regional language.
In the southern regions of Karnataka, the Western Gangas of Talakad were contemporaries of the
Kadambas. The Kadambas and Gangas were followed by the imperial dynasties of the Badami
Chalukya Empire, the Rashtrakuta Empire, the Western Chalukya Empire, the Hoysala
Empire and the Vijayanagara Empire, all patronising the ancient Indic religions while showing
with over 1,000 well-preserved stone monuments, including Hindu temples, forts and
palaces.Spread over 16 miles near the banks of the Tungabhadra River, and surrounded by a sea
of granite boulders, the Unesco World Heritage site has been notoriously difficult to reach, until
now.TruJet recently began daily direct flights from Hyderabad and Bangalore to Ballari, a 25-
mile drive from Hampi.
One of the notable features of the Vittala Temple is the Musical Pillars-Musical Pillared Hall
The most elegant achievements of the Kingdom was the 56 Musical Pillared Hall, which is in the
Vijaya Vittala Temple, enclosure which striking the pillars brings out the 7 Musical Chords and
the Stone Chariot carved out of a single Granite rock is an achievement in the field of
architecture as one wonders of how the Wheels of a Granite Rock carved Chariot to rotated. The
large Ranga Mandapa is well known for its 56 musical pillars. These pillars are also known as
SaReGaMa pillars, which are attributed to the musical notes emerging out of them. The pillars
produce musical tones when struck with a thumb.
The Temple is also called as the Vijaya Vittala Temple and is dedicated to Lord Vishnu
The political history of medieval Karnataka spans the 4th to the 16th centuries, when the
empires that evolved in the Karnataka region of India made a lasting impact on the subcontinent.
Before this, alien empires held sway over the region, and the nucleus of power was outside
modern Karnataka. The medieval era can be broadly divided into several periods: The earliest
native kingdoms and imperialism; the successful domination of the Gangetic plains in northern
India and rivalry with the empires of Tamilakam over the Vengi region; and the domination of
the southern Deccan and consolidation against Muslim invasion. The origins of the rise of the
Karnataka region as an independent power date back to the fourth-century birth of the Kadamba
Dynasty of Banavasi, the earliest of the native rulers to conduct administration in the native
language of Kannada in addition to the official Sanskrit. This is the historical starting point in
studying the development of the region as an enduring geopolitical entity and of Kannada as an
important regional language.
In the southern regions of Karnataka, the Western Gangas of Talakad were contemporaries of the
Kadambas. The Kadambas and Gangas were followed by the imperial dynasties of the Badami
Chalukya Empire, the Rashtrakuta Empire, the Western Chalukya Empire, the Hoysala
Empire and the Vijayanagara Empire, all patronising the ancient Indic religions while showing
33
tolerance to the new cultures arriving from the west of the subcontinent. The Muslim invasion of
the Deccan resulted in the breaking away of the feudatory Sultanates in the 14th century. The
rule of the Bahamani Sultanate of Bidar and the Bijapur Sultanate from the northern Deccan
region caused a mingling of the ancient Hindu traditions with the nascent Islamic culture in the
region. The hereditary ruling families and clans ably served the large empires and upheld the
local culture and traditions. The fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 brought about a slow
disintegration of Kannada-speaking regions into minor kingdoms that struggled to maintain
autonomy in an age dominated by foreigners until unification and independence in 1947.
Kadamba Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, and Western Ganga literature
Kadamba tower at Doddagaddavalli
Kadamba Empire, 500 CE.
Prior to and during the early centuries of the first millennium, large areas of the Karnataka region
was ruled by such imperial powers as the Mauryas of Maghada and later the Satavahanas,
empires whose centres of power were in the Gangetic plains and Central India respectively. With
the weakening of the Satavahanas, the Pallavas of Kanchi took control for a brief duration.
[1]
In
the 4th century, the rise to power of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi identified the Karnataka
region as an independent political entity and Kannada as an administrative language from the
middle of the 5th century. The Kadambas were natives of the Talagunda region (in
modern Shivamogga district) as proven by inscriptions. Mayurasharma, a Brahmin native of
tolerance to the new cultures arriving from the west of the subcontinent. The Muslim invasion of
the Deccan resulted in the breaking away of the feudatory Sultanates in the 14th century. The
rule of the Bahamani Sultanate of Bidar and the Bijapur Sultanate from the northern Deccan
region caused a mingling of the ancient Hindu traditions with the nascent Islamic culture in the
region. The hereditary ruling families and clans ably served the large empires and upheld the
local culture and traditions. The fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 brought about a slow
disintegration of Kannada-speaking regions into minor kingdoms that struggled to maintain
autonomy in an age dominated by foreigners until unification and independence in 1947.
Kadamba Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, and Western Ganga literature
Kadamba tower at Doddagaddavalli
Kadamba Empire, 500 CE.
Prior to and during the early centuries of the first millennium, large areas of the Karnataka region
was ruled by such imperial powers as the Mauryas of Maghada and later the Satavahanas,
empires whose centres of power were in the Gangetic plains and Central India respectively. With
the weakening of the Satavahanas, the Pallavas of Kanchi took control for a brief duration.
[1]
In
the 4th century, the rise to power of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi identified the Karnataka
region as an independent political entity and Kannada as an administrative language from the
middle of the 5th century. The Kadambas were natives of the Talagunda region (in
modern Shivamogga district) as proven by inscriptions. Mayurasharma, a Brahmin native of
34
Talagunda who was humiliated by a Pallava guard, rose in rage against the Pallava control of the
Banavasi region and declared his independence in 345. After many wars, the Pallava king had to
accept the sovereignty of the Kadambas and Mayurasharma, the founding king, crowned himself
at Banavasi (in the present day Uttara Kannada district).
Western Ganga Territories, 800 CE.
The fact that the Kadambas cultivated marital ties with the
imperial Vakatakas and Gupta dynasties attests to their power.
[12]
Kakusthavarma, the most
powerful ruler of the dynasty whom inscriptions describe as "ornament of the Kadamba family"
and "Sun among the kings of wide spread flame", gave one daughter in marriage to Vakataka
Narendrasena and another to Skandagupta, grandson of Chandragupta II of the Gupta
dynasty. Historians trace their rise to political power through the examination of the
contemporaneous Sanskrit writing, Aichitya Vichara Charcha by Kshemendra, which quotes
portions of a writing Kunthalesvara Dautya by the famous poet Kalidasa. Here Kalidasa
describes his visit to the Kadamba kingdom as an ambassador where he was not offered a seat in
the court of the Kadamba king and had to sit on the ground. Historians view this act as one of
assertion by the Kadambas who considered themselves equal to the imperial Gupta dynasty.
[15]
Talagunda who was humiliated by a Pallava guard, rose in rage against the Pallava control of the
Banavasi region and declared his independence in 345. After many wars, the Pallava king had to
accept the sovereignty of the Kadambas and Mayurasharma, the founding king, crowned himself
at Banavasi (in the present day Uttara Kannada district).
Western Ganga Territories, 800 CE.
The fact that the Kadambas cultivated marital ties with the
imperial Vakatakas and Gupta dynasties attests to their power.
[12]
Kakusthavarma, the most
powerful ruler of the dynasty whom inscriptions describe as "ornament of the Kadamba family"
and "Sun among the kings of wide spread flame", gave one daughter in marriage to Vakataka
Narendrasena and another to Skandagupta, grandson of Chandragupta II of the Gupta
dynasty. Historians trace their rise to political power through the examination of the
contemporaneous Sanskrit writing, Aichitya Vichara Charcha by Kshemendra, which quotes
portions of a writing Kunthalesvara Dautya by the famous poet Kalidasa. Here Kalidasa
describes his visit to the Kadamba kingdom as an ambassador where he was not offered a seat in
the court of the Kadamba king and had to sit on the ground. Historians view this act as one of
assertion by the Kadambas who considered themselves equal to the imperial Gupta dynasty.
[15]
35
Roof relief sculpture, Jain Panchakuta basadi at Kambadahalli.
Family feuds and conflicts ended the Kadamba rule in the middle of the 6th century when the
last Kadamba ruler Krishna Varma II was subdued by Pulakeshin I of the Chalukya feudatory,
ending their sovereign rule. The Kadambas would continue to rule parts of Karnataka and Goa
for many centuries to come but never again as an independent kingdom. Some historians view
the Kadambas as the originators of the Karnataka architectural tradition although there were
elements in common with the structures built by the contemporaneous Pallavas of
Kanchi.
[17]
The oldest surviving Kadamba structure is one dating to the late 5th century
in Halsi in modern Belgaum district. The most prominent feature of their architectural style, one
that remained popular centuries later and was used by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagar kings, is
the Kadamba Shikara (Kadamba tower) with a Kalasa (pot) on top.
The Western Ganga Dynasty, contemporaries of the Kadambas, came to power from Kolar but in
the late 4th century - early 5th century moved their capital to Talakad in modern Mysore district.
They ruled the region historically known as Gangavadi comprising most of the modern southern
districts of Karnataka. Acting as a buffer state between the Kannada kingdoms of Karnataka
region and the Tamil kingdoms of Tamilakam, the Western Ganga architectural innovations
show mixed influences.
[20]
Their sovereign rule ended around the same time as the Kadambas
when they came under the Badami Chalukya control. The Western Gangas continued to rule as a
feudatory till the beginning of the eleventh century when they were defeated by
the Cholas of Tanjavur. Important figures among the Gangas were
King Durvinita and Shivamara II, admired as able warriors an d scholars,
[22]
and
minister Chavundaraya who was a builder, a warrior and a writer in Kannada and Sanskrit. The
most important architectural contributions of these Gangas are the monuments
and basadis of Shravanabelagola, the monolith of Gomateshwara termed as the mightiest
achievement in the field of sculpture in ancient Karnataka and the Panchakuta basadi ( five
towers) at Kambadahalli. Their free standing pillars
(called Mahasthambhas and Brahmasthambhas) and Hero stones (virgal) with sculptural detail
are also considered a unique contribution.
[26]
Roof relief sculpture, Jain Panchakuta basadi at Kambadahalli.
Family feuds and conflicts ended the Kadamba rule in the middle of the 6th century when the
last Kadamba ruler Krishna Varma II was subdued by Pulakeshin I of the Chalukya feudatory,
ending their sovereign rule. The Kadambas would continue to rule parts of Karnataka and Goa
for many centuries to come but never again as an independent kingdom. Some historians view
the Kadambas as the originators of the Karnataka architectural tradition although there were
elements in common with the structures built by the contemporaneous Pallavas of
Kanchi.
[17]
The oldest surviving Kadamba structure is one dating to the late 5th century
in Halsi in modern Belgaum district. The most prominent feature of their architectural style, one
that remained popular centuries later and was used by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagar kings, is
the Kadamba Shikara (Kadamba tower) with a Kalasa (pot) on top.
The Western Ganga Dynasty, contemporaries of the Kadambas, came to power from Kolar but in
the late 4th century - early 5th century moved their capital to Talakad in modern Mysore district.
They ruled the region historically known as Gangavadi comprising most of the modern southern
districts of Karnataka. Acting as a buffer state between the Kannada kingdoms of Karnataka
region and the Tamil kingdoms of Tamilakam, the Western Ganga architectural innovations
show mixed influences.
[20]
Their sovereign rule ended around the same time as the Kadambas
when they came under the Badami Chalukya control. The Western Gangas continued to rule as a
feudatory till the beginning of the eleventh century when they were defeated by
the Cholas of Tanjavur. Important figures among the Gangas were
King Durvinita and Shivamara II, admired as able warriors an d scholars,
[22]
and
minister Chavundaraya who was a builder, a warrior and a writer in Kannada and Sanskrit. The
most important architectural contributions of these Gangas are the monuments
and basadis of Shravanabelagola, the monolith of Gomateshwara termed as the mightiest
achievement in the field of sculpture in ancient Karnataka and the Panchakuta basadi ( five
towers) at Kambadahalli. Their free standing pillars
(called Mahasthambhas and Brahmasthambhas) and Hero stones (virgal) with sculptural detail
are also considered a unique contribution.
[26]
36
Badami Chalukya Empire during the reign of Pulakeshin II, 640 CE.
The Badami Chalukya era (7
th and 8
th century) was an important
period in the development of South Indian architecture. Their style of
architecture is called “Chalukyan architecture” or “Karnata Dravida
architecture”.The Chalukya dynasty, natives of the Aihole and Badami region in
Karnataka, were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas. They encouraged the use of Kannada in
addition to the Sanskrit language in their administration. In the middle of the 6th century the
Chalukyas came into their own when Pulakeshin I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of
power. During the rule of Pulakeshin II a south Indian empire sent expeditions to the north past
the Tapti River and Narmada River for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana, the
King of Northern India (Uttarapatheswara). The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, written in
classical Sanskrit language and old Kannada script dated 634, proclaims his victories against the
Kingdoms of Kadambas, Western Gangas, Alupas of South Canara, Mauryas of Puri, Kingdom
of Kosala, Malwa, Lata and Gurjaras of southern Rajasthan. The inscription describes how King
Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha (joyful disposition) on seeing a large number of his war
elephants die in battle against Pulakeshin II.
Badami Chalukya Empire during the reign of Pulakeshin II, 640 CE.
The Badami Chalukya era (7
th and 8
th century) was an important
period in the development of South Indian architecture. Their style of
architecture is called “Chalukyan architecture” or “Karnata Dravida
architecture”.The Chalukya dynasty, natives of the Aihole and Badami region in
Karnataka, were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas. They encouraged the use of Kannada in
addition to the Sanskrit language in their administration. In the middle of the 6th century the
Chalukyas came into their own when Pulakeshin I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of
power. During the rule of Pulakeshin II a south Indian empire sent expeditions to the north past
the Tapti River and Narmada River for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana, the
King of Northern India (Uttarapatheswara). The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, written in
classical Sanskrit language and old Kannada script dated 634, proclaims his victories against the
Kingdoms of Kadambas, Western Gangas, Alupas of South Canara, Mauryas of Puri, Kingdom
of Kosala, Malwa, Lata and Gurjaras of southern Rajasthan. The inscription describes how King
Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha (joyful disposition) on seeing a large number of his war
elephants die in battle against Pulakeshin II.
37
Badami Cave Temples No 3.(Vishnu)
These victories earned him the title Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy (lord of the south). Pulakeshin
II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached
the Bay of Bengal in present-day Orissa. A Chalukya viceroyalty was set up in Gujarat and
Vengi (coastal Andhra) and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule them.
Having subdued the Pallavas of Kanchipuram, he accepted tributes from
the Pandyas of Madurai, Chola dynasty and Cheras of the Kerala region. Pulakeshin II thus
became the master of India, south of the Narmada River. Pulakeshin II is widely regarded as one
of the great kings in Indian history. Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of
Pulakeshin II at this time and Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors. However, the
continuous wars with Pallavas took a turn for the worse in 642 when the Pallava
king Narasimhavarman I avenged his father's defeat, conquered and plundered the capital of
Pulakeshin II who may have died in battle. A century later, Chalukya Vikramaditya II marched
victoriously into Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital and occupied it on three occasions, the third
time under the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II. He thus avenged the earlier
humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory
pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple. He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil
country, the Pandyas, Cholas and Keralas in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.
The Kappe Arabhatta record from this period (700) in tripadi (three line) metre is considered the
earliest available record in Kannada poetics. The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty
is the architecture and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments
attributed to them, built between 450 and 700, have survived in the Malaprabha basin in
Karnataka. The constructions are centred in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan
heartland. The structural temples at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the cave
temples of Badami, the temples at Mahakuta and early experiments in temple building
at Aihole are their most celebrated monuments. Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no.
1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are also credited to
Badami Cave Temples No 3.(Vishnu)
These victories earned him the title Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy (lord of the south). Pulakeshin
II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached
the Bay of Bengal in present-day Orissa. A Chalukya viceroyalty was set up in Gujarat and
Vengi (coastal Andhra) and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule them.
Having subdued the Pallavas of Kanchipuram, he accepted tributes from
the Pandyas of Madurai, Chola dynasty and Cheras of the Kerala region. Pulakeshin II thus
became the master of India, south of the Narmada River. Pulakeshin II is widely regarded as one
of the great kings in Indian history. Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of
Pulakeshin II at this time and Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors. However, the
continuous wars with Pallavas took a turn for the worse in 642 when the Pallava
king Narasimhavarman I avenged his father's defeat, conquered and plundered the capital of
Pulakeshin II who may have died in battle. A century later, Chalukya Vikramaditya II marched
victoriously into Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital and occupied it on three occasions, the third
time under the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II. He thus avenged the earlier
humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory
pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple. He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil
country, the Pandyas, Cholas and Keralas in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.
The Kappe Arabhatta record from this period (700) in tripadi (three line) metre is considered the
earliest available record in Kannada poetics. The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty
is the architecture and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments
attributed to them, built between 450 and 700, have survived in the Malaprabha basin in
Karnataka. The constructions are centred in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan
heartland. The structural temples at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the cave
temples of Badami, the temples at Mahakuta and early experiments in temple building
at Aihole are their most celebrated monuments. Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no.
1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are also credited to
38
them. Further, they influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat and Vengi as
evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur.
The Badami Chalukya architecture
The Badami Chalukya architecture was a temple building idiom that evolved in the 5th – 8th
centuries AD in the Malaprabha river basin, in present-day Bagalkot district of Karnataka state
of India, under the Chalukya dynasty. This style is sometimes called the Vesara style
and Chalukya style, a term that also includes the much later Western Chalukya architecture of
the 11th and 12th centuries. Early Chalukya architecture, used by George Michell and others,
equates to Badami Chalukya. The earliest Badami Chalukya temples date back to around 450
A.D. in Aihole when the Badami Chalukyas were vassals of the Kadambas of Banavasi.
According to historian K.V. Sounder Rajan, the Badami Chalukyas contribution to temple
building matched their valor and their achievements in battle.
About 450 CE, the Early Chalukya style originated in Aihole and was perfected in Badaami,
Karnataka and Pattadakal, Karnataka. The unknown architects and artists experimented with
different styles, blended the Nagara and Dravidian styles.
Their style includes two types of monuments: rock cut halls or "cave temples", and "structural"
temples, built above ground.
Cave temple at Badami Karnataka// Bhutanatha temple complex
Badami cave temples have rock-cut halls with three basic features: pillared veranda, columned
hall and a sanctum cut out deep into rock.
Early experiments in rock-cut halls were attempted in Aihole where they built three cave
temples, one each in Vedic, Buddhist and Jaina styles. Later they refined their style and cut out
four marvellous cave temples at Badami. One noteworthy feature of these cave temples is the
running frieze of Ganas in various amusing postures caved in relief on each plinth.
them. Further, they influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat and Vengi as
evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur.
The Badami Chalukya architecture
The Badami Chalukya architecture was a temple building idiom that evolved in the 5th – 8th
centuries AD in the Malaprabha river basin, in present-day Bagalkot district of Karnataka state
of India, under the Chalukya dynasty. This style is sometimes called the Vesara style
and Chalukya style, a term that also includes the much later Western Chalukya architecture of
the 11th and 12th centuries. Early Chalukya architecture, used by George Michell and others,
equates to Badami Chalukya. The earliest Badami Chalukya temples date back to around 450
A.D. in Aihole when the Badami Chalukyas were vassals of the Kadambas of Banavasi.
According to historian K.V. Sounder Rajan, the Badami Chalukyas contribution to temple
building matched their valor and their achievements in battle.
About 450 CE, the Early Chalukya style originated in Aihole and was perfected in Badaami,
Karnataka and Pattadakal, Karnataka. The unknown architects and artists experimented with
different styles, blended the Nagara and Dravidian styles.
Their style includes two types of monuments: rock cut halls or "cave temples", and "structural"
temples, built above ground.
Cave temple at Badami Karnataka// Bhutanatha temple complex
Badami cave temples have rock-cut halls with three basic features: pillared veranda, columned
hall and a sanctum cut out deep into rock.
Early experiments in rock-cut halls were attempted in Aihole where they built three cave
temples, one each in Vedic, Buddhist and Jaina styles. Later they refined their style and cut out
four marvellous cave temples at Badami. One noteworthy feature of these cave temples is the
running frieze of Ganas in various amusing postures caved in relief on each plinth.
39
The outside verandas of the cave temples are rather plain, but the inner hall contains rich and
prolific sculptural symbolism. Art critic Dr. M. Sheshadri wrote of the Chalukya art that they cut
rock like Titans but finished like jewellers. Critic Zimmer wrote that the Chalukya cave temples
are a fine balance of versatility and restrain.
The finest structural temples are located in Pattadakal. Of the ten temples in Pattadakal, six are
in Dravidian style and four in Rekhanagara style. The Virupaksha temple in many ways holds
resemblance to the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram which came into existence a few years
earlier.
This is a fully inclusive temple, it has a central structure, nandi pavilion in front and has a walled
enclosure that is entered by a gateway. The main sanctum has a Pradakshinapatha and mantapa.
The mantapa is pillared and has perforated windows (pierced window screens). The external
wall surface is divided by pilasters into well-spaced ornamental niches filled with either
sculptures or perforated windows. Art critic Percy Brown says about the sculptures that they
flow into the architecture in a continuous stream. It is said that the Virupaskha temple is one of
those monuments where the spirit of the men who built it, still lives.
Many centuries later, the serene art of the Badami Chalukya reappeared in the pillared
architecture of the Vijayanagar Empire. Their caves include finely engraved sculptures
of Harihara, Trivikrama, Mahisa
Mardhini, Tandavamurthi, Paravasudeva, Nataraja, Varaha, Gomateshvara and others. Plenty
of animal and foliage motifs are also included.
Some important sculptors of their time were Gundan Anivaritachari, Revadi Ovajja and
Narasobba.
Important Badami Chalukya temples
Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal// Ravana Phadi cave, Aihole
Pattadakal
Virupaksha Temple
Sangameswarar Temple
Kashivisvanatha Temple (Rashtrakuta)
Mallikarjuna Temple
Galganatha Temple
Kadasiddeshvara Temple
Jambulinga Temple
The outside verandas of the cave temples are rather plain, but the inner hall contains rich and
prolific sculptural symbolism. Art critic Dr. M. Sheshadri wrote of the Chalukya art that they cut
rock like Titans but finished like jewellers. Critic Zimmer wrote that the Chalukya cave temples
are a fine balance of versatility and restrain.
The finest structural temples are located in Pattadakal. Of the ten temples in Pattadakal, six are
in Dravidian style and four in Rekhanagara style. The Virupaksha temple in many ways holds
resemblance to the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram which came into existence a few years
earlier.
This is a fully inclusive temple, it has a central structure, nandi pavilion in front and has a walled
enclosure that is entered by a gateway. The main sanctum has a Pradakshinapatha and mantapa.
The mantapa is pillared and has perforated windows (pierced window screens). The external
wall surface is divided by pilasters into well-spaced ornamental niches filled with either
sculptures or perforated windows. Art critic Percy Brown says about the sculptures that they
flow into the architecture in a continuous stream. It is said that the Virupaskha temple is one of
those monuments where the spirit of the men who built it, still lives.
Many centuries later, the serene art of the Badami Chalukya reappeared in the pillared
architecture of the Vijayanagar Empire. Their caves include finely engraved sculptures
of Harihara, Trivikrama, Mahisa
Mardhini, Tandavamurthi, Paravasudeva, Nataraja, Varaha, Gomateshvara and others. Plenty
of animal and foliage motifs are also included.
Some important sculptors of their time were Gundan Anivaritachari, Revadi Ovajja and
Narasobba.
Important Badami Chalukya temples
Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal// Ravana Phadi cave, Aihole
Pattadakal
Virupaksha Temple
Sangameswarar Temple
Kashivisvanatha Temple (Rashtrakuta)
Mallikarjuna Temple
Galganatha Temple
Kadasiddeshvara Temple
Jambulinga Temple
40
Jain Narayana Temple (Rashtrakuta)
Papanatha Temple
Museum of the Plains and Sculpture gallery
Naganatha Temple
Chandrashekara
Mahakuteshwara Temple
Sun Temple
Jain tirthankara Parshvanath, cave No. 4, Badami cave temples
Aihole
Lad Khan Temple
Huchiappayyagudi Temple
Huchiappayya math
Durga Temple
Meguti Jain Temple
Ravanaphadi Temple
Gowda Temple
Museum & Art Gallery
Suryanarayana Temple
Badami
Cave 1 (Shiva)
Cave 2 (Vishnu as Trivikrama or Vamana, Varaha and Krishna)
Cave 3 (Vishnu as Narasimha, Varaha, Harihara and Trivikrama.)
Cave 4 (Jain Tirthankara Parsvanatha)
Bhutanatha group of temples (Badami and Kalyani Chalukya)
Gerusoppa
Jain Narayana Temple (Rashtrakuta)
Papanatha Temple
Museum of the Plains and Sculpture gallery
Naganatha Temple
Chandrashekara
Mahakuteshwara Temple
Sun Temple
Jain tirthankara Parshvanath, cave No. 4, Badami cave temples
Aihole
Lad Khan Temple
Huchiappayyagudi Temple
Huchiappayya math
Durga Temple
Meguti Jain Temple
Ravanaphadi Temple
Gowda Temple
Museum & Art Gallery
Suryanarayana Temple
Badami
Cave 1 (Shiva)
Cave 2 (Vishnu as Trivikrama or Vamana, Varaha and Krishna)
Cave 3 (Vishnu as Narasimha, Varaha, Harihara and Trivikrama.)
Cave 4 (Jain Tirthankara Parsvanatha)
Bhutanatha group of temples (Badami and Kalyani Chalukya)
Gerusoppa
41
Vardhamanaswamy Temple
Sanduru
Parvati temple
Alampur, Andhra Pradesh
Navabrahma temples
Kudavelly Sangameshwara Temple
Rashtrakuta Dynasty and Rashtrakuta literature
Rashtrakuta Empire in 800 CE, 915 CE.
In the middle of the 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta
family rulers of Berar (in present-day Amravati district of Maharashtra). Sensing an opportunity
during a weak period in the Chalukya rule, Dantidurga trounced the great Chalukyan
"Karnatabala" (power of Karnata). Having overthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas
made Manyakheta their capital (modern Malkhed in Kalaburagi district). Although the origins of
the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries
is controversial, during the eighth through the tenth centuries they emphasised the importance of
the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in their administration. Rashtrakuta
Vardhamanaswamy Temple
Sanduru
Parvati temple
Alampur, Andhra Pradesh
Navabrahma temples
Kudavelly Sangameshwara Temple
Rashtrakuta Dynasty and Rashtrakuta literature
Rashtrakuta Empire in 800 CE, 915 CE.
In the middle of the 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta
family rulers of Berar (in present-day Amravati district of Maharashtra). Sensing an opportunity
during a weak period in the Chalukya rule, Dantidurga trounced the great Chalukyan
"Karnatabala" (power of Karnata). Having overthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas
made Manyakheta their capital (modern Malkhed in Kalaburagi district). Although the origins of
the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries
is controversial, during the eighth through the tenth centuries they emphasised the importance of
the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in their administration. Rashtrakuta
42
inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only. They encouraged literature in both languages and
thus literature flowered under their rule.
Kailash Temple in Ellora Caves
The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making their initial
successful forays into the doab region of Ganges River and Jamuna River during the rule
of Dhruva Dharavarsha. The rule of his son Govinda III signaled a new era with Rashtrakuta
victories against the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and Gurjara Pratihara of north western India
resulting in the capture of Kannauj. The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a
period of a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains. Because of Govinda
III's victories, historians have compared him to Alexander the Great and Pandava Arjuna of the
Hindu epic Mahabharata. The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy
water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges
River.
[
Amoghavarsha I, eulogised by contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the
four great emperors of the world, succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an
important cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit. The
benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious
temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature,
[71]
he has been
compared to emperor Ashoka.
]
The rule of Indra III in the tenth century enhanced the
Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again.
[75]
Krishna
III followed Indra III to the throne in 939. A patron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior,
his reign marked the submission of the Paramara of Ujjain in the north and Cholas in the south.
An Arabic writing Silsilatuttavarikh (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle
empires of the world. Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik (912) called them the "greatest kings of
India" and there were many other contemporaneous books written in their praise. The
Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread from Cape Comorin in the south to Kannauj in the north
and from Banaras in the east to Broach (Bharuch) in the west.
]
While the Rashtrakutas built
many fine monuments in the Deccan, the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the
monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, the temple being a splendid achievement. In Karnataka
their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at
Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Western Chalukya Empire, Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire, and Western
Chalukya Architecture
inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only. They encouraged literature in both languages and
thus literature flowered under their rule.
Kailash Temple in Ellora Caves
The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making their initial
successful forays into the doab region of Ganges River and Jamuna River during the rule
of Dhruva Dharavarsha. The rule of his son Govinda III signaled a new era with Rashtrakuta
victories against the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and Gurjara Pratihara of north western India
resulting in the capture of Kannauj. The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a
period of a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains. Because of Govinda
III's victories, historians have compared him to Alexander the Great and Pandava Arjuna of the
Hindu epic Mahabharata. The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy
water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges
River.
[
Amoghavarsha I, eulogised by contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the
four great emperors of the world, succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an
important cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit. The
benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious
temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature,
[71]
he has been
compared to emperor Ashoka.
]
The rule of Indra III in the tenth century enhanced the
Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again.
[75]
Krishna
III followed Indra III to the throne in 939. A patron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior,
his reign marked the submission of the Paramara of Ujjain in the north and Cholas in the south.
An Arabic writing Silsilatuttavarikh (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle
empires of the world. Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik (912) called them the "greatest kings of
India" and there were many other contemporaneous books written in their praise. The
Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread from Cape Comorin in the south to Kannauj in the north
and from Banaras in the east to Broach (Bharuch) in the west.
]
While the Rashtrakutas built
many fine monuments in the Deccan, the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the
monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, the temple being a splendid achievement. In Karnataka
their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at
Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Western Chalukya Empire, Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire, and Western
Chalukya Architecture
43
Western Chalukya Empire in 1121 CE.
In the late 10th century, the Western Chalukyas, also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas or 'Later'
Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutas under whom they had been serving
as feudatories. Manyakheta was their capital early on before they moved it to Kalyani
(modern Basavakalyan). Whether the kings of this empire belonged to the same family line as
their namesakes, the Badami Chalukyas is still debated. Whatever the Western Chalukya origins,
Kannada remained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of
their time was prolific. Tailapa II, a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi (modern Bijapur district), re-
established the Chalukya rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II. He
timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the invading Paramara of Central
India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973. This era produced prolonged warfare with the Chola
dynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of the Godavari River-Krishna River doab
region in Vengi. Someshvara I, a brave Chalukyan king, successfully curtailed the growth of the
Chola Empire to the south of the Tungabhadra River region despite suffering some defeatswhile
maintaining control over his feudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga regions. For
approximately 100 years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of
South Karnataka region (Gangavadi).
Gadag style pillars, Western Chalukya art.
In 1076, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family, Vikramaditya VI, changed
the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas. His fifty-year reign was an important period in
Western Chalukya Empire in 1121 CE.
In the late 10th century, the Western Chalukyas, also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas or 'Later'
Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutas under whom they had been serving
as feudatories. Manyakheta was their capital early on before they moved it to Kalyani
(modern Basavakalyan). Whether the kings of this empire belonged to the same family line as
their namesakes, the Badami Chalukyas is still debated. Whatever the Western Chalukya origins,
Kannada remained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of
their time was prolific. Tailapa II, a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi (modern Bijapur district), re-
established the Chalukya rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II. He
timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the invading Paramara of Central
India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973. This era produced prolonged warfare with the Chola
dynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of the Godavari River-Krishna River doab
region in Vengi. Someshvara I, a brave Chalukyan king, successfully curtailed the growth of the
Chola Empire to the south of the Tungabhadra River region despite suffering some defeatswhile
maintaining control over his feudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga regions. For
approximately 100 years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of
South Karnataka region (Gangavadi).
Gadag style pillars, Western Chalukya art.
In 1076, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family, Vikramaditya VI, changed
the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas. His fifty-year reign was an important period in
44
Karnataka's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya Vikrama era". His victories over the
Cholas in the late 11th and early 12th centuries put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi
region permanently. Some of the well-known contemporaneous feudatory families of the Deccan
under Chalukya control were the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya
dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri. At their peak, the Western Chalukyas ruled a vast empire
stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south. Vikramaditya
VI is considered one of the most influential kings of Indian history. Important architectural
works were created by these Chalukyas, especially in the Tungabhadra river valley, that served
as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later
Hoysalas. With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of
Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence.
The Kalachuris of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from
central India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modern Mangalavedhe in
Maharashtra). Bijjala II, the most powerful ruler of this dynasty, was a commander
(mahamandaleswar) during the reign of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI. Seizing an opportune
moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas, Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and
annexed their capital Kalyani. His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing
civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya
scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short-lived as the Chalukyas were
eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas.
Hoysala Empire
Shilabalika, Chennakeshava Temple, Belur./Hoysala Empire in 1200 CE.
The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule from Belur in the 11th century
as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in the south Karnataka region). In the early 12th century they
successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincingly defeating them in the battle
Karnataka's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya Vikrama era". His victories over the
Cholas in the late 11th and early 12th centuries put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi
region permanently. Some of the well-known contemporaneous feudatory families of the Deccan
under Chalukya control were the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya
dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri. At their peak, the Western Chalukyas ruled a vast empire
stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south. Vikramaditya
VI is considered one of the most influential kings of Indian history. Important architectural
works were created by these Chalukyas, especially in the Tungabhadra river valley, that served
as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later
Hoysalas. With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of
Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence.
The Kalachuris of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from
central India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modern Mangalavedhe in
Maharashtra). Bijjala II, the most powerful ruler of this dynasty, was a commander
(mahamandaleswar) during the reign of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI. Seizing an opportune
moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas, Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and
annexed their capital Kalyani. His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing
civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya
scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short-lived as the Chalukyas were
eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas.
Hoysala Empire
Shilabalika, Chennakeshava Temple, Belur./Hoysala Empire in 1200 CE.
The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule from Belur in the 11th century
as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in the south Karnataka region). In the early 12th century they
successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincingly defeating them in the battle
45
of Talakad and moved their capital to nearby Halebidu. Historians refer to the founders of the
dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling
them Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs" (Malepas). With the waning of the
Western Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the late twelfth century.
During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres such as Ragale (blank
verse), Sangatya (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical
instrument), Shatpadi (six-line verse or sestet) etc. became widely accepted. The Hoysalas
expanded the Vesara architecture stemming from the Chalukyas, culminating in the Hoysala
architectural articulation and style as exemplified in the construction of the Chennakeshava
Temple at Belur and the Hoysaleshwara Temple at Halebidu. Both these temples were built in
commemoration of the victories of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana against the Cholas in
1116. Veera Ballala II, the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated the aggressive Pandya
when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles "Establisher of the Chola
Kingdom" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of the south" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and
"Hoysala emperor" (Hoysala Chakravarthi). The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas
known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam
near Srirangam a provincial capital.This gave them control over South Indian politics that began
a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan.
In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged, the first of
the Muslim incursions into South India began. After over two decades of waging war against a
foreign power, the Hoysala ruler at the time, Veera Ballala III, died in the battle of Madurai in
1343. This resulted in the merger of the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire with the
areas administered by Harihara I, founder of the Vijayanagara Empire, located in
the Tungabhadra region in present-day Karnataka. The new kingdom thrived for another two
centuries with Vijayanagara as its capital.
Vijayanagara Architecture
of Talakad and moved their capital to nearby Halebidu. Historians refer to the founders of the
dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling
them Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs" (Malepas). With the waning of the
Western Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the late twelfth century.
During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres such as Ragale (blank
verse), Sangatya (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical
instrument), Shatpadi (six-line verse or sestet) etc. became widely accepted. The Hoysalas
expanded the Vesara architecture stemming from the Chalukyas, culminating in the Hoysala
architectural articulation and style as exemplified in the construction of the Chennakeshava
Temple at Belur and the Hoysaleshwara Temple at Halebidu. Both these temples were built in
commemoration of the victories of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana against the Cholas in
1116. Veera Ballala II, the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated the aggressive Pandya
when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles "Establisher of the Chola
Kingdom" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of the south" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and
"Hoysala emperor" (Hoysala Chakravarthi). The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas
known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam
near Srirangam a provincial capital.This gave them control over South Indian politics that began
a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan.
In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged, the first of
the Muslim incursions into South India began. After over two decades of waging war against a
foreign power, the Hoysala ruler at the time, Veera Ballala III, died in the battle of Madurai in
1343. This resulted in the merger of the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire with the
areas administered by Harihara I, founder of the Vijayanagara Empire, located in
the Tungabhadra region in present-day Karnataka. The new kingdom thrived for another two
centuries with Vijayanagara as its capital.
Vijayanagara Architecture
46
Stone Chariot Hampi/ Vijayanagara Empire in 1446 CE, 1520 CE.
The Vijayanagara Empire quickly rose to imperial status as early as the late 14th century. During
the reign of Bukka Raya I, the island of Lanka paid tributes and ambassadors were exchanged
with the Ming Dynasty of China. The empire's most famous rulers were Deva Raya II and
the Tuluva king Krishnadevaraya. Deva Raya II (known as Gajabetekara or hunter of elephants)
ascended the throne in 1424 and was the most effective of the Sangama dynasty rulers. He
quelled rebelling feudal lords, the Zamorin of Calicut and the Quilon in the south, and invaded
the island of Lanka while becoming overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.
After a brief decline, the empire reached its peak in the early 16th century during the rule
of Krishnadevaraya when the Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire
annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the
eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its
subordinates in the south.
Many important monuments at Hampi were either completed or commissioned during the reign
of Krishnadevaraya. The enduring legacy of this empire is the vast open-air theatre of
monuments at the regal capital, Vijayanagara, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage
site. Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant blend of the preceding Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya
and Chola styles. Literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit languages found royal
patronage. Telugu attained its height in popularity and reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya.
The Kannada Haridasa movement contributed greatly to Carnatic music and fostered a strong
Hindu sentiment across South India. With the defeat of the Vijayanagara Empire in the Battle of
Talikota in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates, the Karnataka region and South India in general
became fragmented and subsumed under the rule of various former feudatories of the empire. A
diminished Vijayanagara Empire moved its capital to Penukonda in modern Andhra Pradesh and
later to Chandragiri and Vellore before disintegrating. In the south and coastal Karnataka region,
the Kingdom of Mysore and the Keladi Nayaka of Shimoga held sway while the northern regions
were under the control of the Bijapur Sultanate. The Nayaka kingdom lasted into the 18th
century before merging with the Kingdom of Mysore which remained a princely state until
Indian independence in 1947, though they came under the British Raj (rule) in 1799 following
the defeat and death of the last independent Mysore king, Tipu Sultan.
Bahmani Sultanate
Stone Chariot Hampi/ Vijayanagara Empire in 1446 CE, 1520 CE.
The Vijayanagara Empire quickly rose to imperial status as early as the late 14th century. During
the reign of Bukka Raya I, the island of Lanka paid tributes and ambassadors were exchanged
with the Ming Dynasty of China. The empire's most famous rulers were Deva Raya II and
the Tuluva king Krishnadevaraya. Deva Raya II (known as Gajabetekara or hunter of elephants)
ascended the throne in 1424 and was the most effective of the Sangama dynasty rulers. He
quelled rebelling feudal lords, the Zamorin of Calicut and the Quilon in the south, and invaded
the island of Lanka while becoming overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.
After a brief decline, the empire reached its peak in the early 16th century during the rule
of Krishnadevaraya when the Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire
annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the
eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its
subordinates in the south.
Many important monuments at Hampi were either completed or commissioned during the reign
of Krishnadevaraya. The enduring legacy of this empire is the vast open-air theatre of
monuments at the regal capital, Vijayanagara, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage
site. Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant blend of the preceding Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya
and Chola styles. Literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit languages found royal
patronage. Telugu attained its height in popularity and reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya.
The Kannada Haridasa movement contributed greatly to Carnatic music and fostered a strong
Hindu sentiment across South India. With the defeat of the Vijayanagara Empire in the Battle of
Talikota in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates, the Karnataka region and South India in general
became fragmented and subsumed under the rule of various former feudatories of the empire. A
diminished Vijayanagara Empire moved its capital to Penukonda in modern Andhra Pradesh and
later to Chandragiri and Vellore before disintegrating. In the south and coastal Karnataka region,
the Kingdom of Mysore and the Keladi Nayaka of Shimoga held sway while the northern regions
were under the control of the Bijapur Sultanate. The Nayaka kingdom lasted into the 18th
century before merging with the Kingdom of Mysore which remained a princely state until
Indian independence in 1947, though they came under the British Raj (rule) in 1799 following
the defeat and death of the last independent Mysore king, Tipu Sultan.
Bahmani Sultanate
47
Bahmani Sultanate territories, 1470.
The Bahmani Sultanate, a contemporary of the Vijayanagara Empire, was founded in 1347 by
Alla-ud-din-Hasan, a breakaway commander of the armies of the northern invaders led
by Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq. The capital was Gulbarga but was later moved further north
to Bidar in 1430. The first of the Muslim invasions of the Deccan came in the early decades of
the 14th century. At its peak, the Bahamani kingdom extended from the Krishna River in the
south to Penganga River in the north, thus covering the regions of northern parts of modern
Karnataka, parts of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. The most famous of the Bahamani Kings
was Firuz Shah (also known as Taj Ud Din Firuz), who ruled from 1397 to 1422. Militarily, the
rule of Firuz Shah had uneven success against the Vijayanagara kings while he was more
convincingly successful against the Kherla rulers of Madhya Pradesh and the Vema Reddies
of Rajamundry, areas that he annexed in 1417. His last encounter with the Vijayanagara armies
in 1417 was disastrous and led to his defeat, ill health and ultimate death in 1422.
Contemporary writers such as Tabataba, in his writings have heaped praise on Firuz Shah.
Tabataba wrote of the king as, "[a]n impetuous, mighty monarch who patronised learned men,
Sheiks and hermits", while Shirazi described him as "a just, pious and generous king and one
without equal". He has earned the honorific Sultan-i-ghazian for his bravery, tolerant nature and
patronage of the fine arts. In the opinion of one historian, Firuz Shah was one of the most notable
Sultans to rule in India.
]
Another well-known figure from this kingdom was Kwaja Mahamud
Gavan, the prime minister, who served under several kings and regents. He rose above the kings
and princess of the dynasty by virtue of his ministerial, administrative, martial, literary and
philanthropic abilities. A Persian by descent and a visitor to Bidar in 1445, he impressed the
ruling Sultan Alla-ud-din II and was chosen to become a minister in his court. As a commander
he was able to extend the kingdom from Hubli in the south to Goa in the west and Kondavidu
and Rajamahendri in the east. He soon rose to the position of prime minister (Vakil-Us-Sultanat).
The Bahamanis introduced the large-scale use of paper in administration and began the Indo-
Sarasenic architectural style, designed and constructed by Persian architects and artisans, (also
known as Deccani architecture) with its local influences in Karnataka. The Sultanate monuments
of Bidar and Gulbarga are testimony to their interest in architecture. The Bande Nawaz tombs
and a Jama Masjid in Gulbarga which exhibits a Spanish influence are well known. In Bidar,
Bahmani Sultanate territories, 1470.
The Bahmani Sultanate, a contemporary of the Vijayanagara Empire, was founded in 1347 by
Alla-ud-din-Hasan, a breakaway commander of the armies of the northern invaders led
by Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq. The capital was Gulbarga but was later moved further north
to Bidar in 1430. The first of the Muslim invasions of the Deccan came in the early decades of
the 14th century. At its peak, the Bahamani kingdom extended from the Krishna River in the
south to Penganga River in the north, thus covering the regions of northern parts of modern
Karnataka, parts of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. The most famous of the Bahamani Kings
was Firuz Shah (also known as Taj Ud Din Firuz), who ruled from 1397 to 1422. Militarily, the
rule of Firuz Shah had uneven success against the Vijayanagara kings while he was more
convincingly successful against the Kherla rulers of Madhya Pradesh and the Vema Reddies
of Rajamundry, areas that he annexed in 1417. His last encounter with the Vijayanagara armies
in 1417 was disastrous and led to his defeat, ill health and ultimate death in 1422.
Contemporary writers such as Tabataba, in his writings have heaped praise on Firuz Shah.
Tabataba wrote of the king as, "[a]n impetuous, mighty monarch who patronised learned men,
Sheiks and hermits", while Shirazi described him as "a just, pious and generous king and one
without equal". He has earned the honorific Sultan-i-ghazian for his bravery, tolerant nature and
patronage of the fine arts. In the opinion of one historian, Firuz Shah was one of the most notable
Sultans to rule in India.
]
Another well-known figure from this kingdom was Kwaja Mahamud
Gavan, the prime minister, who served under several kings and regents. He rose above the kings
and princess of the dynasty by virtue of his ministerial, administrative, martial, literary and
philanthropic abilities. A Persian by descent and a visitor to Bidar in 1445, he impressed the
ruling Sultan Alla-ud-din II and was chosen to become a minister in his court. As a commander
he was able to extend the kingdom from Hubli in the south to Goa in the west and Kondavidu
and Rajamahendri in the east. He soon rose to the position of prime minister (Vakil-Us-Sultanat).
The Bahamanis introduced the large-scale use of paper in administration and began the Indo-
Sarasenic architectural style, designed and constructed by Persian architects and artisans, (also
known as Deccani architecture) with its local influences in Karnataka. The Sultanate monuments
of Bidar and Gulbarga are testimony to their interest in architecture. The Bande Nawaz tombs
and a Jama Masjid in Gulbarga which exhibits a Spanish influence are well known. In Bidar,
48
their buildings have Persian, Turkish, Arabic and Roman influences (the Solah Khamba mosque
being an example). Rangin Mahal, Gangan Mahal, Tarkash Mahal, Chini Mahal, Nagina Mahal
and the Taqk Mahal are some of the palaces built by them that have retained their beauty. The
Ahmad Shah Wali tombs are noted for their decor, and the school of learning (madrasa) built by
Gavan in Bidar (1472), with its lecture halls, library, mosque and residential houses are also
famous. In the later part of the 15th century, with a growing rift between the local Deccani
Muslims and the Pardeshi Muslims (foreign) who occupied influential positions in the kingdom,
the execution of Gavan under dubious circumstances in 1481, and constant wars with the
Vijayanagara kings weakened the Bahamani Kingdom eventually bringing about its end in 1527.
THE ART of Bijapur Sultanate
Bijapur Sultanate territories under Ibrahim II, 1620 CE.
The Bijapur Sultanate (or Adilshahi Kingdom) emerged towards the end of the 15th century with
the weakening of the Bahmani Sultanate . The main sources of information about this kingdom
comes from contemporaneous inscriptions and writings in Persian and Kannada, travelogues of
European visitors to the Deccan and inscriptions of neighbouring kingdoms. In 1489, Yusuf
Adilkhan, a Turkic general in the Bahmani army, broke away to found the kingdom from modern
Bijapur . Throughout his rule, the Sultanate was at war with the Vijayanagara Empire over the
strategic Raichur doab, with the Portuguese over Goa, with the Barid Shahis of Bidar and later
with the erstwhile feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire who had gained independence after
1565. The Italian writer Varathema wrote about the founder Adilkhan and Bijapur, "A powerful
and prosperous king", "the city was encircled by many fortifications and contained beautiful and
majestic buildings".
Inter-Sultanate marriages normalised relations and Ali I (1557–1580) joined a confederacy of
Sultanates who eventually inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565. The
most notable ruler of the dynasty was Ibrahim II (1580–1626) who ascended the throne as a nine-
year-old with Chandbibi, the king's aunt acting as the regent. Later when Ibrahim II was defeated
by the first of the Moghul incursions into the Deccan, he gave his daughter in marriage to
Daniyal, a son of Emperor Akbar, but managed to collect tributes from the former feudatories of
the Vijayanagara Empire. According to a historian, the rule of Ibrahim II was the high point of
their buildings have Persian, Turkish, Arabic and Roman influences (the Solah Khamba mosque
being an example). Rangin Mahal, Gangan Mahal, Tarkash Mahal, Chini Mahal, Nagina Mahal
and the Taqk Mahal are some of the palaces built by them that have retained their beauty. The
Ahmad Shah Wali tombs are noted for their decor, and the school of learning (madrasa) built by
Gavan in Bidar (1472), with its lecture halls, library, mosque and residential houses are also
famous. In the later part of the 15th century, with a growing rift between the local Deccani
Muslims and the Pardeshi Muslims (foreign) who occupied influential positions in the kingdom,
the execution of Gavan under dubious circumstances in 1481, and constant wars with the
Vijayanagara kings weakened the Bahamani Kingdom eventually bringing about its end in 1527.
THE ART of Bijapur Sultanate
Bijapur Sultanate territories under Ibrahim II, 1620 CE.
The Bijapur Sultanate (or Adilshahi Kingdom) emerged towards the end of the 15th century with
the weakening of the Bahmani Sultanate . The main sources of information about this kingdom
comes from contemporaneous inscriptions and writings in Persian and Kannada, travelogues of
European visitors to the Deccan and inscriptions of neighbouring kingdoms. In 1489, Yusuf
Adilkhan, a Turkic general in the Bahmani army, broke away to found the kingdom from modern
Bijapur . Throughout his rule, the Sultanate was at war with the Vijayanagara Empire over the
strategic Raichur doab, with the Portuguese over Goa, with the Barid Shahis of Bidar and later
with the erstwhile feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire who had gained independence after
1565. The Italian writer Varathema wrote about the founder Adilkhan and Bijapur, "A powerful
and prosperous king", "the city was encircled by many fortifications and contained beautiful and
majestic buildings".
Inter-Sultanate marriages normalised relations and Ali I (1557–1580) joined a confederacy of
Sultanates who eventually inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565. The
most notable ruler of the dynasty was Ibrahim II (1580–1626) who ascended the throne as a nine-
year-old with Chandbibi, the king's aunt acting as the regent. Later when Ibrahim II was defeated
by the first of the Moghul incursions into the Deccan, he gave his daughter in marriage to
Daniyal, a son of Emperor Akbar, but managed to collect tributes from the former feudatories of
the Vijayanagara Empire. According to a historian, the rule of Ibrahim II was the high point of
49
the Bijapur Sultanate. A tolerant king inclined to the fine arts, the earliest book on music in Urdu
language called Kitab-e-Nauras is ascribed to him. The opening song in the book is an
invocation of the Hindu Goddess Saraswati. During the rule of his son Muhammad, Shahji
Bhosle from Ahmadnagar joined the Bijapur army and along with commander Ranadullah Khan
conducted many successful campaigns in the southern Deccan collecting tribute from local rulers
there. The final end of the diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling from Vellore came during
these campaigns.
Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the
Byzantine Hagia Sophia.
However, the rise of Maratha Shivaji and constant invasions by the Mughals from the north took
its toll on the kingdom, eventually bringing it to an end in the later part of the 17th century. The
contributions of the Bijapur Sultanate in the Indo-Saracenic idiom to the architectural landscape
of Karnataka is noteworthy. Their most famous monuments are the mausoleums called Ibrahim
Rauza and the Gol Gumbaz apart from many other palaces and mosques. The elegance, finish
and beauty of Mehtar Mahal is claimed by a historian to be equal to anything in Cairo. Their Kali
Masjid at Lakshmeshwar is a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim styles. The Ibrahim Rauza built by
Ibrahim II is a combination of a mausoleum and a mosque and is called the "Taj Mahal of the
Deccan".The Gol Gumbaz built by Muhammad is the largest dome in India and the second
largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia with an impressive
"whispering gallery". Some historians consider this one of the architectural marvels of the world.
Persian language was given state patronage while the use of the local languages, Kannada and
Marathi was popularised in local affairs.
the Bijapur Sultanate. A tolerant king inclined to the fine arts, the earliest book on music in Urdu
language called Kitab-e-Nauras is ascribed to him. The opening song in the book is an
invocation of the Hindu Goddess Saraswati. During the rule of his son Muhammad, Shahji
Bhosle from Ahmadnagar joined the Bijapur army and along with commander Ranadullah Khan
conducted many successful campaigns in the southern Deccan collecting tribute from local rulers
there. The final end of the diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling from Vellore came during
these campaigns.
Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the
Byzantine Hagia Sophia.
However, the rise of Maratha Shivaji and constant invasions by the Mughals from the north took
its toll on the kingdom, eventually bringing it to an end in the later part of the 17th century. The
contributions of the Bijapur Sultanate in the Indo-Saracenic idiom to the architectural landscape
of Karnataka is noteworthy. Their most famous monuments are the mausoleums called Ibrahim
Rauza and the Gol Gumbaz apart from many other palaces and mosques. The elegance, finish
and beauty of Mehtar Mahal is claimed by a historian to be equal to anything in Cairo. Their Kali
Masjid at Lakshmeshwar is a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim styles. The Ibrahim Rauza built by
Ibrahim II is a combination of a mausoleum and a mosque and is called the "Taj Mahal of the
Deccan".The Gol Gumbaz built by Muhammad is the largest dome in India and the second
largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia with an impressive
"whispering gallery". Some historians consider this one of the architectural marvels of the world.
Persian language was given state patronage while the use of the local languages, Kannada and
Marathi was popularised in local affairs.
50
Kingdom of Mysore under Tipu Sultan.// Mysore Palace at dusk (Indo-Saracenic style).
The fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 at the Battle of Talikota started a slow disintegration
of the Kannada speaking region into many short-lived palegar chiefdoms, and the better
known Kingdom of Mysore and the kingdom of Keladi Nayakas, which were to later become
important centres of Kannada literary production. These kingdoms and the Nayakas ("chiefs") of
Tamil country continued to owe nominal support to a diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling
from Penukonda (1570) and later from Chandragiri (1586) in modern Andhra Pradesh, followed
by a brief period of independence. By the mid-17th century, large areas in north Karnataka came
under the control of the Bijapur Sultanate who waged several wars in a bid to establish a
hegemony over the southern Deccan. The defeat of the Bijapur Sultanate at the hands of
the Mughals in late 17th century added a new dimension to the prevailing confusion.
[160]
The
constant wars of the local kingdoms with the two new rivals, the Mughals and the Marathas, and
among themselves, caused further instability in the region.
[161]
Major areas of Karnataka came
under the rule of the Mughals and the Marathas. Under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, the
Mysore Kingdom reached its zenith of power but had to face the growing English might who by
now had a firm foothold in the subcontinent. After the death of Tipu Sultan in 1799 in the fourth
Anglo-Mysore war, the Mysore Kingdom came under the British umbrella. More than a century
later, with the dawn of India as an independent nation in 1947, the unification of Kannada
speaking regions as modern Karnataka state brought four centuries of political uncertainty (and
centuries of foreign rule) to an end.
Timeline
Kingdom of Mysore under Tipu Sultan.// Mysore Palace at dusk (Indo-Saracenic style).
The fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 at the Battle of Talikota started a slow disintegration
of the Kannada speaking region into many short-lived palegar chiefdoms, and the better
known Kingdom of Mysore and the kingdom of Keladi Nayakas, which were to later become
important centres of Kannada literary production. These kingdoms and the Nayakas ("chiefs") of
Tamil country continued to owe nominal support to a diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling
from Penukonda (1570) and later from Chandragiri (1586) in modern Andhra Pradesh, followed
by a brief period of independence. By the mid-17th century, large areas in north Karnataka came
under the control of the Bijapur Sultanate who waged several wars in a bid to establish a
hegemony over the southern Deccan. The defeat of the Bijapur Sultanate at the hands of
the Mughals in late 17th century added a new dimension to the prevailing confusion.
[160]
The
constant wars of the local kingdoms with the two new rivals, the Mughals and the Marathas, and
among themselves, caused further instability in the region.
[161]
Major areas of Karnataka came
under the rule of the Mughals and the Marathas. Under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, the
Mysore Kingdom reached its zenith of power but had to face the growing English might who by
now had a firm foothold in the subcontinent. After the death of Tipu Sultan in 1799 in the fourth
Anglo-Mysore war, the Mysore Kingdom came under the British umbrella. More than a century
later, with the dawn of India as an independent nation in 1947, the unification of Kannada
speaking regions as modern Karnataka state brought four centuries of political uncertainty (and
centuries of foreign rule) to an end.
Timeline
Tags
Categories
GeneralDownload
Download Slideshow Get the original presentation fileQuick Actions
Statistics
- Views 2,176
- Slides 50
- Age 1394 days
Related Slideshows
22
Pray For The Peace Of Jerusalem and You Will Prosper
RodolfoMoralesMarcuc
39 views
26
Don_t_Waste_Your_Life_God.....powerpoint
chalobrido8
42 views
31
VILLASUR_FACTORS_TO_CONSIDER_IN_PLATING_SALAD_10-13.pdf
JaiJai148317
38 views
14
Fertility awareness methods for women in the society
Isaiah47
36 views
35
Chapter 5 Arithmetic Functions Computer Organisation and Architecture
RitikSharma297999
34 views
5
syakira bhasa inggris (1) (1).pptx.......
ourcommunity56
37 views