the data analysis and preparation of data

data

1. DATA PREPARATION & ANALYSIS 1

2. Data from interviews, questionnaires, observation or through secondary data need to be edited Raw data – huge and have to be arranged properly before use Arrange/edit the data The process of arranging things in group or classes according to their resemblance or affinity and gives expression to the unity of attributes that may subsist amongst a diversity of individuals Locating similarities, dropping out unnecessary details, comparing different sets of data clearly showing the different points of agreement & disagreement Classific 2 ation of data The process where the classified data is arranged in form of tables/graphs/diagrams Indicate causal relationship. Tabulation thus dependent upon classification Tabulation of data

3. 3 Editing It is a process of checking & adjusting the data for omissions, legibility & consistency. Detects errors, misunderstood & correct them by maintaining the data quality.

4. To ensure the data is accurate, complete, consistent with the intent of the question so as to simplify the coding and tabulation processes. Eg; an answer which is obviously impossible (birth year: 1850), not eligible interviewees (too young, mental retarded) Inconsistent answers: the Resp. might unconsciously not answered or deliberately have omitted answering, given inconsistent answer between one Q to the other. 4

5. Handling blank responses / item non- response Reasons: the Resp. co ul d 5 not understand the Q, unwilling to answer, indifferent to respond to the entire questionnaire. Uma Sekaran: if more than 25% the questionnaire has been left blank – good idea to discard the questionnaire + not to be included in the data set for analysis.

6. Dealing with don’t know responses (DK) 6 Legitimate – when the R does not know the answer / has formed no clear- cut opinion (no opinion) / when the R simply does not want to answer (eg: Q on income) Eg: how often each year do you go to the movies? – some calculation need to be done by the R about a topic to which they attach little importance To avoid DK response – design better Q at the beginning, motivate R to provide more usable answers.

7. 7 If they are just a few – ignored + not countered for tabulation If they are many – place all legitimate responses under a separate reply category It may be useful for the researcher to know for the purpose of analysis that on certain issue some Rs have either no opinion of their own or are reluctant to express opinion

8. 8 Field editing Researchers often do the editing work on the same day as the interview – field editing Possible only when the interviews + questionnaires are personally distributed + collected It is done by checking technical omissions, readability of the writing, inconsistency of responses Rapid follow up/daily field editing – enable the researcher to again contact the R to fill in omissions bf the situation has changed.

9. In- house editing 9 Refer to editing job performed by a centralised office staff Social research is often conducted by organisations, departments or companies for which field workers are appointed to carry out surveys Data collected by the staff are edited by a central office staff It also applies to an academic study - several persons are engaged to gather data It is done when the data gathering process is completed (not simultaneous editing in the field) The same goes to an academic study which is done by a single individual

10. 10 Coding it is a method symbols (numbers/letters/words) of assigning to answers limited so that the number of responses can be grouped into classes/categories The symbol assigned is called a code. Eg: “M” – male, “F” – female “1” – male, “2” – female Coding scheme – the plan by which a researcher organises responses for the purpose of analysis.

11. Helps researcher to reduce a large number of replies to a few categories containing the important information needed for analysis. Importance of coding? 11

12. Inductive & deductive approach to coding 12 Inductive approach to qualitative data? Codes are derived from the data Participants’ words / in vivo codes are used to code the data No ready codes – create along the reading Codes are built and modified throughout the coding process

13. 13 An inductive approach to coding legal research data is a methodology that involves deriving codes and categories directly from the data itself rather than applying pre- existing theories or frameworks. This approach is particularly useful in exploratory research where the goal is to uncover patterns, themes, and insights that emerge naturally from the data.

14. process 14 Researchers engage in the process of identifying the themes, patterns and concepts that emerge naturally from the data without preconceived categories. Codes are generated from the data itself, allowing for a more flexible and open- ended analysis. Researchers can effectively apply inductive coding in grounded theory and qualitative content analysis.

15. example 15 Researchers analyze interview transcripts without predefined codes. They identify recurring themes such as "increased workload," "client awareness," and "complex procedures" from the data, and then develop a theory explaining the impact of legal reforms based on these emergent themes.

16. Deductive approach to code qualitative data? 16 Researcher formulates pre set coding scheme. Once the coding scheme is established, the researcher applies the codes to the data. Deductive coding is a structured approach to qualitative data analysis where the coding process is guided by pre- existing theories, hypotheses, or frameworks. This approach is typically used to confirm or refute existing theories and involves applying a predefined coding scheme to the data.

17. process 17 Researchers begin with a coding scheme developed from prior research, theories, or hypotheses. These codes are applied to the data systematically. The predefined codes are applied to the data to confirm or disprove existing theories or hypotheses. The process is more structured, with less flexibility to adapt the coding scheme based on the data alone.

18. example 18 Researchers use a predefined set of codes derived from a theoretical model of organizational change. They apply these codes to interview transcripts to see if themes such as "leadership commitment," "employee resistance," and "communication strategies" are present and to what extent they align with the model.

19. Coding rules Certain basic rules to be followed in coding: (a) Appropriateness - researcher should decide type of information that is necessary for the purposes of the study Eg: age / income of Rs are unnecessary in view of the data collected– no need to create categories for them for coding - the entire data collected should be so classified as to provide the best possible categories 19

20. (b) Exhaustiveness The coding categories should be exhaustive in the sense that they should be provided for all subjects / objects of responses The responses which may be useful for research purposes should have separate code categories Eg: the researcher might not bother to code “no opinion” responses on the assumption that such responses will not be involved in data analysis – such “no opinion” responses may also be important 20

21. (c) Mutual exclusivity Coding categories should be mutually exclusive and independent Must ensure that there is no overlapping between the categories so that the subject / response can be placed in only one category Eg: mutually exclusive category – categorising persons as male / female 21

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23. What is data analysis? 23 When the raw data (responses from interviews / questionnaires) are collected, edited, coded and entered into the computer, they are ready for analysis. Analysis is a process of examining, summarizing and drawing inferences from the information contained in the raw data.

24. 24 Data analysis - Some software packages useful for data analysis - Eg SPSS, Atlas.ti, Nvivo, etc Pure legal R Content analysis Has a particular interest in the use of document for its source of data and information Written document – book, newspaper, magazine, acts, cases Also called documentary analysis It is indirect rather than direct because we are dealing with something produced for some other purpose

25. Content analysis? It is a specific analytical approach / technique that focuses on the actual content and/or internal features of any kind – word, picture, themes, text, phrases, sentences Researchers relationships, investigate concepts and semantic instead of merely counting + tabulating the presence of particular elements Both manifest + latent content are analysed. 25

26. The selection of documents for analysis can take many forms ranging from transcribed oral communication to print + electronic media The selection of documents will depend on the research area. Eg: study on political affiliations – political speeches, press releases and editorials Study the law on child abuse – statutes, agency report, press releases 26

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