The seven wonders of the world1

CONTENTS
Chapter I
Photocopiable Material Tasks
Visual Activity TaskThe Seven Wonders of the World (Ancient) 4
Visual Activity TaskThe Seven Wonders of the World (Ancient) (map) 5
Function File The Seven Wonders of the World (Ancient) 6
Reading and Speaking Activity The Seven Wonders of the World (Ancient)8
QuizThe Seven Wonders of the World: Ancient and New 10
Visual Activity TaskThe Seven Wonders of the World (New) 11
Visual Activity TaskThe Seven Wonders of the World (New) (map) 12
Function File The Seven Wonders of the World (New) 13
Reading and Speaking Activity The Taj Mahal 14
Listening Comprehension ActivityThe Colosseum 17
ImageThe Colosseum 19
Pair Work ActivityPetra 21
Pair Work ActivityThe Great Wall of China 22
Chapter II
Additional Reading
The Seven Wonders of the World (Ancient) 24
The Great Pyramids 33
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon 36
The Statue of Zeus at Olympia 38
The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus 40
The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus 41
The Colossal Statue of the Sun God Helios 42
The Pharos of Alexandria 43
The New Seven Wonders of the World 44
The Great Wall of China 48
The Taj Mahal 52
Petra 62
Christ the Redemer 66
Machu Piccu 68
Chichen Itza 73
The Colosseum 79
Sources 87
2

3

VISUAL ACTIVITY TASK
Do you know the seven wonders of the ancient world?
Can you match every picture with its name?
How many wonders of the world can we see today?
1. The Pharos, lighthouse of Alexandria
2. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
3. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
4. The Colossus of Rhodes
5. The Pyramids of Egypt
6. The Tomb of Mausolus
7. The Temple of Artemis
4

VISUAL ACTIVITY TASK
Can you show the seven wonders of the ancient world on the map?
1.The Pharos, lighthouse of Alexandria
2.The Temple of Artemis
3.The Tomb of Mausolus
4.The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
5.The Colossus of Rhodes
6.The Pyramids of Egypt
7.The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
5

FUNCTION FILE
Complete the function file
Wonder
Date of
construction
BuilderNotable features
Date of
destruction
Cause of
destruction
2650-2500
BC
Egyptians
Built as the tomb of
Fourth dynasty
Egyptian pharaoh
Khufu.
Still
standing
-
Hanging
Gardens of
Babylon
600 BC
Diodorus described
multi-levelled
gardens reaching 22
metres (75 feet)
high, complete with
machinery for
circulating water.
Large trees grew on
the roof.
After 1st
century BC
Earthquake
550 BC
Lydians,
Persians,
Greeks
Dedicated to the
Greek goddess
Artemis, it took 120
years to build.
Herostratus burned it
down in an attempt
to achieve lasting
fame.
356 BC Arson
Statue of Zeus
at Olympia
Greeks
Occupied the whole
width of the aisle of
the temple that was
built to house it, and
was 40 feet (12
meters) tall.
5th-6th
centuries
AD
Unknown,
presumed
destroyed by fire
or earthquake.
6

Mausoleum of
Maussollos at
Halicarnassus
351 BC
Persians,
Greeks
Stood approximately
45 meters (135 feet)
tall with each of the
four sides adorned
with sculptural
reliefs. Origin of the
word mausoleum.
Damaged by an
earthquake and
eventually
disassembled by
European
Crusaders
Colossus of
Rhodes
292-280 BC
Hellenistic
Greece
A giant statue of the
Greek god Helios
roughly 3/4ths as
large as today's
Statue of Liberty in
New York.
224 BC
3rd century
BC
Hellenistic
Egypt
Between 115 and
135 meters (383 -
440 ft) tall it was
among the tallest
man-made structures
on Earth for many
centuries.
AD 1303-
1480
Earthquake
READING AND SPEAKING ACTIVITY
7

How well do you know the wonders of the ancient world?
Pre-reading task
1. Work in small groups.
How many of the following questions can you answer?
-What’s the oldest of the seven wonders?
-Is the Great Sphinx at Giza one of the wonders of the ancient world?
-Could the Hanging Gardens of Babylon fly?
-Could real love overdo everything, even gravitation?
-Who was the first to create monumental sculpture?
-What wonder of the ancient world is famous for the art works that embellished
it?
-Where did the word “mausoleum” come from?
-
2. Preface each question above with one of the following according to what is true for you.
Remember the word order for making indirect questions.
I think I know… I’m not sure… I don’t know…
I’ve no idea… I wonder… It seems to me…
3. Discuss your answers with your classmates.
Which of the questions interest you most of all? Why?
Reading
Read the answers to the questions. How much of the information have your class already
known?
The Great Pyramid of Khufu (c. 2600 BC). This was the greatest of the Egyptian
pyramids, which served as burial places of the pharaohs, particularly during the Old
Kingdom. Some lists included all of the pyramids and the Great Sphinx at Giza as well. The
Pyramids of Egypt, built at Giza during the 4th Dynasty (c. 2680-c. 2544 BC) are the oldest
of the seven wonders and the only ones remaining relatively intact today.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, perhaps built by King Nebuchadnezzar II about
600 BC, were a mountain-like series of landscaped terraces. The king may have intended
them to remind his Median wife of her native mountains.
The Statue of Zeus (c. 450 BC) was a 12-m (40-ft) portrayal of Zeus seated on a
throne. Plated with gold and ivory, it was crafted by Phidias of Athens, a Greek sculptor. The
statue was placed in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, Greece.
The Temple of Artemis (356 BC). This large and beautifully ornamented temple was
built at Ephesus in Greece c. 550 BC by Croesus, king of Lydia, and rebuilt in 356 BC. It was
famed for the art works that embellished it. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus combined
great size with elaborate ornamentation, was destroyed by the Goths in AD 262.
The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus (c. 353 BC), monumental tomb of the Anatolian
king Mausolus was built by his widow Artemisia. It was a huge marble tomb built for King
Mausolus of Caria in Asia Minor. Its walls rose straight up to a form a platform which
supported 36 columns and a pyramid, topped by a chariot drawn by four horses. The name
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“mausoleum” for a large burial monument is taken from King Mausolus. Only fragments
remain.
The Colossus of Rhodes (280 BC) was a 30-m (100-ft) statue of the Greek sun god
Helios. Built of bronze, reinforced by iron, it stood at the entrance to the harbour at Rhodes. It
was destroyed about 55 years later.
The Pharos of Alexandria (c. 280 BC) was a lighthouse, more than 134 m (440 ft)
tall, that stood on an island at the entrance to the harbour at Alexandria, Egypt. It was built for
Ptolemy II of Egypt on the island of Pharos off Alexandria. A fire burned at the top as a signal
to ships on the Mediterranean. The Pharos has been called “the archetype of every modern
lighthouse”. It was destroyed in the 14th century.The remains of the Pharos lighthouse were
discovered in 1995.
The post-reading task
Work in groups.
1. Here are seven questions, one for each text.
Which question goes with which text?
What do the words underlined refer to?
a) What stood on an island at the entrance to the harbour at Alexandria, Egypt?
b) Where did the Colossus of Rhodes stand?
c) When did it serve as burial places of the pharaohs?
d) Who seated on a throne?
e) Why was it built for King Mausolus?
f) Why have the king intended them?
g) What was destroyed by the Goths in AD 262?
Now answer the questions a-g.
2. Find the following numbers in the text. What do they refer for? Make a sentence about
each number.
2600 600 1995 353 12 2680-2544
14 262 30 280 55 550
Producing a class poster
1. Make a list of some questions about the wonders of the modern world that you would like
to ask.
2. Check round the class to see if anyone can answer your questions.
3. Choose at least two questions and research the answers. You could go to an encyclopedia.
Write the answers in a similar style.
4. Complete them into a poster for your classroom wall.
9

QUIZ
THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD:
ANCIENT AND NEW
1.Name one of the biggest religious sculptures in the modern world.
(Christ the Redemer)
2.A woman that loved the sea, had a temple which was named in her honour. Name the
temple.
(Artemida’s Temple)
3.It’s a mother of a toy that children like. What’s this?
(Pyramids of Egypt)
4.It was made as a remind of native mountains. It only belonged to one woman and
hung down from the roof. What was it?
(Semiramida’s Hanging Gardens)
5.It was built as a symbol of eternal love. What’s this?
(The Taj Mahal)
6.The statue of the main God of the ancient world. Name it.
(Statue of Zeus)
7.A trip by ship is dangerous. But they still sailed, because they had an assistant. What
was it?
(Alexandria’s Lighthouse)
8.What statue was created in honour of the Sun’s God Helios?
(The Colossus of Rhodes)
9.What wonder of ancient world rejuvenates people?
(Pyramids of Egypt)
10.It was a hot-house in the air. What’s it?
(Semiramida’s Hanging Gardens)
11.Whose body was the first to be kept in mausoleum?
(The Anatolian king Masolus)
12.What’s the single architecture image can be seen from the space?
(The Great Wall of China)
13.What’s the biggest city of the Inca Empire?
(Machu Piccu)
14.“A rose-red city half as old as time”. Name it.
(Petra)
15.We go to the circus, but people in the Roman Empire went to the…..
(Colosseum)
16.What’s the centre of the Maya civilization?
(Chichen Itza)
10

VISUAL ACTIVITY TASK
Do you know the seven wonders of the modern world?
Can you match every picture with its name?
1.The Great Wall of China
2.The Taj Mahal
3.Petra
4.Christ the Redemer
5.Machu Piccu
6.Chichen Itza
7.The Colosseum

11

VISUAL ACTIVITY TASK
Can you show the seven wonders of the modern world on the map?
1.The Taj Mahal
2.The Colosseum
3.Machu Piccu
4.Chichen Itza
5.Christ the Redemer
6.Petra
7.The Great Wall of China
12

FUNCTION FILE
Complete the function file
Wonder Date of constructionBuilderNotable features
5th century BC – 16th centuryChina -
Petra Jordan -
Christ the Redeemer (statue)Opened 12 October 1931 -
c.1450 Peru -
Chichen Itza c.600 -
Completed 80 AD Italy -
Taj Mahal Completed c.1648 -
(Honorary Candidate)Completed c.2560 BC Egypt -
13

READING AND SPEAKING ACTIVITY
THE TAJ MAHAL
Pre-reading task
- Read and comment on the following quotation:
“It’s better to have loved and lost
Than never to have loved at all.”
Alfred, Lord Tennyson
-What famous couples do you know?
-What do you know about their fate?
-Does real love exist in modern life?
Reading “The Taj Mahal”
Work in groups
1.Skimming
GROUP I What is the Taj Mahal?
Where is the Taj Mahal located?
GROUP IIWhat was the Mughal dynasty?
What have you learnt about Shah Jehan and Arjumand Banu?
GROUP IIIWhy was the Taj Mahal built?
Who planned the Taj?
What does it consist of?
2.Reading
Post-reading task
GROUP I Find the following numbers in the text. What do they refer for? Make a
sentence about each number.
40200163014181612
GROUP IIComplete the sentences with suitable words as in the text.
1.Located at the city of Agra, the Taj Mahal is one of the ……….
2.The Mughals (Moguls), the Muslim Emperors who ruled Northern India
between the …….
3.It was Shah Jehan who ordered …….
4.Arjumand Banu who later became known as ……
5.The Empress used to accompany her ……….
6.The architectural complex is comprised of …….elements.
7.The unique mughal style ……..elements of Persian, Central Asian, and
Islamic architecture.
GROUP IIIAre the sentences true or false? Correct the false sentences.
1.Agra, situated about 200 km north of New Delhi, was the Capital of the
Mughals (Moguls).
2.The Mughals were the descendents of two of the most skilled warriors in
history: the Turks and the Mongols.
3.The Mughal dynasty reached its highest strength and fame during the reign
of their last Emperors.
4.Mumtaz and Shah Jehan were married in 1621.
5.It was in 1630, in Agra, that she gave birth to her last child.
6.So great was the Emperor love to his wife that he ordered the building of
the most beautiful mausoleum on Earth for her.
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7.Most impressive are the blue and white chessboard marble floor, the four
short minarets at the corners of the structure, and the majestic dome in the
middle.
Plan Group Activity
Retell the text one after the other according to the plan:
1.Location of the Taj Mahal.
2.The Mughal dynasty and its role in the history.
3.Love story of Shah Jehan and Arjumand Banu.
4.The most beautiful mausoleum on the Earth.
5.The main elements of the complex.
6.The most impressive things.
Writing
Write a letter to your friend about the most beautiful mausoleum on the Earth.
15

Located at the city of Agra in the State of Uttar Pradesh, the Taj Mahal is one of the
most beautiful masterpieces of architecture in the world. Agra, situated about 200 km south of
New Delhi, was the Capital of the Mughals (Moguls), the Muslim Emperors who ruled
Northern India between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Mughals were the
descendents of two of the most skilled warriors in history: the Turks and the Mongols. The
Mughal dynasty reached its highest strength and fame during the reign of their early
Emperors, Akbar, Jehangir, and Shah Jehan. It was Shah Jehan who ordered the building of
the Taj, in honor of his wife, Arjumand Banu who later became known as Mumtaz Mahal, the
Distinguished of the Palace. Mumtaz and Shah Jehan were married in 1612 and, over the next
18 years, had 14 children together. The Empress used to accompany her husband in his
military campaigns, and it was in 1630, in Burhanpur, that she gave birth to her last child, for
she died in childbirth. So great was the Emperor love to his wife that he ordered the building
of the most beautiful mausoleum on Earth for her. Although it is not known for sure who
planned the Taj, the name of an Indian architect of Persian descent, Ustad Ahmad Lahori, has
been cited in many sources. As soon as construction began in 1630, masons, craftsmen,
sculptors, and calligraphers were summoned from Persia, the Ottoman Empire, and Europe to
work on the masterpiece. The site was chosen near the Capital, Agra on the southwest bank of
the River Yamuna. The architectural complex is comprised of five main elements: the
Darwaza or main gateway, the Bageecha or garden, the Masjid or mosque, the Naqqar Khana
or rest house, and the Rauza or the Taj Mahal mausoleum. The actual Tomb is situated inside
the Taj. The unique mughal style combines elements of Persian, Central Asian, and Islamic
architecture. Most impressive are the black and white chessboard marble floor, the four tall
minarets (40 m high) at the corners of the structure, and the majestic dome in the middle. On
closer look, the lettering of the Quran verses around the archways appears to be uniform,
regardless of their height. The lettering spacing and density has been customized to give this
impression to the beholder. Other illusionary effects have been accounted for in the geometry
of the tomb and the tall minarets. The impressive pietra dura artwork includes geometric
elements, plants and flowers, mostly common in Islamic architecture. The level of
sophistication in artwork becomes obvious when one realizes that a 3 cm decorative element
contains more than 50 inlaid gemstones.
16

LISTENING COMPREHENSION ACTIVITY
Listen to the text and do the tasks.
Pre-listening activity.
- Do you like to go to the circus?
- Is going to the circus popular nowadays?
- Do you know from the lessons of history, how people in Ancient Rome spent their free
time?
- Divide into the groups of 3 and speak with your partners about the possible topic of
discussion. Predict what this text is about. Produce the story of your own.
These words will help you.
Ancient Rome Gladiatorial combats Titus
Flavian Amphitheatre 50,000 people
Nero Colossus Emperor Vespasian
80 AD Colosseum
Listening activity.
- Listen to the text and check whether your predictions were the same or different.
- Now listen again and be ready to answer the questions and to complete the sentences in the
function file.
The Colosseum is the most famous monument of Ancient Rome. Its original name is Flavian
Amphitheatre. It was started by the Emperor Vespasian between 70 and 76 AD, and
completed by his son Titus in 80 AD. The Colosseum was dedicated the year after
Vespasian's death by Titus. They celebrated the opening by holding 100 days worth of games
there. It was built on the site where Nero had had a huge villa for himself. Vespasian wanted
to build something for the people rather than for himself. It got its popular name, the
Colosseum, because it was built near where Nero had erected a huge statue, or colossus of
himself. It showed him as the god of the sun. It was 100 feet high, and it was the largest
gilded bronze statue in antiquity. It was later moved away. It took 24 elephants to move it! All
over the empire, Romans enjoyed going to the theater to see concerts and plays, and to the
stadium to watch chariot races and the amphitheater to watch bloody sports. Going to the
amphitheater (Colosseum) was probably the most popular. Gladiatorial combats, fights with
beasts and other fights were held in the Colosseum. The Colosseum was big enough to hold
the whole population of a town--as many as 50,000 people would sometimes spend the whole
day there watching sports. The games were really bloody and for four centuries, men died as
an entertainment for the crowd. Gladiators went to training schools; most of them were slaves
and criminals. At first there were fights to the death between wild animals: bear against
buffalo, buffalo against elephant, and elephant against rhinoceros. Sometimes there would
even be fights between men and tame beasts. These fights were called venationes. The
Amphitheater is built of travertine outside, and of tufa and brick in the interior. It had Greek
columns decorating the outside, but these did not support the architecture. The Colosseum had
a circumference of 527m and it was 50m high. There were 80 entrances, all numbered except
for the four main entrances which were wider than the others and were reserved for the
Emperor. It was designed so that the crowd could get out in five minutes. The interior was
divided into three parts: the arena, the podium, and the cavea. Now more than two-thirds of
the original building has been removed and the rows of the seats in the cavea are missing. It is
very similar to other amphitheaters except this one is much bigger.
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Post-listening activity.
- Answer these questions:
1. What’s the most famous monument of Ancient Rome?
2. How did it get its popular name?
3. What did Nero’s colossus look like?
4. What activities took place in the Colosseum?
5. How many entrances were there?
6. How many parts were there in the Colosseum?
7. How did they celebrate the opening of the Colosseum?
8. How many people could watch the performance there?
- Complete the sentences in the function file.
1. It was started by the Emperor Vespasian between…….
2. It was completed by his son Titus in …….
3. It was built on the site where Nero had had……..
4. Vespasian wanted to build something for …….. rather than for himself.
5. The games were ……and for four centuries, men died as an …….. for the crowd.
6. Gladiators went to …….; most of them were slaves and ……….
7. ………is built of travertine outside, and of tufa and brick in ………..
8. Now more than …..of the original building has been removed and the ……. in the cavea
are missing.
Points for discussion.
- Are bloody sports of great interest for you?
- Why do many people like to watch bloody sports?
- What bloody sports are popular nowadays?
- Why do sportsmen take part in bloody sports nowadays?
- What’s your attitude to bloody sports?
18

IMAGE
19

IMAGE
Think about the pictureWhat’s your reaction when you see this picture?
-it looks nice
-I’d like to visit this place
-it’s never like that where I live
-horrible
-lovely
-exciting
-…….
Use your imaginationWhere are all the people who live nearby?
What are they doing?
Why do people come to ths place?
How do they spend their time here now?
How did people spend their time there many centuries ago?
What special things could people do there at that time?
What did people bring with them when they came here?
What would this picture be like if it were in colour?
What would this scene be like in daytime?
Talk to a partner Talk to a partner and find out
-what experience he/she has had of travelling
-how he/she likes to travel
-when he/she likes to travel
-when he/she prefer to go sightseeing
-what countries he/she would like to visit to
Group opinion Work in groups of 3 or 4/
Make a detailed contrast of the two epocs: Ancient Rome and
modern Rome. Here are some ideas about the aspects you could
consider:
-the food they eat
-the clothes they wear
-the way they spend their free time
Talk to another partnerWith a partner, make a list of as many words as you can think of
that can be used to talk about the Colosseum. Compare your list
with those of the others.
What about you? Do you like to go sightseeing?
Is time of the day very important to you?
When do you feel most comfortable and at your best during the
daytime or at night?
Do you believe that the time of the day can influence people’s
well-being and their behaviour?
Write about it You are in Rome. You have just been to the Colosseum. You are
full if impressions. Write a letter to your friend and tell about
your visit to the Colosseum.
20

PAIR WORK ACTIVITY
Work in pairs. Ask and answer questions to complete the information.
Text I
Petra (lit. Rock) was (WHAT) city of the Nabataeans, a tribe of pre-Roman Arabs who
dominated the region around the Sixth century BC. Located at the crossroads of ancient trade
routes, the city survived on toll and taxes collected from traders. Despite several attempts to
conquer their capital, the Nabataeans remained practically independent until (WHEN). In 106,
the Romans under Trajan finally captured Petra to mark the beginning of the decline of the
city. The city remained unknown to the Western World for hundreds of years until a Swiss
explorer, (WHO) , heard about its existence from the local Bedouins in 1812. The Nabataeans
carved their Capital in (WHERE). Carved in the pink sandstone, the structure is 40 m high
and about 30x30 m wide. Its architecture has been certainly strongly influenced by the
Romans, which suggests it was built around the First century AD.
Text II
Petra (lit. Rock) was the capital city of the Nabataeans, a tribe of pre-Roman Arabs who
dominated the region around the Sixth century BC. Located (WHERE), the city survived on
toll and taxes collected from traders. Despite several attempts to conquer their capital, the
Nabataeans remained practically independent until the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra and the
reunification of the Roman Empire by Octavian in 31 BC. (WHEN), the Romans under Trajan
finally captured Petra to mark the beginning of the decline of the city. The city remained
unknown to the Western World for hundreds of years until a Swiss explorer, J.L. Burckhardt,
heard about its existence from the local Bedouins in (WHEN). The Nabataeans carved their
Capital in the canyons and hills of sandstone of Wadi Araba in Jordan. Carved in the pink
sandstone, the structure is 40 m high and about 30x30 m wide. Its architecture has been
certainly strongly influenced by(WHOM), which suggests it was built around the First
century AD.
21

PAIR WORK ACTIVITY
Work in pairs. Ask and answer questions to complete the information.
Text I
The Great Wall started (WHY). The individual sections weren't connected until the Qin
dynasty (221-206 B.C.). Qin Shihuangdi, First Emperor of Qin began conscripting peasants,
enemies, and anyone else who wasn't tied to the land to go to work on the wall. He (WHAT)
The tradition lasted for centuries. (WHO) added to the height, breadth, length, and elaborated
the design mostly through forced labor. It was during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) that the
Wall took on its present form. The brick and granite work was enlarged and sophisticated
designs were added. (WHAT) were redesigned and modern canon were mounted in strategic
areas. Throughout the centuries, armies were garrisoned along the length of the Wall to
provide early warning of invasion and a first line of defense. (WHAT) used to build signal
fires have been found during excavations. There must have been small garrison towns spotted
along the length. Over the past few centuries, the Great Wall has served (WHAT). The same
brutal isolated conditions which made the Great Wall a triumph of engineering and
determined planning make restoration problematic and slow.
Text II
The Great Wall started as earth works thrown up for protection by different States. The
individual sections weren't connected until the Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.). (WHO) began
conscripting peasants, enemies, and anyone else who wasn't tied to the land to go to work on
the wall. He garrisoned armies at the Wall to stand guard over the workers as well as to
defend the northern boundaries. The tradition lasted (HOW LONG). Each dynasty added to
the height, breadth, length, and elaborated the design mostly through forced labor. It was
during (WHEN) that the Wall took on its present form. The brick and granite work was
enlarged and sophisticated designs were added. The watch towers were redesigned and
modern canon were mounted in strategic areas. (WHEN) armies were garrisoned along the
length of the Wall to provide early warning of invasion and a first line of defense. Great piles
of straw and dung used to build signal fires have been found during excavations. There must
have been small garrison towns (WHERE). Over the past few centuries, the Great Wall has
served as a source of building materials for local farms and villages. (WHAT)which made the
Great Wall a triumph of engineering and determined planning make restoration problematic
and slow.
22

23

24

THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD:
ANCIENT AND MODERN
Seeing is believing, but……
if you have no money – you can read about it!
25

The Seven Wonders of the World (Ancient)
1. The Great Pyramids
2. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
3. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
4. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
5. The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus
6. The colossal statue of the sun god Helios
7. The Pharos of Alexandria
26

The Seven Wonders of the World are pre-eminent architectural and sculptural
achievements of the ancient Mediterranean and Middle East, as listed by various observers.
The Greek category was not "Wonders" but "theamata", which translates closer to "must-
sees". The list that we know today was compiled in the Middle Ages—by which time many of
the sites were no longer in existence. Since the list came mostly from ancient Greek writings,
only sites that would have been known and visited by the ancient Greeks were included. Even
as early as 1600 BC, tourist graffiti was scrawled on monuments in the Egyptian Valley of the
Kings.
The historian Herodotus (484 BC–ca. 425 BC), and the scholar Callimachus of Cyrene (c.
305–240 BC) at the Museum of Alexandria, made early lists of "seven wonders" but their
writings have not survived, except as references. The earliest extant version of a list of seven
wonders was compiled by Antipater of Sidon, who described the structures in a poem around
140 BC:
“I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots, and the statue of
Zeus by the Alpheus, and the hanging gardens, and the Colossus of the Sun, and the huge
labour of the high pyramids, and the vast tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the house of
Artemis that mounted to the clouds, those other marvels lost their brilliancy, and I said, 'Lo,
apart from Olympus, the Sun never looked on aught so grand.”
– Antipater, Greek Anthology IX.58
A later list, under various titles like De septem orbis spactaculis and traditionally
misattributed to the engineer Philo of Byzantium, may date as late as the fifth century AD,
though the author writes as if the Colossus of Rhodes were still standing.
Ancient Greeks and Romans agreed that people had created seven great wonders in the world.
Since these observers never travelled to India, China or America, their list included only the
wonders of their own “world”—the lands on or near the shores of the eastern Mediterranean.
In that region there were many remarkable masterpieces of sculpture and engineering.
Included on the list in its eventual form were the following:
Wonder
Date of
construction
Builder Notable features
Date of
destruction
Cause of
destruction
Great Pyramid
of Giza
2650-2500
BC
Egyptians
Built as the tomb of
Fourth dynasty
Egyptian pharaoh
Khufu.
Still
standing
-
Hanging
Gardens of
Babylon
600 BC BabyloniansDiodorus described
multi-levelled
gardens reaching 22
metres (75 feet)
high, complete with
machinery for
circulating water.
Large trees grew on
After 1st
century BC
Earthquake
27

the roof.
Temple of
Artemis at
Ephesus
550 BC
Lydians,
Persians,
Greeks
Dedicated to the
Greek goddess
Artemis, it took 120
years to build.
Herostratus burned
it down in an
attempt to achieve
lasting fame
356 BC Arson
Statue of Zeus
at Olympia
435 BC Greeks
Occupied the whole
width of the aisle of
the temple that was
built to house it,
and was 40 feet (12
meters) tall.
5th-6th
centuries
AD
Unknown,
presumed
destroyed by
fire or
earthquake.
Mausoleum of
Maussollos at
Halicarnassus
351 BC
Persians,
Greeks
Stood
approximately 45
meters (135 feet)
tall with each of the
four sides adorned
with sculptural
reliefs. Origin of
the word
mausoleum.
by AD 1494
Damaged by an
earthquake and
eventually
disassembled by
European
Crusaders
Colossus of
Rhodes
292-280 BC
Hellenistic
Greece
A giant statue of the
Greek god Helios
roughly 3/4ths as
large as today's
Statue of Liberty in
New York.
224 BC Earthquake
Lighthouse of
Alexandria
3rd century
BC
Hellenistic
Egypt
Between 115 and
135 meters (383 -
440 ft) tall it was
among the tallest
man-made
structures on Earth
for many centuries.
AD 1303-
1480
Earthquake
28

Antipater's original list replaced the Lighthouse of Alexandria with the Ishtar Gate.
Some early lists included the Walls of Babylon or the Palace of King Cyrus of Persia in place
of one of the sites noted above.
It was not until the 6th century AD that the list above was used. Of these wonders, the
only one that has survived to the present day is the Great Pyramid of Giza. The existence of
the Hanging Gardens has not been definitively proven. Records show that the other five
wonders were destroyed by natural disasters. The Temple of Artemis and the Statue of Zeus
were destroyed by fire, while the Lighthouse of Alexandria, Colossus, and Mausoleum of
Maussollos were destroyed by earthquakes. There are sculptures from the Mausoleum of
Maussollos and the Temple of Artemis in the British Museum in London.
Most of the ancient wonders have succumbed to the rigours of time. The Temple of
Artemis was destroyed in AD 262 by Goths, and the Statue of Zeus was destroyed two
centuries later. The Colossus of Rhodes fell down in an earthquake after standing barely half a
century—the remains were sold for scrap by Arabs in 653 AD. The Pharos of Alexandria
fared better, lasting until about the 14th century AD. Time reduced the gardens of Babylon to
rubble. The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus was most likely destroyed by an earthquake
sometime between AD 1100 and 1500. Broken parts of the tomb were used in local buildings,
and only a few fragments survive, preserved at the British Museum in London. The demise of
these monuments makes the sole surviving wonder, the great pyramids, all the more
wondrous.

29

Seven Wonders of the World, works of art and architecture
regarded by ancient Greek and Roman observers as the most
extraordinary structures of antiquity.
30

The Great Pyramid of Khufu (c. 2600 BC). This
was the greatest of the Egyptian pyramids, which served
as burial places of the pharaohs, particularly during the
Old Kingdom. Some lists included all of the pyramids
and the Great Sphinx at Giza as well. The Pyramids of
Egypt, built at Giza during the 4th Dynasty (c. 2680-c.
2544 BC) are the oldest of the seven wonders and the
only ones remaining relatively intact today.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, perhaps built
by King Nebuchadnezzar II about 600 BC, were a
mountain-like series of landscaped terraces. The king
may have intended them to remind his Median wife of
her native mountains.
The Statue of Zeus (c. 450 BC) was a 12-m (40-
ft) portrayal of Zeus seated on a throne. Plated with gold
and ivory, it was crafted by Phidias of Athens, a Greek
sculptor. The statue was placed in the Temple of Zeus at
Olympia, Greece.
The Temple of Artemis (356 BC). This large and
beautifully ornamented temple was built at Ephesus in
Greece c. 550 BC by Croesus, king of Lydia, and rebuilt
in 356 BC. It was famed for the art works that
embellished it. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
combined great size with elaborate ornamentation, was
destroyed by the Goths in AD 262.
The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus (c. 353 BC),
monumental tomb of the Anatolian king Mausolus was
built by his widow Artemisia. It was a huge marble tomb
built for King Mausolus of Caria in Asia Minor. Its walls
rose straight up to a form a platform which supported 36
columns and a pyramid, topped by a chariot drawn by
four horses. The name “mausoleum” for a large burial
monument is taken from King Mausolus. Only fragments
remain.
31

The Colossus of Rhodes (280 BC) was a 30-m
(100-ft) statue of the Greek sun god Helios. Built of
bronze, reinforced by iron, it stood at the entrance to the
harbour at Rhodes. It was destroyed about 55 years later.
The Pharos of Alexandria (c. 280 BC) was a
lighthouse, more than 134 m (440 ft) tall, that stood on
an island at the entrance to the harbour at Alexandria,
Egypt. It was built for Ptolemy II of Egypt on the island
of Pharos off Alexandria. A fire burned at the top as a
signal to ships on the Mediterranean. The Pharos has
been called “the archetype of every modern lighthouse”.
It was destroyed in the 14th century.The remains of the
Pharos lighthouse were discovered in 1995.
*****
CONTENT FOCUS
1.What is ”the Seven Wonders of the World”?
2.Was the Greek category “wonders” or “theamata”?
3.Who made early lists of “seven wonders”?
4.Where did Antipater of Sidon describe the Seven Wonders of the World?
5.Did Ancient Greeks and Romans travel to India, China Or America?
6.What did their list include?
7.What epoc did most of the wonders belong to?
8.What are the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World?
9.Were “the Seven Wonders of the World” destroyed?
10.What caused the destruction?
11.Do the Great Pyramids still exist?
12.Were these “Seven Wonders” the real “Seven Wonders of the World”?
32

The Great Pyramids,
one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
Three 4th-dynasty (c. 2575-c. 2465 BC) pyramids erected on a rocky plateau on the
west bank of the Nile River near Al-Jizah (Giza), northern Egypt; in ancient times they were
included among the Seven Wonders of the World. The ancient ruins of the Memphis area,
including the Pyramids of Giza, Saqqarah, Dahshur, Abu Ruwaysh, and Abu Sir, were
collectively designated a World Heritage site in 1979.The designations of the pyramids--
Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure--correspond to the kings for whom they were built. The
northernmost and oldest pyramid of the group was built for Khufu (Greek: Cheops), the
second king of the 4th dynasty. Called the Great Pyramid, it is the largest of the three, the
length of each side at the base averaging 7553/4 feet (230 metres) and its original height being
4812/5 feet (147 metres). The middle pyramid was built for Khafre (Greek: Chephren), the
fourth of the eight kings of the 4th dynasty; the structure measures 7073/4 feet (216 metres)
on each side and was originally 471 feet (143 metres) high. The southernmost and last
pyramid to be built was that of Menkaure (Greek: Mykerinus), the fifth king of the 4th
dynasty. Each side measures 3561/2 feet (109 metres), and the structure's completed height
was 218 feet (66 metres). All three pyramids were plundered both internally and externally in
ancient times. Thus, most of the grave goods originally deposited in the burial chambers are
missing, and the pyramids no longer reach their original heights because they have been
almost entirely stripped of their outer casings of smooth white limestone; the Great Pyramid,
for example, is now only 4512/5 feet (138 metres) high. Khafre retains the outer limestone
casing only at its topmost portion.Khufu is perhaps the most colossal single building ever
erected on the planet. Its sides rise at an angle of 5152' and are accurately oriented to the four
cardinal points of the compass. The Great Pyramid's core is made of yellowish limestone
blocks, the outer casing (now almost completely gone) and the inner passages are of finer
light-coloured limestone, and the interior burial chamber is built of huge blocks of granite.
Approximately 2.3 million blocks of stone were cut, transported, and assembled to create the
5,750,000-ton structure, which is a masterpiece of technical skill and engineering ability. The
internal walls as well as those few outer-casing stones that still remain in place show finer
joints than any other masonry constructed in ancient Egypt.The entrance to the Great Pyramid
is on the north side, about 59 feet (18 metres) above ground level. A sloping corridor
descends from it through the pyramid's interior masonry, penetrates the rocky soil on which
the structure rests, and ends in an unfinished underground chamber. From the descending
corridor branches an ascending passageway that leads to a room known as the Queen's
Chamber and to a great slanting gallery that is 151 feet (46 metres) long. At the upper end of
this gallery a long and narrow passage gives access to the burial room proper, usually termed
the King's Chamber. This room is entirely lined and roofed with granite. From the chamber
two narrow shafts run obliquely through the masonry to the exterior of the pyramid; it is not
known whether they were designed for a religious purpose or were meant for ventilation.
Above the King's Chamber are five compartments separated by massive horizontal granite
slabs; the likely purpose of these slabs was to shield the ceiling of the burial chamber by
diverting the immense thrust exerted by the overlying masses of masonry.The question of
how the pyramids were built has not received a wholly satisfactory answer. The most
plausible one is that the Egyptians employed a sloping and encircling embankment of brick,
earth, and sand, which was increased in height and in length as the pyramid rose; stone blocks
were hauled up the ramp by means of sledges, rollers, and levers. According to the ancient
Greek historian Herodotus, the Great Pyramid took 20 years to construct and demanded the
labour of 100,000 men. This figure is believable given the assumption that these men, who
were agricultural labourers, worked on the pyramids only (or primarily) while there was little
work to be done in the fields--i.e., when the Nile River was in flood. By the late 20th century,
however, archaeologists found evidence that a more limited workforce may have occupied the
site on a permanent rather than a seasonal basis. It was suggested that as few as 20,000
33

34

workers, with accompanying support personnel (bakers, physicians, priests, etc.), would have
been adequate to the task.Constructed near each pyramid was a mortuary temple, which was
linked via a sloping causeway to a valley temple on the edge of the Nile floodplain. Also
nearby were subsidiary pyramids used for the burials of other members of the royal family.To
the south of the Great Pyramid near Khafre's valley temple lies the Great Sphinx. Carved out
of limestone, the Sphinx has the facial features of a man but the body of a recumbent lion; it is
approximately 240 feet (73 metres) long and 66 feet (20 metres) high. (See sphinx.)In 1925 a
pit tomb containing the transferred burial equipment of Khufu's mother, Queen Hetepheres,
was discovered near the upper end of the causeway of Khufu. At the bottom of a deep stone-
filled shaft was found the queen's empty sarcophagus, surrounded by furniture and articles of
jewelry attesting to the high artistic ability and technical perfection of the 4th-dynasty
craftsmen.Surrounding the three pyramids are extensive fields of flat-topped funerary
structures called mastabas; arranged in a grid pattern, the mastabas were used for the burials
of relatives or officials of the kings. Besides the core mastabas of the 4th dynasty, numerous
mastabas have also been found that date from the 5th and 6th dynasties (c. 2465-c. 2150 BC),
as well as from the 3rd dynasty (c. 2650-c. 2575 BC).In the late 1980s and 90s, excavations in
the environs of the pyramids revealed labourers' districts that included bakeries, storage areas,
workshops, and the small tombs of workers and artisans. These tombs range from simple
mud-brick domes to elaborate stone monuments that appear to emulate, in miniature, the
mausoleums of kings. Statuettes and other artwork depicting scenes from daily life were
found within some of the structures; hieroglyphic inscriptions on tomb walls commonly
identify the deceased, and many invoke curses on would-be tomb robbers.
*****
CONTENT FOCUS
1.Where are the Great Pyramids located?
2.Were they designed a World Heritage site?
3.What were these pyramids built for?
4.What was the Great Pyramid made of?
5.Were the ancient Egyptians great engineers?
6.How long did the Egyptians construct the Great Pyramid?
7.What does the Great Sphinx look like?
8.What’s the size of the Great Sphinx?
9.What was found inside the Pyramids?
10.Are the Pyramids the same size nowadays as they were built?
11.What can destroy the Pyramids?
12.Are the Pyramids popular among the tourists?
35

Hanging Gardens of Babylon,
one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
Artist's re-creation of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, constructed c. 8th-6th century
BC - built within the walls of the royal palace at Babylon, the capital of Babylonia (now in
southern Iraq), did not actually "hang" but were instead "up in the air"--that is, they were roof
gardens laid out on a series of ziggurat terraces that were irrigated by pumps from the
Euphrates River. Traditionally, they were the work either of the semilegendary Queen
Sammu-ramat (Greek Semiramis, mother of the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III, who reigned
from 810 to 783 BC) or of King Nebuchadrezzar II (reigned c. 605-c. 561 BC), who built
them to console his Median wife, Amytis, because she missed the mountains and greenery of
her homeland.The Hanging Gardens were described in detail by classical authors, who related
that the terraces were roofed with stone balconies on which were layered various materials,
such as reeds, bitumen, and lead, so that the irrigation water would not seep through the
terraces. Although no certain traces of the Hanging Gardens have been found, a German
archaeologist, Robert Koldewey, did uncover an unusual series of foundation chambers and
vaults in the northeastern corner of the palace at Babylon. A well in one of the vaults may
have been used in conjunction with a chain pump and thus was perhaps part of the
substructure of the once towering Hanging Gardens.
Artist’s re-creation of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, constructed c. 8
th
-6
th
century BC
36

CONTENT FOCUS
1.Did the Hanging Gardens of Babylon actually “hung” in the air?
2.What were they?
3.Who built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon?
4.Why were the Gardens built?
5.Were the Hanging Gardens of Babylon described in details by classical authors?
6.Could irrigation water get to the terraces?
7.Have sertain traces of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon been found?
8.Was it easy or difficult to create of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon?
9.Why did the anciet Greeks consider them one of the “Seven Wonders of the World”?
10.Were any artists’ re-creations of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon constructed?
37

The Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Greece,
one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
The statue was one of two masterpieces by the Greek sculptor Phidias (the other being
the statue of Athena in the Parthenon) and was placed in the huge Temple of Zeus at Olympia
in western Greece. The statue, almost 12 m (40 feet) high and plated with gold and ivory,
represented the god sitting on an elaborate cedarwood throne ornamented with ebony, ivory,
gold, and precious stones. On his outstretched right hand was a statue of Nike (Victory), and
in the god's left hand was a sceptre on which an eagle was perched. The statue, which took
eight years to construct, was noted for the divine majesty and goodness it expressed. The
discovery in the 1950s of the remains of Phidias' workshop at Olympia confirmed the statue's
date of about 430 BC. The temple was destroyed in AD 426, and the statue, of which no
accurate copies survive, may have been destroyed then or in a fire at Constantinople (now
Istanbul) about 50 years later.
38

CONTENT FOCUS
1.Who created the Statue of Zeus?
2.Was the statue of Athena in the Parthenon Phidias’ masterpiece too?
3.Where was the Statue of Zeus placed?
4.What did the Statue look like?
5.Were there any other gods near the Statue?
6.Was the Statue plated with gold and ivory?
7.How long did it take to construct the Statue?
8.When was the Statue destroyed?
9.Why was it destroyed?
10.Did any copies of the Statue survive?
11.Why did the anciet Greeks consider the Statue of Zeus one of the “Seven Wonders of
the World”?
39

Temple of Artemis at Ephesus,
one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
The great temple was built by Croesus, king of Lydia, in about 550 BC and was rebuilt
after being burned by a madman named Herostratus in 356 BC. The Artemesium was famous
not only for its great size (over 350 by 180 feet [about 110 by 55 m]) but also for the
magnificent works of art that adorned it. The temple was destroyed by invading Goths in AD
262 and was never rebuilt. Little remains of the temple (though there are many fragments,
especially of sculptured columns, in the British Museum), but excavation has revealed traces
of both Croesus' and the 4th-century temple and of three earlier, smaller ones. Copies survive
of the famous statue of Artemis, an un-Greek representation of a mummylike goddess,
standing stiffly straight, with her hands extended outward. The original statue was made of
gold, ebony, silver, and black stone, the legs and hips covered by a garment decorated with
reliefs of animals and bees and the top of the body festooned with breasts; her head was
adorned with a high-pillared headdress.
*****
CONTENT FOCUS
1.Who built the greatest Temple?
2.Whom was the Temple burnt by?
3.Was Temple of Artemis rebuilt after the fire?
4.What was the Artemesium famous for?
5.Is it famous for its size?
6.Was it destroyed by the invading Goth in AD 262?
7.Was it rebuilt?
8.Did any fragments survive?
9.Are these fragments in the British museum now?
10.What was the original statue of Artemis made of?
40

Mausoleum of Halicarnassus,
one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
The monument was the tomb of Mausolus, the tyrant of Caria in southwestern Asia
Minor, and was built between about 353 and 351 BC by Mausolus' sister and widow,
Artemisia. The architect was Pythius (or Pytheos), and the sculptures that adorned the
building were the work of four leading Greek artists: Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares, and
Timotheus.According to the description of the Roman author Pliny the Elder (ad 23-79), the
monument was almost square, with a total periphery of 411 feet (125 m). It was bounded by
36 columns, and the top formed a 24-step pyramid surmounted by a four-horse marble
chariot. Fragments of the mausoleum's sculpture that are preserved in the British Museum
include a frieze of battling Greeks and Amazons and a statue 10 feet (3 m) long, probably of
Mausolus. The mausoleum was probably destroyed by an earthquake between the 11th and
the 15th century AD, and the stones were reused in local buildings.
Battle between Greeks and Amazons, section of marble frieze from the Mausoleum of
Halicarnassus, mid-4
th
century BC. In the British Museum, London. Height 81 cm.
*****
CONTENT FOCUS
1.What was the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus?
2.Who built the Mausoleum?
3.Who was the architect of the Mausoleum?
4.Were the sculptures that adored the building the work of four leading Greek artists?
5.What did the monument look like?
6.how many columns bounded the monument?
7.What destroyed the Mausoleum?
8.Did any fragments survive?
9.Are these fragments in the British museum now?
10.Were the stones of the Mausoleum reused after it destruction?
41

The Colossal Statue of the Sun God Helios,
was one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
It stood in the ancient Greek city of Rhodes. The sculptor Chares of Lyndus (another
city on the island) created the statue, which commemorated the raising of Demetrius I
Poliorcetes' long siege (305 BC) of Rhodes. Made of bronze and reinforced with iron, it was
weighted with stones. The Colossus was said to be 70 cubits (105 feet [32 metres]) high and
stood beside Mandrakion harbour, perhaps shielding its eyes with one hand, as a
representation in a relief suggests. It is technically impossible that the statue could have
straddled the harbour entrance, and the popular belief that it did so dates only from the Middle
Ages.The statue, which took 12 years to build (c. 294-282 BC), was toppled by an earthquake
about 225/226 BC. The fallen Colossus was left in place until AD 654, when Arabian forces
raided Rhodes and had the statue broken up and the bronze sold for scrap. Supposedly, the
fragments totaled more than 900 camel loads.
*****
CONTENT FOCUS
1.Where did the Colossal Statue of the Sun God Helios stand?
2.Did the Statue commemorate the raising of Demetrius I Poliorcetes’ long siege of
Rhodes?
3.Who created the Statue?
4.Did the sculptor live in Rhodes or in Lyndus?
5.What was the Statue made of?
6.What was the size of the Statue?
7.Is it technically possible that the statue could have straddled the harbour entrance?
8.When does this popular belief appear?
9.How long did it take to build this Statue?
10.What destroyed the Statue?
42

The Pharos of Alexandria,
one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
It was the most famous lighthouse in antiquity. It was a technological triumph and is
the archetype of all lighthouses since. Built by Sostratus of Cnidus, perhaps for Ptolemy I
Soter, it was finished during the reign of Soter's son Ptolemy II of Egypt in about 280 BC.
The lighthouse stood on the island of Pharos in the harbour of Alexandria and is said to have
been more than 350 feet (110 metres) high; the only taller man-made structures at the time
would have been the pyramids of Giza. Much of what is known about the structure of the
lighthouse comes from a 1909 work by Hermann Thiersch, Pharos, antike, Islam und
Occident. According to the ancient sources consulted by Thiersch, the lighthouse was built in
three stages, all sloping slightly inward; the lowest was square, the next octagonal, and the top
cylindrical. A broad spiral ramp led to the top, where a fire burned at night.Some descriptions
report that the lighthouse was surmounted by a huge statue, possibly representing either
Alexander the Great or Ptolemy I Soter in the form of the sun god Helios. Though it was well-
known earlier, the Pharos does not appear in any list of wonders until the 6th century AD (the
earliest list gives the walls of Babylon instead). In the Middle Ages sultan Ahmed ibn
Touloun replaced the beacon with a small mosque. The Pharos was still standing in the 12th
century, but by 1477 the Mamluk sultan Qa'it Bay was able to build a fort from its ruins. In
1994 archaeologist Jean-Yves Empereur, founder of the Centre for Alexandrian Studies
(Centre d'Etudes Alexandrines), made an exciting find in the waters off Pharos Island. He had
been called in by the Egyptian government to map anything of archaeological significance in
this underwater area before a concrete breakwater was erected over the site. He mapped the
location of hundreds of huge masonry blocks; at least some of these blocks are believed to
have fallen into the sea when the lighthouse was destroyed by an earthquake in the 1300s. A
large amount of statuary was also discovered, including a colossal statue of a king dating to
the 3rd century BC that was thought to represent Ptolemy II. A companion statue of a queen
as Isis had been discovered nearby in the 1960s; these statues representing the deified
Ptolemy and his wife, Arsinoe, are thought to have been placed just below the lighthouse,
facing the entrance to the harbour. Based upon these finds, the Egyptian government
abandoned the idea of a breakwater and planned instead an underwater park where divers
could view the many statues, stone sphinxes, and remains of the lighthouse.
*****
CONTENT FOCUS
1.What was the most famous lighthouse in antiquity?
2.Was it a technological triumph?
3.Who built this lighthouse?
4.Did it stand on the island of Pharos in the harbour of Alexandria?
5.What was the size of this lighthouse?
6.Were the Pyramids taller than the Lighthouse?
7.What did it look like?
8.What destroyed the lighthouse?
9.Who made an exciting find in the waters off Pharos Island?
10.Is underwater park planned to be built in the harbour?
43

44

The New Seven Wonders of the World
1.The Great Wall of China
2.Petra
3.Christ the Redemer
4.The Taj Mahal
5.Chichen Itza
6.The Colosseum
7.The Taj Mahal
45

New Seven Wonders of the World
The seven wonders of Greco-Roman antiquity inspired the compilation of many other
lists of attractions, both natural and man-made, by successive generations. Among such lists,
all of which are limited to seven "wonders," are the (architectural) wonders of the Middle
Ages, the natural wonders of the world, the natural wonders of the United States, the
(architectural) wonders of the modern world, and the wonders of American engineering.
Two "New Seven Wonders" lists have been promoted since 2000. In 2001 an initiative
was started by Swiss corporation New Open World Corporation (NOWC) to choose the New
Seven Wonders of the World from a selection of 200 existing monuments for profit.Twenty
one finalists were announced January 1, 2006. The results were announced on July 7, 2007
and are:
Wonder Date of constructionBuilderNotable features
Great Wall of China 5th century BC – 16th centuryChina
Petra unknown Jordan
Christ the Redeemer (statue)Opened 12 October 1931Brazil
Machu Picchu c.1450 Peru
Chichen Itza c.600 Mexico
Colosseum Completed 80 AD Italy
Taj Mahal Completed c.1648 India
Great Pyramid (Honorary
Candidate)
Completed c.2560 BC Egypt
CONTENT FOCUS
46

1.What inspired the complication of many other lists of attractions?
2.What is the limit of every list?
3.What lists of “wonders” do you know?
4.When were the modern seven wonders announced?
5.What are the New Seven Wonders of the World?
6.Is it easy or difficult to choose “seven wonders”?
7.Are there any “wonders” in Ukraine?
8.Are there any “wonders” in your region?
9.What “wonders” would you like to see?
10.Does every country has its “wonders”?
47

The Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China (Pinyin: Chángchéng; literally "The long wall of 10,000 Li")
is a series of stone and earthen fortifications in China, built, rebuilt, and maintained between
the 5th century BC and the 16th century to protect the northern borders of the Chinese Empire
during the rule of successive dynasties. Several walls, referred to as the Great Wall of China,
were built since the 5th century BC, the most famous being the one built between 220 BC and
200 BC by the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang. That wall was much farther north than
the current wall, built during the Ming Dynasty, and little of it remains.
The Great Wall is the world's longest human-made structure, stretching over approximately
6,400 km (4,000 miles) from Shanhai Pass in the east to Lop Nur in the west, along an arc that
roughly delineates the southern edge of Inner Mongolia. It is also the largest human-made
structure ever built in terms of surface area and mass.
History
The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall-building by the time of
the Spring and Autumn Period, which began around the 8th century BC. During the Warring
States Period from the 5th century BC to 221 BC, the states of Qi, Yan and Zhao all
constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders. Built to withstand the attack
of small arms such as swords and spears, these walls were made mostly by stamping earth and
gravel between board frames.
Qin Shi Huang conquered all opposing states and unified China in 221 BC,
establishing the Qin Dynasty. Intending to impose centralized rule and prevent the resurgence
of feudal lords, he ordered the destruction of the wall sections that divided his empire along
the former state borders. To protect the empire against intrusions by the Xiongnu people from
the north, he ordered the building of a new wall to connect the remaining fortifications along
the empire's new northern frontier. Transporting the large quantity of materials required for
construction was difficult, so builders always tried to use local resources. Stones from the
mountains were used over mountain ranges, while rammed earth was used for construction in
48

the plains. There are no surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of
the Qin Dynasty walls. Most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries, and
very few sections remain today. Later, the Han, Sui, Northern and Jin dynasties all repaired,
rebuilt, or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves against
northern invaders.
The Great Wall concept was revived again during the Ming Dynasty following the
Ming army's defeat by the Mongols in the Battle of Tumu in 1449. The Ming had failed to
gain a clear upper-hand over the Mongols after successive battles, and the long-drawn conflict
was taking a toll on the empire. The Ming adopted a new strategy to keep the Mongols out by
constructing walls along the northern border of China. Acknowledging the Mongol control
established in the Ordos Desert, the wall followed the desert's southern edge instead of
incorporating the bend of the Huang He.
Unlike the earlier Qin fortifications, the Ming construction was stronger and more
elaborate due to the use of bricks and stone instead of rammed earth. As Mongol raids
continued periodically over the years, the Ming devoted considerable resources to repair and
reinforce the walls. Sections near the Ming capital of Beijing were especially strengthened.
Towards the end of the Ming Dynasty, the Great Wall helped defend the empire
against the Manchu invasions that began around 1600. Under the military command of Yuan
Chonghuan, the Ming army held off the Manchus at the heavily fortified Shanhai Pass,
preventing the Manchus from entering the Liaodong Peninsula and the Chinese heartland. The
Manchus were finally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644, when the gates of Shanhai Pass
were opened by Wu Sangui, a corrupt Ming border general, after being bribed. The Manchus
quickly seized Beijing, and defeated the newly founded Shun Dynasty and remaining Ming
resistance, to establish the Qing Dynasty.
Under Qing rule, China's borders extended beyond the walls, and Mongolia was
annexed into the empire, so construction and repairs on the Great Wall were discontinued.
Notable areas
The following three sections are in Beijing municipality, which were renovated and which are
regularly visited by modern tourists:
The "North Pass" of Juyongguan pass, known as the Badaling. When used by the
Chinese to protect their land, this section of the wall has had many guards to defend China’s
capital, Beijing. Made of stone and bricks from the hills, this portion of the Great Wall is
7.8 meters (25.6 ft) high and 5 meters (16.4 ft) wide.
One of the most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs extremely
steep slopes. It runs 11 kilometers (7 mi) long, ranges from 5 to 8 meters (16–26 ft) in height,
and 6 meters (19.7 ft) across the bottom, narrowing up to 5 meters (16.4 ft) across the top.
Wangjinglou is one of Jinshanling's 67 watchtowers, 980 meters (3,215 ft)above sea level.
South East of Jinshanling, is the Mutianyu Great Wall which winds along lofty,
cragged mountains from the southeast to the northwest for approximately 2.25 kilometers
(about 1.3 miles). It is connected with Juyongguan Pass to the west and Gubeikou to the east.
Another notable section lies near the eastern extremity of the wall, where the first pass
of the Great Wall was built on the Shanhaiguan (known as the “Number One Pass Under
Heaven”), the first mountain the Great Wall climbs. Jia Shan is also here, as is the Jiumenkou,
which is the only portion of the wall that was built as a bridge. Shanhaiguan Great Wall is
called the “Museum of the Construction of the Great Wall”, because of the Meng Jiang-Nu
Temple, built during the Sun Dynasty.
Characteristics
Before the use of bricks, the Great Wall was mainly built from earth, stones, and
wood.
During the Ming Dynasty, however, bricks were heavily used in many areas of the
wall, as were materials such as tiles, lime, and stone. The size and weight of the bricks made
them easier to work with than earth and stone, so construction quickened. Additionally, bricks
49

could bear more weight and endure better than rammed earth. Stone can hold under its own
weight better than brick, but is more difficult to use. Consequently, stones cut in rectangular
shapes were used for the foundation, inner and outer brims, and gateways of the wall.
Battlements line the uppermost portion of the vast majority of the wall, with defensive gaps a
little over 30 cm (a foot) tall, and about 23 cm (9 inches) wide.
The steps that form the Great Wall of China are very steep and tall in some areas.
Tourists often become exhausted climbing the wall and walk no more than a kilometre or two
(around a mile).
Condition
While some portions north of Beijing and near tourist centers have been preserved and
even reconstructed, in many locations the Wall is in disrepair. Those parts might serve as a
village playground or a source of stones to rebuild houses and roads. Sections of the Wall are
also prone to graffiti and vandalism. Parts have been destroyed because the Wall is in the way
of construction. No comprehensive survey of the wall has been carried out, so it is not
possible to say how much of it survives, especially in remote areas. Intact or repaired portions
of the Wall near developed tourist areas are often frequented by sellers of tourist kitsch.
Watchtowers and barracks
The wall also has watch towers at regular intervals, which were used to store weapons,
house troops, and send smoke signals. Barracks and administrative centers are located at
larger intervals.
Communication between the army units along the length of the Great Wall, including
the ability to call reinforcements and warn garrisons of enemy movements, was of high
importance. Signal towers were built upon hill tops or other high points along the wall for
their visibility.
Recognition
The Wall was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.
Mao Zedong had a saying, "You're not a real man if you haven't climbed the Great
Wall" (Pinyin: Bú dào Chángchéng fēi hǎo hàn). Originally this saying was used to bolster his
revolution in trekking north. But over time the saying has been reduced to a promotional
slogan for the Great Wall of China. In Badaling (north of Beijing) the 'real man stone' can be
found with the saying engraved on it.
Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Great Wall of China, which also
appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world -- including the recently
announced New Seven Wonders of the World which claimed to record a 100 million votes.
Visibility
The Great Wall of China as seen in a false-color radar image from the Space Shuttle,
taken in April 1994
Ripley's Believe It or Not! cartoon from May 1932 makes the claim that the wall is
"the mightiest work of man, the only one that would be visible to the human eye from the
moon" and Richard Halliburton's 1938 book Second Book of Marvels makes a similar claim.
This belief has persisted, assuming urban legend status, sometimes even entering school
textbooks. Arthur Waldron, author of history of the Great Wall, has speculated that the belief
might go back to the fascination with the "canals" once believed to exist on Mars. (The logic
was simple: If people on Earth can see the Martians' canals, the Martians might be able to see
the Great Wall.)
The Great Wall is a maximum 30 ft (9.1m) wide and is about the same color as the soil
surrounding it. Based on the optics of resolving power (distance versus the width of the iris: a
few millimetres for the human eye, metres for large telescopes) an object of reasonable
contrast to its surroundings some four thousand miles in diameter (such as the Australian land
mass) would be visible to the unaided eye from the moon (average distance from earth
238,857 miles (384,393 km)). But the Great Wall is of course not a disc but more like a
thread, and a thread a foot (15 cm) long would not be visible from a hundred yards (90 m)
50

away, even though a human head is. Not surprisingly, no lunar astronaut has ever claimed he
could see the Great Wall from the moon.
A different question is whether it is visible from near-Earth orbit, i.e at an altitude of
less than 500 kilometers (311 mi) (0.1% of the distance of the moon). The consensus here is
that it is barely visible, and only under nearly perfect conditions; it is no more conspicuous
than many other manmade objects.
Astronaut William Pogue thought he had seen it from Skylab but discovered he was actually
looking at the Grand Canal of China near Beijing. He spotted the Great Wall with binoculars,
but said that "it wasn't visible to the unaided eye." US Senator Jake Garn claimed to be able to
see the Great Wall with the naked eye from a space shuttle orbit in the early 1980s, but his
claim has been disputed by several US astronauts. Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei said he
could not see it at all.
Veteran US astronaut Gene Cernan has stated: "At Earth orbit of 160 kilometers
(99 mi) to 320 kilometers (199 mi) high, the Great Wall of China is, indeed, visible to the
naked eye." Ed Lu, Expedition 7 Science Officer aboard the International Space Station, adds
that, "it's less visible than a lot of other objects. And you have to know where to look."
Neil Armstrong stated about the view from Apollo 11: "I do not believe that, at least with my
eyes, there would be any man-made object that I could see. I have not yet found somebody
who has told me they've seen the Wall of China from Earth orbit. ... I've asked various people,
particularly Shuttle guys, that have been many orbits around China in the daytime, and the
ones I've talked to didn't see it."
Leroy Chiao, a Chinese-American astronaut, took a photograph from the International
Space Station that shows the wall. It was so indistinct that the photographer was not certain he
had actually captured it. Based on the photograph, the state-run China Daily newspaper
concluded that the Great Wall can be seen from space with the naked eye, under favorable
viewing conditions, if one knows exactly where to look.
*****
CONTENT FOCUS
1.What is the Great Wall of China?
2.What was the aim of this fortification?
3.Is the Creat Wall the longest human-made structure in the world?
4.When were the first parts of the Great Wall constructed?
5.What was the difference between the construction of Qin’s wall and Ming’s wall?
6.Who was able to cross the Great Wall?
7.What three sections are the most notable areas?
8.What was the Great Wall made of?
9.What condition of the Wall is today?
10.Are there any watchtowers on the Wall?
11.When was the Wall recognized?
12.Can you see the Great Wall of China from the space?
13.Does pollution destroy the Great Wall nowadays?
51

The Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal ( لحم جات) is a mausoleum located in Agra, India. The Mughal Emperor
Sha Jahan commissioned it as a mausoleum for his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
Construction began in 1632 and was completed in approximately 1648. Some dispute
surrounds the question of who designed the Taj Mahal; it is clear a team of designers and
craftsmen were responsible for the design, with Ustad Ahmad Lahauri considered the most
likely candidate as the principal designer.
The Taj Mahal (sometimes called "the Taj") is generally considered the finest example
of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements of Persian, Turkish, Indian, and
Islamic architectural styles. While the white domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar
part of the monument, the Taj Mahal is actually an integrated complex of structures. In 1983
the Taj became a UNESCO World Heritage Site and was cited as "the jewel of Muslim art in
India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage."
Origin and inspiration
In 1631 Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal's period of greatest prosperity, was
griefstricken when his second wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their daughter
Gauhara Begum, their fourteenth child. Contemporary court chronicles concerning Shah
Jahan's grief form the basis of the love story traditionally held as the inspiration for the Taj
Mahal.
Construction of the Taj Mahal was begun soon after Mumtaz's death. The principal
mausoleum was completed in 1648, and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished
five years later. Visiting Agra in 1663, the French traveller François Bernier wrote the
following:
I shall finish this letter with a description of the two wonderful mausoleums which
constitute the chief superiority of Agra over Delhi. One was erected by Jehan-guyre
[sic] in honor of his father Ekbar; and Chah-Jehan raised the other to the memory of
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his wife Tage Mehale, that extraordinary and celebrated beauty, of whom her
husband was so enamoured it is said that he was constant to her during life, and at
her death was so affected as nearly to follow her to the grave.
Influences
The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on many design traditions, particularly
Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from a number of
successful Timurid and Mughal buildings. These include the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur,
progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand), Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's
Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. Under
his patronage, Mughal building reached new levels of refinement. While previous Mughal
building had primarily been constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of
white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones.
The garden
The complex is set in and around a large charbagh (a formal Mughal garden divided
into four parts). Measuring 300 meters × 300 meters, the garden uses raised pathways which
divide each quarter of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. A raised marble
water tank at the center of the garden, halfway between the linear reflecting pool on the
North-South axis reflect the Taj Mahal. Elsewhere the garden is laid out with avenues of trees
and fountains.
The charbagh garden is meant to symbolize the four flowing Rivers of Paradise. The
tomb and the gateway, and a raised marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar, literally
meaning and named after the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad.
The charbagh garden was introduced to India by the first Mughal emperor Babur, a design
inspired by Persian gardens. The charbagh is meant to reflect the gardens of Paradise (from
the Persian paridaeza — a walled garden). In mystic Islamic texts of the Mughal period,
paradise is described as an ideal garden, filled with abundance. Water plays a key role in these
descriptions: In Paradise, these text say, four rivers source at a central spring or mountain, and
separate the garden into north, west, south and east.
Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular in form, with a tomb or pavilion in the center
of the garden. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located
at the end rather than at the center of the garden. But the existence of the newly discovered
Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna provides a different
interpretation — that the Yamuna itself was incorporated into the garden's design, and was
meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise.
The layout of the garden, and its architectural features such as its fountains, brick and
marble walkways, and geometric brick-lined flowerbeds are similar to Shalimar's, and suggest
that the garden may have been designed by the same engineer, Ali Mardan.
Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including roses,
daffodils, and fruit trees in abundance. As the Mughal Empire declined, the tending of the
garden declined as well. When the British took over management of the Taj Mahal, they
changed the landscaping to resemble the formal lawns of London.
Outlying buildings
The Taj Mahal complex is bounded by a crenellated red sandstone wall on three sides.
The river-facing side is unwalled. Outside the wall are several additional mausoleums,
including those of many of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favorite
servant. These structures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of smaller Mughal
tombs of the era.
On the inner (garden) side, the wall is fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical
of Hindu temples later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wall is interspersed with
domed kiosks (chattris), and small buildings which may have been viewing areas or watch
towers, such as the so-called Music House, now used as a museum.
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The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble. The
style is reminiscent of that of Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the
shape of the tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates
the tomb. It utilises bas-relief and pietra dura (inlaid) decorations with floral motifs. The
vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs, like those found in the other
sandstone buildings of the complex.
At the far end of the complex, two grand red sandstone buildings open to the sides of the
tomb. Their backs parallel the western and eastern walls.
The two buildings are precise mirror images of each other. The western building is a
mosque; its opposite is the jawab (answer) whose primary purpose was architectural balance
(and which may have been used as a guesthouse during Mughal times). The distinctions are
that the jawab lacks a mihrab, a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca, and the floors of the
jawab have a geometric design, while the mosque floor was laid out with the outlines of 569
prayer rugs in black marble.
The mosque's basic design is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly to his
Masjid-i-Jahan Numa or Jama Masjid of Delhi — a long hall surmounted by three domes.
Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas: a main sanctuary
with slightly smaller sanctuaries to either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto
an enormous vaulting dome.
The outlying buildings were completed in 1643.
The tomb
The focus of the Taj Mahal is the white marble tomb. Like most Mughal tombs, the
basic elements are Persian in origin consisting of a symmetrical building with an iwan, an
arch-shaped doorway, topped by a large dome. The tomb stands on a square plinth The base
structure is a large, multi-chambered structure. The main chamber houses the cenotaphs of
Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan with the actual graves located a level below.
The base is essentially a cube with chamfered edges, roughly 55 meters on each side
(see floor plan, right). On the long sides, a massive pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the
iwan, with a similar arch-shaped balcony above. These main arches extend above the roof of
the building by use of an integrated facade. On either side of the main arch, additional
pishtaqs are stacked above and below. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the
chamfered corner areas.
The design is completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets, one
at each corner of the plinth, facing the chamfered corners, frame the tomb.
Dome
The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is its most spectacular feature. Its height is
about the same size as the base of the building, about 35 meters. Its height is accentuated
because it sits on a cylindrical "drum" about 7 meters high.
Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome (also called an amrud or
guava dome). The top of the dome is decorated with a lotus design, which serves to
accentuate its height. The dome is topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Persian
and Hindu decorative elements.
The dome shape is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its
corners. The chattri domes replicate the onion shape of main dome. Their columned bases
open through the roof of the tomb, and provide light to the interior. The chattris also are
topped by gilded finials.
Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from the edges of the base walls, and provide visual
emphasis of the dome height.
The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas.
Finial
The main dome is crowned by a gilded spire or finial. The finial was made of gold
until the early 1800s, and it is now made of bronze. The finial provides a clear example of the
54

integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a
moon, a typical Islamic motif, whose horns point heavenward. Because of its placement on
the main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to create a trident shape —
reminiscent of the traditional Hindu symbols of Shiva.
Minarets
At the corners of the plinth stand minarets — four large towers each more than 40
meters tall. The minarets again display the Taj Mahal's penchant for symmetry.
The towers are designed as working minarets, a traditional element of mosques, a
place for a muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided
into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is
a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb.
The minaret chattris share the same finishing touches: a lotus design topped by a
gilded finial. Each of the minarets was constructed slightly out of plumb to the outside of the
plinth, so that in the event of collapse (a typical occurrence with many such tall constructions
of the period) the material would tend to fall away from the tomb.
Decoration
Nearly every surface of the entire complex has been decorated. The exterior
decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest to be found in Mughal architecture of any
period. As the surface area changes — a large pishtaq has more area than a smaller — the
decorations are refined proportionally.
In line with the Islamic prohibition of the use of anthropomorphic forms, the
decorative elements come in basically three categories:
Calligraphy
Abstract geometric elements
Vegetative motifs
The decorative elements were created in three ways:
Paint or stucco applied to the wall surface
Stone inlay
Carvings
Calligraphy
Throughout the complex, passages from the Qur'an are used as decorative elements.
The calligraphy is a florid and practically illegible thuluth script, created by the resident
Mughal court's Persian calligrapher, Amanat Khan who signed several of the panels. As one
enters through the Taj Mahal Gate, the calligraphy reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to
the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you."
The calligraphy is made by jasper inlaid in white marble panels. Some of the work is
extremely detailed and delicate, especially that found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb.
Higher panels are written slightly larger to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from
below.
Recent scholarship suggests that Amanat Khan chose the passages as well. The texts
refer to themes of judgment: of doom for nonbelievers, and the promise of Paradise for the
faithful. The passages include: Surah 91 (The Sun), Surah 112 (The Purity of Faith), Surah
89 (Daybreak), Surah 93 (Morning Light), Surah 95 (The Fig), Surah 94 (The Solace), Surah
36 (Ya Sin), Surah 81 (The Folding Up), Surah 82 (The Cleaving Asunder), Surah 84 (The
Rending Asunder), Surah 98 (The Evidence), Surah 67 (Dominion), Surah 48 (Victory),
Surah 77 (Those Sent Forth) and Surah 39 (The Crowds).
Abstract geometric decoration
Abstract forms are used especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, and
jawab, and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the
sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric
forms. (The incised painting technique is to scratch a channel in the stone, and to then lay a
55

thick paint or stucco plaster across the surface. The paint is then scraped off the surface of the
stone, leaving paint in the incision.)
On most joining areas, herringbone inlays define the space between adjoining
elements. White inlays are used in the sandstone buildings, dark or black inlays on the white
marble of the tomb and minarets. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or
painted dark, creating geometric patterns of considerable complexity.
Floors and walkways throughout use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.
Plant motifs
The lower walls of the tomb are white marble
dados that have been sculpted with realistic bas
relief depictions of flowers and vines. The
marble has been polished to emphasise the
exquisite detailing of these carvings.
The dado frames and archway spandrels have
been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly
stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and
fruits. The inlay stones are yellow marble, jasper
and jade, leveled and polished to the surface of
the walls.
Spandrel detail
Interior decoration
The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal steps far beyond traditional decorative
elements. One may say without exaggeration that this chamber is a work of jewellery. Here
the inlay work is not pietra dura, but lapidary. The inlay material is not marble or jade but
precious and semiprecious gemstones. Every decorative element of the tomb's exterior has
been redefined with jeweler's art.
The inner chamber
The inner chamber of the Taj Mahal contains the cenotaphs of Mumtaz and Shah
Jahan. It is a masterpiece of artistic craftsmanship, virtually without precedent or equal.
The inner chamber is an octagon. While the design allows for entry from each face,
only the south (garden facing) door is used.
The interior walls are about 25 meters high, topped by a "false" interior dome
decorated with a sun motif.
Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level. As is typical with the exterior,
each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four
central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas; each balcony's exterior window has an
intricate screen or jali cut from marble.
In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings
covered by the chattris at the corners of the exterior dome.
Each of the chamber walls has been highly decorated with dado bas relief, intricate
lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels, reflecting in miniature detail the design
elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.
The jali
The octagonal marble screen or jali which borders the cenotaphs is made from eight
marble panels. Each panel has been carved through with intricate piercework. The remaining
surfaces have been inlaid with semiprecious stones in extremely delicate detail, forming
twining vines, fruits and flowers.
The cenotaphs and tombs
Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise center of the inner chamber. On a
rectangular marble base about 1.5 meters by 2.5 meters is a smaller marble casket. Both base
and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic
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inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised
rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet.
Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves, so the bodies of Mumtaz and
Shah Jahan are laid in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber of the Taj Mahal.
They are buried on a north-south axis, with faces turned right (west toward Mecca).
Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side. It is the only visible
asymmetric element in the entire complex (see below). His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's,
but reflects the same elements: A larger casket on slightly taller base, again decorated with
astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy which identifies Shah Jahan. On the lid of
this casket is a sculpture of a small pen box. (The pen box and writing tablet were traditional
Mughal funerary icons decorating men's and women's caskets respectively.)
"O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... " These are
six of the Ninety Nine Names of God, which are to be found as calligraphic inscriptions on
the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, in the crypt. The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a
calligraphic inscription, not taken from the Qur'an, but referring to the resting place of this
Mughal Emperor. Part of the inscription reads; "He traveled from this world to the banquet-
hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri."
Details of lapidary
Arch of jali, entry to cenotaphs
Delicate pierceworkInlay detailInlay detail
Construction
The Taj Mahal was built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra which had
belonged to Maharajah Jai Singh: Shah Jahan presented him with a large palace in the centre
of Agra in exchange. Construction began with setting the foundations for the tomb. An area of
roughly three acres was excavated and filled with dirt to reduce seepage from the river. The
entire site was leveled to a fixed height about 50 meters above the riverbank. The Taj Mahal
is 55 meters tall. The dome itself measures 18 meters in diameter and 24 meters high.
In the tomb area, wells were then dug to the point that water was encountered. These
wells were later filled with stone and rubble, forming the basis for the footings of the tomb.
[An additional well was built to same depth nearby to provide a visual method to track water
level changes over time.]
Instead of lashed bamboo, the typical scaffolding method, workmen constructed a
colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the inner and outer surfaces of the tomb. The scaffold
was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle. According to
legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep bricks taken from the scaffold, and it was
dismantled by peasants overnight.
A fifteen-kilometer tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to
the construction site. According to contemporary accounts teams of twenty or thirty oxen
strained to pull the blocks on specially constructed wagons.
To raise the blocks into position required an elaborate post-and-beam pulley system.
Teams of mules and oxen provided the lifting power.
The order of construction was
The plinth
The tomb
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The four minarets
The mosque and jawab
The gateway
The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the
complex took an additional 10 years. (Since the complex was built in stages, contemporary
historical accounts list different "completion dates"; discrepancies between so-called
completion dates are probably the result of differing opinions about the definition of
"completion". For example, the mausoleum itself was essentially complete by 1643, but work
continued on the rest of the complex.)
Water infrastructure
Water for the Taj Mahal was provided through a complex infrastructure. Water was
drawn from the river by a series of purs -- an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism.
The water flowed into a large storage tank, where, by thirteen additional purs, it was raised to
large distribution tank above the Taj Mahal ground level.
From this distribution tank, water passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it
was piped to the complex. A 0.25 meter earthenware pipe lies about 1.5 meters below the
surface, in line with the main walkway; this filled the main pools of the complex. Additional
copper pipes supplied the fountains in the north-south canal. Subsidiary channels were dug to
irrigate the entire garden.
The fountain pipes were not connected directly to the feed pipes. Instead, a copper pot
was provided under each fountain pipe: water filled the pots allowing equal pressure in each
fountain.
The purs no longer remain, but the other parts of the infrastructure have survived.
Craftsmen
An Artist's impression of A Bird's View of the Taj Mahal, from the Smithsonian
Institute
The Taj Mahal was not designed by a single person. The project demanded talent from
many people.
The names of many of the builders who participated in the construction of the Taj
Mahal in different capacities have come down through various sources.
The Persian or Turkish architect, Ustad Isa and Isa Muhammad Effendi, trained by the
Ottoman architect Koca Mimar Sinan Agha are frequently credited with a key role in the
architectural design of the complex, but in fact there is little evidence to support this tradition.
Puru' from Benarus, Persia (Iran), has been mentioned as a supervising architect in
Persian language texts
The main dome was designed by Ismail Khan from the Ottoman Empire, considered to
be the premier designer of hemispheres and builder of domes of that age.
Qazim Khan, a native of Lahore, cast the solid gold finial that crowned the Turkish
master's dome.
Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi, was chosen as the chief sculptor and mosaicist.
Amanat Khan from Persian Shiraz, Iran was the chief calligrapher (this fact is attested
on the Taj Mahal gateway itself, where his name has been inscribed at the end of the
inscription).
Muhammad Hanif was the supervisor of masons.
Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shiraz, Iran handled finances and the
management of daily production.
The creative team included sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia,
inlayers from southern India, stonecutters from Baluchistan, a specialist in building turrets,
another who carved only marble flowers — thirty-seven men in all formed the creative
nucleus. To this core was added a labour force of twenty thousand workers recruited from
across northern India.
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Particularly during the British Raj, some commentators suggested that the Taj Mahal
was the work of European artisans. As early as 1640, a Spanish friar who visited Agra wrote
that Geronimo Veroneo, an Italian adventurer in Shah Jahan's court, was primarily responsible
for the design. There is no reliable evidence to back up such assertions. E.B. Havell, the
principal British scholar of Indian art in the later Raj, dismissed this theory as inconsistent
with the methods employed by the designers. His conclusions were further supported by the
research of Muhammad Abdullah Chaghtai, who concluded that some of these theories may
have been based on the misapprehension that "Ustad Isa", so often credited with the Taj's
design, must have been a Christian because he bore the name "Isa" (Jesus). In fact this is a
common Muslim name as well. Furthermore there is no source earlier than the 19th century
which mentions an "Ustad Isa" in connection with the Taj Mahal . Chaghtai thought it more
likely that the chief architect was Ustad Ahmad, the designer of Shahjahanabad, but admitted
that this could not be conclusively proved from existing sources.
Materials
The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. Over
1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials during the construction. The
translucent white marble was brought from Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and
crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan,
while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight
types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.
Costs
Estimates of the cost of the construction of the Taj Mahal vary due to the difficulties
of estimating construction costs across time. The total cost of the Taj Mahal's construction has
been estimated to be about 32 million rupees. However, when considering the labor costs and
the time period that it took, and the difference in economic eras, it is, to many, considered
priceless.
History
Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed and put under house
arrest at nearby Agra Fort by his son Aurangzeb. Legend has it that he spent the remainder of
his days gazing through the window at the Taj Mahal. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb
buried him in the Taj Mahal next to his wife, the only disruption of the otherwise perfect
symmetry in the architecture. By the late 19th century parts of the Taj Mahal had fallen badly
into disrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857 the Taj Mahal faced defacement
by British soldiers and government officials who chiseled out precious stones and lapis lazuli
from its walls.
At the end of the 19th century British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a massive
restoration project, completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior
chamber (modelled on one hanging in a Cairo mosque when local craftsmen failed to provide
adequate designs). It was during this time the garden was remodelled with the more British
looking lawns visible today.
By the 20th century the Taj Mahal was being better taken care of. In 1942 the
government erected a scaffolding over it in anticipation of an air attack by the German
Luftwaffe and later by the Japanese Air Force (see photo). During the India-Pakistan wars of
1965 and 1971 scaffoldings were erected by the government to mislead would-be bomber
pilots.
Its most recent threats came from environmental pollution on the banks of the Yamuna River
including acid rain occurring due to the Mathura oil refinery (something opposed by Supreme
Court of India directives).
In 1983 the Taj Mahal was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Tourism
Since its construction the Taj Mahal has attracted numerous visitors. Indeed the small
town to the South of the Taj known as the Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad was originally
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constructed with purpose built caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of
visitors and workmen.
Today, the Taj Mahal attracts 2 to 3 million visitors every year of whom 200,000
come from overseas, making it the most popular tourist attraction in India. Most tourists visit
during the cooler months of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed
near the complex and tourist must either walk from the carparks or catch an electric bus. The
Khawasspuras are currently being restored for use as a new visitors centre.
Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in
several listings of seven wonders of the modern world -- including the recently announced
New Seven Wonders of the World, a controversial poll which claimed to record a 100 million
votes.
Myths
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, one of the first European visitors to the Taj Mahal and source of the
Black Taj myth.
It is clear from the accounts of its inception and the subsequent court histories, that
Shah Jahan intended the Taj Mahal to be acclaimed by the entire world. It can be argued that
he was almost entirely successful in this pursuit. Since its construction the building has been
the source of an admiration that has transcended cultures and geography to the extent that the
personal and emotional responses to the building have consistently eclipsed the scholastic
appraisals of the monument. Some of these responses are now so old or compeling that they
are often repeated as fact in opposition to the scholastic consensus. Others have attempted to
use or promote misinformation about the Taj for political or self-serving advantage.
A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a duplicate mausoleum to be built
in black marble across the Jumna river. The 'black taj' idea originates in the fanciful writings
of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665. The story suggests
that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before the black version could be built.
Ruins of blackened marble across the river, in the so-called Moonlight Garden (Mahtab Bagh)
seemed to support this legend. However, excavations carried out in the 1990s found only
white marble features discoloured completely to black. The garden buildings had collapsed
due to repeated flooding. Others speculate that the 'black taj' may refer to the reflection of the
Taj in the large pool of the moonlight garden.
A number of stories describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths, dismemberments and
mutilations which Shah Jahan inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with
the tomb. No evidence for these claims exist. More conservative stories say that those
involved in construction signed contracts committing to have no part in any similar design.
Similar claims are made for many of the world's most famous buildings.
Lord William Bentinck, governor of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to
demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. There is no contemporary evidence for
this story, which may have emerged in the late nineteenth century when Bentinck was being
criticised for his penny-pinching Utilitarianism, and when Lord Curzon was emphasising
earlier neglect of the monument. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose
from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort.
In recent years, elements within India have become interested in the ideas of P.N. Oak. He
claims that the origins of the Taj, together with all the other historic structures in the country
currently ascribed to Muslim sultans, pre-date the Muslim occupation of India and have a
Hindu origin. In 2000 India's Supreme Court dismissed Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu
king built the Taj Mahal and reprimanded him for bringing the action.
A more poetic story relates that once a year, during the rainy season, a single drop of
water falls on the cenotaph. The story recalls Rabindranath Tagore's description of the tomb
as "one tear-drop...upon the cheek of time". Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette
of the finial (set into the paving of the riverside forecourt) will cause water to come forth. To
this day officials find broken bangles surrounding the silhouette.
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Miscellaneous
It is forbidden to fly a plane over the Taj Mahal.
*****
CONTENT FOCUS
1.Where is the Taj Mahal located?
2.What is the Mughal architecture?
3.Why did Shah Jahan decide to build the Taj Mahal?
4.How long did it take to build this mausoleum?
5.What styles influenced on the Taj Mahal?
6.Is there any garden around the mausoleum?
7.What does it look like?
8.What buildings does complex consist of?
9.What is the focus of the Tai Mahal?
10.What can you say about the design of the building?
11.What shape does the dome have?
12.What is final?
13.What are minarets used for?
14.What decorative elements are used?
15.What is calligraphy?
16.Where are abstract forms used?
17.Are plant motifs used?
18.Is interior decoration traditional or not?
19.What does the inner chamber consist of?
20.What boders the cenotaphs?
21.What do the cenotaphs look like?
22.What new ideas were used in construction?
23.How was water provided to the Taj Mahal?
24.Was the Taj Mahal designed by a single person?
25.What materials were used in construction?
26.How much did it cost to construct it?
27.What does the legend say about Shah Jahan?
28.Does the Taj Mahal attrect many visitors?
29.Are there any myths connected with the Taj Mahal?
30.What are they?
Petra
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Petra (from πέτρα "petra," rock in Greek; Arabic: ءارتبلا, Al-Butrā) is an archaeological
site in Jordan, lying in a basin among the mountains which form the eastern flank of Arabah
(Wadi Araba), the large valley running from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba. It is famous
for having many stone structures carved into the rock. The long-hidden site was revealed to
the Western world by the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1812. It was famously
described as "a rose-red city half as old as time" in a Newdigate prize-winning sonnet by John
William Burgon. Burgon had not actually visited Petra, which remained accessible only to
Europeans accompanied by local guides with armed escorts until after World War I. The site
was designated as a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World
Heritage Site in 1985 when it was described as "one of the most precious cultural properties
of man's cultural heritage." Geography
Rekem is an ancient name for Petra and appears in Dead Sea scrolls such as 4Q462 associated
with Mount Seir. Additionally, Eusebius and Jerome (Onom. sacr. 286, 71. 145, 9; 228, 55.
287, 94) assert that Rekem was the native name of Petra, supposedly on the authority of
Josephus (Antiquitis iv. 7, 1~ 4, 7), Pliny the Elder and other writers identify Petra as the
capital of the Nabataeans, Aramaic-speaking Semites, and the centre of their caravan trade.
Enclosed by towering rocks and watered by a perennial stream, Petra not only possessed the
advantages of a fortress but controlled the main commercial routes which passed through it to
Gaza in the west, to Bosra and Damascus in the north, to Aqaba and Leuce Come on the Red
Sea, and across the desert to the Persian Gulf.
The end of the Siq
Excavations have demonstrated that it was the ability of the Nabataeans to control the water
supply that led to the rise of the desert city, in effect creating an artificial oasis. The area is
visited by flash floods and archaeological evidence demonstrates the Nabataeans controlled
these floods by the use of dams, cisterns and water conduits. Thus, stored water could be
employed even during prolonged periods of drought, and the city prospered from its sale.
The Amphitheatre
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Although in ancient times Petra might have been approached from the south (via Saudi Arabia
on a track leading around Jabal Haroun, Aaron's Mountain, on across the plain of Petra), or
possibly from the high plateau to the north, most modern visitors approach the ancient site
from the east. The impressive eastern entrance leads steeply down through a dark and narrow
gorge (in places only 3–4 metres wide) called the Siq (the shaft), a natural geological feature
formed from a deep split in the sandstone rocks and serving as a waterway flowing into Wadi
Musa. At the end of the narrow gorge stands Petra's most elaborate ruin, Al Khazneh ("the
Treasury") hewn directly out of the sandstone cliff.
The Monastery at Petra
A little farther from the Treasury, at the foot of the mountain called en-Nejr is a
massive theatre, so placed as to bring the greatest number of tombs within view. At the point
where the valley opens out into the plain, the site of the city is revealed with striking effect.
The amphitheatre has actually been cut into the hillside and into several of the tombs during
its construction. Rectangular gaps in the seating are still visible. Almost enclosing it on three
sides are rose-colored mountain walls, divided into groups by deep fissures, and lined with
knobs cut from the rock in the form of towers.
History
So far, no method has been found to determine when the history of Petra began.
Evidence suggests that the city was founded relatively late, though a sanctuary may have
existed there since very ancient times. This part of the country was traditionally assigned to
the Horites, probably cave-dwellers, the predecessors of the Edomites. The habits of the
original natives may have influenced the Nabataean custom of burying the dead and offering
worship in half-excavated caves. However, the fact that Petra is mentioned by name in the
Old Testament cannot be verified. Although Petra is usually identified with Sela which also
means a rock, the Biblical references are not clear. 2 Kings xiv. 7 seems to be more specific.
In the parallel passage, however, Sela is understood to mean simply "the rock" (2 Chr. xxv.
12, see LXX). As a result, many authorities doubt whether any town named Sela is mentioned
in the Old Testament.
It is unclear exactly what Semitic inhabitants called their city. Apparently on the
authority of Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews iv. 7, 1~ 4, 7), Eusebius and Jerome (Onom.
sacr. 286, 71. 145, 9; 228, 55. 287, 94), assert that Rekem was the native name and Rekem
appears in the Dead Sea scrolls as a prominent Edom site most closely describing Petra. But
in the Aramaic versions Rekem is the name of Kadesh, implying that Josephus may have
confused the two places. Sometimes the Aramaic versions give the form Rekem-Geya which
recalls the name of the village El-ji, southeast of Petra. The capital, however, would hardly be
defined by the name of a neighboring village. The Semitic name of the city, if not Sela,
remains unknown. The passage in Diodorus Siculus (xix. 94–97) which describes the
expeditions which Antigonus sent against the Nabataeans in 312 BC is understood to throw
some light upon the history of Petra, but the "petra" referred to as a natural fortress and place
of refuge cannot be a proper name and the description implies that the town was not yet in
existence. Brünnow thinks that "the rock" in question was the sacred mountain en-Nejr
(above). But Buhl suggests a conspicuous height about 16 miles north of Petra, Shobak, the
Mont-royal of the Crusaders.
More satisfactory evidence of the date of the earliest Nabataean settlement may be
obtained from an examination of the tombs. Two types may be distinguished—the Nabataean
and the Greco-Roman. The Nabataean type starts from the simple pylon-tomb with a door set
in a tower crowned by a parapet ornament, in imitation of the front of a dwelling-house. Then,
after passing through various stages, the full Nabataean type is reached, retaining all the
native features and at the same time exhibiting characteristics which are partly Egyptian and
partly Greek. Of this type there exist close parallels in the tomb-towers at el-I~ejr [?] in north
Arabia, which bear long Nabataean inscriptions and supply a date for the corresponding
monuments at Petra. Then comes a series of tombfronts which terminate in a semicircular
63

arch, a feature derived from north Syria. Finally come the elaborate façades copied from the
front of a Roman temple. However, all traces of native style have vanished. The exact dates of
the stages in this development cannot be fixed. Strangely, few inscriptions of any length have
been found at Petra, perhaps because they have perished with the stucco or cement which was
used upon many of the buildings. The simple pylon-tombs which belong to the pre-Hellenic
age serve as evidence for the earliest period. It is not known how far back in this stage the
Nabataean settlement goes, but it does not go back farther than the 6th century BC.
A period follows in which the dominant civilization combines Greek, Egyptian and
Syrian elements, clearly pointing to the age of the Ptolemies. Towards the close of the 2nd
century BC, when the Ptolemaic and Seleucid kingdoms were equally depressed, the
Nabataean kingdom came to the front. Under Aretas III Philhellene, (c.85–60 BC), the royal
coins begin. The theatre was probably excavated at that time, and Petra must have assumed
the aspect of a Hellenistic city. In the reign of Aretas IV Philopatris, (9 BC–AD 40), the fine
tombs of the el-I~ejr [?] type may be dated, and perhaps also the great High-place.
Roman rule
In 106, when Cornelius Palma was governor of Syria, that part of Arabia under the
rule of Petra was absorbed into the Roman Empire as part of Arabia Petraea, and the native
dynasty came to an end. But the city continued to flourish. A century later, in the time of
Alexander Severus, when the city was at the height of its splendor, the issue of coinage comes
to an end. There is no more building of sumptuous tombs, owing apparently to some sudden
catastrophe, such as an invasion by the neo-Persian power under the Sassanid Empire.
Meanwhile, as Palmyra (fl. 130–270) grew in importance and attracted the Arabian trade
away from Petra, the latter declined. It seems, however, to have lingered on as a religious
centre. Epiphanius of Salamis (c.315–403) writes that in his time a feast was held there on
December 25 in honor of the virgin Chaabou and her offspring Dushara (Haer. 51).
Religion
The Nabataeans worshipped the Arab gods and goddesses of the pre-Islamic times as
well as few of their deified kings. The most famous of these was Obodas I who was deified
after his death. Dushara was the main male god accompanied by his female trinity: Uzza,
Allat and Manah. Many statues carved in the rock depict these gods and goddesses.
The Monastery, Petra's largest monument, dates from the first century BC. It was
dedicated to Obodas I and is believed to be the symposium of Obodas the god. This
information is inscribed on the ruins of the Monastery (the name is the translation of the
Arabic "Ad-Deir").
Christianity fou as a tra nd its way into Petra in the 4th century AD, nearly 500 years
after the establishment of Petra de center. Athanasius mentions a bishop of Petra (Anhioch.
10) named Asterius. At least one of the tombs (the "tomb with the urn"?) was used as a
church. An inscription in red paint records its consecration "in the time of the most holy
bishop Jason" (447). The Christianity of Petra, as of north Arabia, was swept away by the
Islamic conquest of 629–632. During the First Crusade Petra was occupied by Baldwin I of
the Kingdom of Jerusalem and formed the second fief of the barony of Al Karak (in the
lordship of Oultrejordain) with the title Château de la Valée de Moyse or Sela. It remained in
the hands of the Franks until 1189. According to Arab tradition, Petra is the spot where Moses
struck a rock with his staff and water came forth, and where Moses' sister, Miriam, is buried.
Decline
Petra's decline came rapidly under Roman rule, in large part due to the revision of sea-
based trade routes. In 363 an earthquake destroyed buildings and crippled the vital water
management system. The ruins of Petra were an object of curiosity in the Middle Ages and
were visited by the Sultan Baibars of Egypt towards the close of the 13th century. The first
European to describe them was Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1812.
Petra today
On December 6, 1985 Petra was designated a World Heritage Site.
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In 2006 a team of architects began designing a "Visitor Centre," and Jordan's tourist
revenue is expected to increase dramatically with the attraction of visitors on package
holidays. The Jordan Times reported in December 2006 that 59,000 people visited in the two
months October and November 2006, 25% fewer than the same period in the previous year,
which may suggest that the flow of visitors may be affected by perception of political
instability or travel safety considerations.
On July 7, 2007, Petra was named one of New Open World Corporation's New Seven
Wonders of the World.
*****
CONTENT FOCUS
1.What is Petra?
2.Who revealed it to the Western world?
3.What is the ancient name for Petra?
4.What was the historical role of Petra?
5.How could peope get to Petra in ancient times?
6.Is Petra mentioned in the Old Testament?
7.Was Petra under the Roman rule?
8.Was it good for the flourishing of the city or not?
9.What gods did the Nabataeans worshipped?
10.Did christianity find its way to Petra?
11.When was Petra destroyed an the earthquake?
12.Were the ruins of Petra an object of curiosity in the Middle ages?
13.Who was the first European to describe them?
14.Was Petra designated a World Heritage Site?
15.Do tourists visit Petra today?
65

Christ the Redeemer (statue)
Christ the Redeemer (Portuguese: Cristo Redentor), is a statue of Jesus Christ in Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil. The statue stands 39.6 metres (130 feet) tall, weighs 700 tons and is located
at the peak of the 700-m (2296-foot) Corcovado mountain in the Tijuca Forest National Park
overlooking the city. A symbol of Christianity, the statue has become an icon of Rio and
Brazil.
History
The idea for erecting a large statue atop Corcovado had been around since the mid 1850s,
when Catholic priest Pedro Maria Boss requested financing from Princess Isabel to build a
large religious monument. Princess Isabel did not think much of the idea, which was
completely dismissed in 1889, when Brazil became a Republic, with laws mandating the
separation of church and state.
The second proposal for a large landmark statue on the mountain was made in 1921 by
the Archdiocese of Rio de Janeiro. The archdiocese organized an event called Semana do
Monumento ("Monument Week") to attract donations. The donations came mostly from
Brazilian Catholics. The designs considered for the "Statue of the Christ" included a
representation of the Christian cross, a statue of Jesus with a globe in his hands, and a
pedestal symbolizing the world. The statue of Christ the Redeemer with open arms was
chosen.
Local engineer Heitor da Silva Costa designed the statue; it was sculpted by Paul
Landowski, French monument sculptor of Polish origin. A group of engineers and technicians
studied Landowski's submissions and the decision was made to build the structure out of
reinforced concrete (designed by Albert Caquot) instead of steel, more suitable for the cross-
shaped statue. The outer layers are soapstone, chosen for its enduring qualities and ease of
use. Stone for the monument was taken from Limhamn, in Malmö, Sweden Construction
66

lasted five years — from 1926 to 1931 and the monument was opened on October 12, 1931.
The cost of the monument was $250,000.
In October 2006, on the statue's 75th anniversary, Archbishop of Rio Cardinal Eusebio
Oscar Scheid consecrated a chapel (named for the patron saint of Brazil - Nossa Senhora
Aparecida) under the statue. This allows Catholics to hold baptisms and weddings there.
As of 7 July 2007, Christ the Redeemer was named one of the New Seven Wonders of
the World in a list compiled by the Swiss-based The New Open World Corporation.
*****
CONTENT FOCUS
1.What is Christ the Redeemer?
2.Where is the statue located?
3.Is it a symbol of Christianity?
4.When did the idea for erecting a large statue atop Corcovado appear?
5.Was the second proposal for a large statue made in 1921 or 1922?
6.What does Semana do Monumento mean?
7.Did the donations come mostly from Brazilian Catholic?
8.What were the designs of the Statue of the Christ?
9.Did local engineer design the statue?
10.How long did the construction last?
11.Was the monument opened in 1931 or 1932?
12.Is there any chapel under the Statue?
13.When was Christ the Redeemer named one of the New Seven Wonders of the World?
14.Is it a symbol of Brazil?
67

Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu (['mɑ.tʃu 'pik.tʃu]) (Machu Pikchu Old Peak; sometimes called the "Lost
City") is a pre-Columbian city created by the Inca Empire. It is located at 2,430 m (7,970
ft)on a mountain ridge. Machu Picchu is located above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, about
70 km (44 mi) northwest of Cusco. Forgotten for centuries by the outside world, although not
by locals, it was brought back to international attention by archaeologist Hiram Bingham in
1911, who made the first scientific confirmation of the site and wrote a best-selling work
about it. Peru is pursuing legal efforts to retrieve thousands of artifacts that Bingham removed
from the site. Machu Picchu is probably the most familiar symbol of the Inca Empire. Often
referred to as "The Lost City of the Incas". The site was designated as a World Heritage Site
in 1983 when it was described as "an absolute masterpiece of architecture and a unique
testimony to the Inca civilization.
History
Machu Picchu was constructed around 1450, at the height of the Inca empire, and was
abandoned less than 100 years later, as the empire collapsed under Spanish conquest.
Although the citadel is located only about 50 miles from Cusco, the Inca capital, it was never
found and destroyed by the Spanish, as were many other Inca sites. Over the centuries, the
surrounding jungle grew to enshroud the site, and few knew of its existence. In 1911, Yale
68

historian and explorer Hiram Bingham brought the "lost" city to the world’s attention.
Bingham and others hypothesized that the citadel was the traditional birthplace of the Inca
people or the spiritual center of the "virgins of the sun," while curators of a recent exhibit
have speculated that Machu Picchu was a royal retreat.
It is thought that the site was chosen for its unique location and geological features. It
is said that the silhouette of the mountain range behind Machu Picchu represents the face of
the Inca looking upward towards the sky, with the largest peak, Huayna Picchu(meaning
Young Peak), representing his pierced nose.
In 1913, the site received significant publicity after the National Geographic Society devoted
their entire April issue to Machu Picchu.
On July 7
th
, 2007, Machu Picchu was voted as one of New Open World Corporation's New
Seven Wonders of the World.
Location
Machu Picchu is 70 kilometers northwest of Cusco, on the crest of the mountain
Machu Picchu, located about 2,350 meters above sea level. It is one of the most important
archaeological centers in South America and the most visited tourist attraction in Peru.
From the top, at the cliff of Machu Picchu, is a vertical precipice of 600 meters ending
at the foot of the Urubamba River. The location of the city was a military secret because its
deep precipices and mountains were an excellent natural defense.
Machu Picchu sanctuary
In 1981 an area of 325.92 square kilometres surrounding Machu Picchu was declared a
"Historical Sanctuary" of Peru. This area, which is not only limited to the ruins themselves,
also includes the regional landscape with its flora and fauna, highlighting the abundance of
orchids.
One theory maintains that Machu Picchu was an Incan "llacta": a settlement built up to
control the economy of the conquered regions and that it may have been built with the
purpose of protecting the most select of the Incan aristocracy in the event of an attack. Based
on research conducted by scholars such as John Rowe and Richard Burger, most
archaeologists now believe that, rather than a defensive retreat, Machu Picchu was an estate
of the Inca emperor Pachacuti. Johan Reinhard presents evidence that the site was selected
based on its position relative to sacred landscape features, especially mountains that are in
alignment with key astronomical events.
Three sectors
According to the archaeologists, the urban sector of Machu Picchu was divided into
three great districts: the Sacred District, the Popular District, to the south, and the District
of the Priests and the Nobility (royalty zone).
Located in the first zone are the primary archaeological treasures: the Intihuatana, the
Temple of the Sun and the Room of the Three Windows. These were dedicated to Inti, their sun
god and greatest deity. The Popular District, or Residential District, is the place where the
lower class people lived. It includes storage buildings and simple houses to live in.
In the royalty area, a sector existed for the nobility: a group of houses located in rows
over a slope; the residence of the Amautas (wise persons) was characterized by its reddish
walls, and the zone of the Ñustas (princesses) had trapezoid-shaped rooms. The Monumental
Mausoleum is a carved statue with a vaulted interior and carved drawings. It was used for
rites or sacrifices.
Architecture
All of the construction in Machu Picchu uses the classic Inca architectural style of
polished dry-stone walls of regular shape. The Incas were masters of this technique, called
ashlar, in which blocks of stone are cut to fit together tightly without mortar. Many junctions
in the central city are so perfect that not even a knife fits between the stones.
The Incas never used the wheel in any practical manner. How they moved and placed
enormous blocks of stones is a mystery, although the general belief is that they used hundreds
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of men to push the stones up inclined planes. It is unknown if the Incas left behind any
documentation about that process; if there is narrative information in the record keeping
system they employed, called khipus, which is currently not readable
The space is composed of 140 constructions including temples, sanctuaries, parks and
residences, houses with thatched roofs.
There are more than one hundred flights of stone steps – often completely carved in a
single block of granite – and a great number of water fountains, interconnected by channels
and water-drainages perforated in the rock, designed for the original irrigation system.
Evidence has been found to suggest that the irrigation system was used to carry water from a
holy spring, to each of the houses in turn, the order being dictated by the perceived holiness of
the inhabitants.
Inca road system
Among the thousands of roads constructed by the pre-Columbian cultures in South
America, the roads of the Inca were some of the most interesting. This network of roads
converged at Cusco, the capital of the Inca Empire. One of them went to the city of Machu
Picchu. The Incas distinguished between coastal roads and mountain roads, the former was
called Camino de los llanos (road of the plains) and the latter was called Cápac Ñam.
Today, tens of thousands of tourists walk the Inca roads – particularly The Inca Trail –
each year, acclimatising at Cusco before starting on a two- to four-day journey on foot from
the Urubamba valley up through the Andes mountain range.
Rediscovery
On July 24, 1911, Machu Picchu was brought to the attention of the West by Hiram
Bingham, an American historian then employed as a lecturer at Yale University. He was led
there by locals who frequented the site. This explorer/archaeologist began the archaeological
studies there and completed a survey of the area. Bingham coined the name "The Lost City of
the Incas", which was the title of his first book. He never gave any credit to those who led him
to Machu Picchu, mentioning only "local rumor" as his guide.
Bingham had been searching for the city of Vitcos, the last Inca refuge and spot of
resistance during the Spanish conquest of Peru. In 1911, after various years of previous trips
and explorations around the zone, he was led to the citadel by Quechuans who were living in
Machu Picchu in the original Inca infrastructure. Bingham made several more trips and
conducted excavations on the site through 1915. He wrote a number of books and articles
about the discovery of Machu Picchu.
During the early years in Peru, Bingham built strong relationships with top Peruvian
officials. As a result, he had little trouble obtaining necessary permission, paperwork, and
permits to travel throughout the country and borrow archeological artifacts. Upon returning to
Yale University, Bingham had collected around 5,000 such objects to be kept in Yale's care
until such time as the Peruvian government requested their return. Recently, the Peruvian
government requested the return of all cultural material, and at the refusal of Yale University
to do so, began to consider legal action.
Simone Waisbard, a long-time researcher of Cusco, claims Enrique Palma, Gabino
Sánchez and Agustín Lizárraga left their names engraved on one of the rocks there on July 14,
1901, having re-discovered it before Bingham. Likewise, in 1904 an engineer named Franklin
spotted the ruins from a distant mountain. He told Thomas Paine, an English Plymouth
Brethren Christian missionary living in the region, about the site. In 1906, Paine and another
Brethren missionary named Stuart E McNairn (1867-1956) climbed up to the ruins. Five years
later, in 1911, Paine talked with Bingham and outfitted him with guides and mules for journey
to the site.
What makes Bingham the "rediscoverer" of Machu Picchu is the fact that he was the
one who brought Machu Picchu to the world's attention.
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Visiting Machu Picchu
All visits to Machu Picchu at some point leave from Cusco, which can be reached via
a domestic flight from Lima. Taking the tourist train from Cusco (which takes 3.5 hours to get
to Machu Picchu), you have several options.
The most common way is to take the train to Machu Picchu in the morning, explore
the ruins for a few hours and return to Cusco in the afternoon. The train terminates at Puente
Ruinas station, where buses take tourists up the mountain to Machu Picchu. Strangely, Machu
Picchu station is at Aguas Calientes (2km before Puente Ruinas station) but is not the station
used by tourists on a day trip.
Another option is to hike the Inca Trail, on either a four-day or two-day version, both
of which are controlled by the government. They require travelers to be reasonably fit. The
trip takes a few days, and involves sleeping in tents.
Another option is to stay overnight near the ruins themselves, rather than return on the
same day. There are many hotels at nearby Aguas Calientes , but only one hotel at Machu
Picchu itself . Buses run from Aguas Calientes to the ruins throughout the day, an 8 km ride
up the mountain (approximately one and a half hours by walking).
A helicopter service from Cusco to Aguas Calientes, via a 24 passenger Russian Mi-8
helicopter, is also available. Helicopter flights direct into Machu Picchu stopped in the 1970s
due to concern about their damage to the ruins.
Concerns over tourism
Machu Picchu is a UNESCO World Heritage site. As Peru’s most visited tourist
attraction and major revenue generator, it is continually threatened by economic and
commercial forces. In the late 1990s, the Peruvian government granted concessions to allow
the construction of a cable car to the ruins and development of a luxury hotel, including a
tourist complex with boutiques and restaurants. These plans were met with protests from
scientists, academics and the Peruvian public, worried that the greater numbers of visitors
which would pose tremendous physical burdens on the ruins.
A growing number of people visit Machu Picchu (400,000 in 2003), For this reason,
there were protests against a plan to build a further bridge to the site and a no-fly zone exists
in the area. UNESCO is considering putting Machu Picchu on its list of endangered World
Heritage Sites.
Damage to the site due to usage has occurred. In September 2000 a centuries-old
sundial at Machu Picchu was damaged by the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency while
filming an advertisement for Cusqueña beer.
*****
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CONTENT FOCUS
1.What is Machu Picchu?
2.Where is it located?
3.Was Machu Picchu the “Lost City” for centuries or not?
4.Is Machu Picchu the most familiar symbol of the Inca Empire?
5.When was Machu Picchu constructed?
6.Why did the empire collapse?
7.Was Machu Picchu destroyed by the Spanish?
8.Was Machu Picchu an estate of the Inca emperor Pachacuti?
9.How many districts was Machu Picchu divided into?
10.Does all of construction in Machu Picchu use the classic Inca architectural style?
11.Did the Incas use the wheel in any practical manner?
12.How did they move huge blocks of stones?
13.Do any Inca roads exist nowadays?
14.When was Machu Picchu brought to the attention of the West?
15.How can tourists get to Machu Picchu?
16.Is Machu Picchu a UNESCO World Heritage site?
17.Were any damages made there nowadays?
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Chichen Itza
Chichen Itza ( [tʃi.tʃɛn.it.sɑ]) (from Yucatec Maya chich'en itza', "At the mouth of the
wellof the Itza") is a large pre-Columbian archaeological site built by the Maya civilization
located in the northern center of the Yucatán Peninsula, present-day Mexico.
Chichen Itza was a major regional center in the northern Maya lowlands from the Late Classic
through the Terminal Classic and into the early portion of the Early Postclassic period. The
site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, from what is called “Mexicanized” and
reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico to the Puuc style found among the Puuc Maya of
the northern lowlands. The presence of central Mexican styles was once thought to have been
representative of direct migration or even conquest from central Mexico, but most
contemporary interpretations view the presence of these non-Maya styles more as the result of
cultural diffusion.
Archaeological data, such as evidence of burning at a number of important structures
and architectural complexes, suggest that Chichen Itza's collapse was violent. Following the
decline of Chichen Itza's hegemony, regional power in the Yucatán shifted to a new center at
Mayapan.
According to the American Anthropological Association, the actual ruins of Chich'en
Itza are federal property, and the site’s stewardship is maintained by Mexico’s National
Institute of Anthropology and History (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, INAH).
The land under the monuments, however, is privately-owned by the Barbachano family.
Name and orthography
The Maya name "Chich'en Itza" means "At the mouth of the well of the Itza ".
Although this was the usual name for the site in pre-Columbian times, it is also referred to in
the ancient chronicles as Uucyabnal, meaning "Seven Great Rulers".
The name is often represented as Chichén Itzá in Spanish and other languages to
show that both parts of the name are stressed on their final syllables. In the Yucatec Maya
language (still in use in the area, and written with the Roman alphabet since the 16th century)
this stress follows the normal rules of the language, and so it is written without diacritics.
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Both forms are attested in literature on the subject, including in scholarly works. Other
references prefer to employ a more rigorous orthography, using Chich'en Itza. This form
preserves the phonemeic distinction between [ ch' ] and [ ch ], since the base word ch'en
meaning "well (of water)" begins with a glottalized affricate ( in IPA notation, [tʃʼ]) and not a
voiceless (non-glottalized) one ([tʃ]).
History of Chich'en Itza
As the northern Yucatán has no above-ground rivers, the fact that three natural sink
holes (cenotes) providing plentiful water year round at Chichen made it attractive for
settlement. Two of these cenotes still exist today; the "Cenote of Sacrifice" is the more
famous of the two, and it was sacred to worshipers of the Maya rain god Chaac cenote as
offerings to Chaac. It is claimed by some (mainly tour guides) that occasionally, especially
during times of intense drought, human sacrifices were offered into the well. Diplomat
Edward Herbert Thompson dredged the Sacred Cenote in 1904, claiming to have uncovered
human remains and sacrificial artifacts.There is, however, no confirmation of this, and
archaeological dredging of the cenote does not support these assertions.
Ascension
Chichen Itza rose to regional prominence towards the end of the Early Classic period
(or, roughly 600 AD). It was, however, towards the end of the Late Classic and into the early
part of the Terminal Classic that the site became a major regional capitol, centralizing and
dominating political, sociocultural, economic, and ideological life in the northern Maya
lowlands. The ascension of Chichen Itza roughly correlates with the decline and
fragmentation of the major centers of the southern Maya lowlands, such as Tikal.
Some ethnohistoric sources claim that in about 987 a Toltec king named Quetzalcoatl arrived
here with an army from central Mexico, and (with local Maya allies) made Chichen Itza his
capital, and a second Tula. The art and architecture from this period shows an interesting mix
of Maya and Toltec styles. However, the recent re-dating of Chichen Itza's decline (see
below) indicates that Chichen Itza is largely a Late/Terminal Classic site, while Tula remains
an Early Postclassic site (thus reversing the direction of possible influence).
Political organization
Unlike previous Maya polities of the Early Classic, Chichen Itza was not governed by
an individual ruler or a single dynastic lineage. Instead, according to Sharer and Traxler
(2006:581), the city’s political organization was structured by a "multepal" system, which is
characterized as rulership through council. The council was comprised of members of elite
ruling lineages.
Economy
Chichen Itza was a major economic power in the northern Maya lowlands during its
apogee. Participating in the water-borne circum-peninsular trade route through its port site of
Isla Cerritos, Chichen Itza was able to obtain locally unavailable resources from distant areas
such as central Mexico (obsidian) and southern Central America (gold).
Decline of Chichen Itza
The Maya chronicles record that in 1221 a revolt and civil war broke out, and
archeological evidence seemed to confirm that the wooden roofs of the great market and the
Temple of the Warriors were burned at about this date. Chichen Itza went into decline as
rulership over Yucatán shifted to Mayapan.
This long-held chronology, however, has been drastically revised in recent years. As
archaeologists improve their knowledge of changes in regional ceramics, and more
radiocarbon dates arise out of ongoing work at Chichen Itza, the end of this Maya capital is
now being pushed back over 200 years. Archaeological data now indicates that Chichen Itza
fell by around AD 1000. This leaves an enigmatic gap between the fall of Chichen Itza and its
successor, Mayapan. Ongoing research at the site of Mayapan may help resolve this
chronological conundrum.
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While the site itself was never completely abandoned, the population declined and no
major new constructions were built following its political collapse. The Sacred Cenote,
however, remained a place of pilgrimage.
In 1531 Spanish Conquistador Francisco de Montejo claimed Chichén Itzá and
intended to make it the capital of Spanish Yucatán, but after a few months a native Maya
revolt drove Montejo and his forces from the land.
The site
The site contains many fine stone buildings in various states of preservation; the
buildings were formerly used as temples, palaces, stages, markets, baths, and ballcourts.
El Castillo
Dominating the center of Chichén is the Temple of Kukulcan (the Maya name for
Quetzalcoatl), often referred to as "El Castillo" (the castle). This step pyramid with a ground
plan of square terraces with stairways up each of the 4 sides to the temple on top. On the
Spring and Fall equinox, at the rising and setting of the sun, the corner of the structure casts a
shadow in the shape of a plumed serpent - Kukulcan, or Quetzalcoatl - along the side of the
North staircase. On these two days, the shadows from the corner tiers slither down the
northern side of the pyramid with the sun's movement.
Mesoamerican cultures periodically built larger pyramids atop older ones, and this is
one such example. In the mid 1930s, the Mexican government sponsored an excavation into
El Castillo. After several false starts, they discovered a staircase under the north side of the
pyramid. By digging from the top, they found another temple buried below the current one.
Inside the temple chamber was a Chac Mool statue and a throne in the shape of jaguar,
painted red with spots made of inlaid jade.
The Mexican government excavated a tunnel from the base of the north staircase, up
the earlier pyramid’s stairway to the hidden temple, and opened it to tourists. In 2006, INAH
closed the throne room to the public.
Temple of the Warriors
The Temple of the Warriors complex consists of a large stepped pyramid fronted and
flanked by rows of carved columns depicting warriors. This complex is analogous to Temple
B at the Toltec capital of Tula, and indicates some form of cultural contact between the two
regions. The one at Chichen Itza, however, was constructed on a larger scale. At the top of the
stairway on the pyramid’s summit (and leading towards the entrance of the pyramid’s temple)
is a Chac Mool.
Near the Warriors is a large plaza surrounded by pillars called "The Great Market."
Ballcourt
Seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame have been found in Chichén, but
the Great Ball Court about 150 meters to the north-west of the Castillo is by far the most
impressive. It is the largest ballcourt in ancient Mesoamerica. It measures 166 by 68 meters
(545 by 232 feet). The sides of the interior of the ballcourt are lined with sculpted panels
depicting teams of ball players, with the captain of the losing team being decapitated.
Built into one of the exterior walls of the ballcourt is the Temple of the Jaguar, which
features another jaguar throne -- since this one was not buried for a thousand years, its red
paint and jade spots are long since gone.
Behind this platform is a walled inscription which depicts a tzompantli (rack of
impaled human skulls) in relief.
High Priest's Temple
This step-pyramid temple is a smaller version of El Castillo; the name comes from an
elite burial discovered by early excavator E. H. Thompson.
Las Monjas
One of the more notable structures at Chichen Itza is a complex of Terminal Classic
buildings constructed in the Puuc architectural style. The Spanish nicknamed this complex
Las Monjas ("The Nuns" or "The Nunnery") but was actually a governmental palace. Just to
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the east is a small temple (nicknamed La Iglesia, "The Church") decorated with elaborate
masks of the rain god Chaac.
A number of other structures are near the "Monjas" complex. These include:
"The Red House"
"The House of the Deer"
El Caracol
To the north of Las Monjas is a round building on a large square platform nicknamed
El Caracol or "the snail" for the stone spiral staircase inside. This structure was an
observatory with its doors aligned to view the vernal equinox, the Moon's greatest northern
and southern declinations, and other astronomical events sacred to Kukulcan, the feathered-
serpent god of the wind and learning. The Maya used the shadows inside the room cast from
the angle of the sun hitting the doorway to tell when the solstices would occur. Placed around
the edge of El Caracol are large rock cups that they filled with water and would watch the
reflection of the stars in the water to help determine their complex, but extremely accurate
calendar system.
Akab Dzib
Located to the west of the Caracol, Akab Dzib means, in Maya, "The House of
Mysterious Writing." An earlier name of the building, according to a translation of glyphs in
the Casa Colorada, is Wa(k)wak Puh Ak Na, "the flat house with the excessive number of
chambers,” and it was the home of the administrator of Chichén Itzá, kokom Yahawal Cho'
K’ak’.. INAH completed a restoration of the building in 2007. It is relatively short, only 6
meters high, and is 50 meters in length and 15 meters wide. The long, western-facing facade
has seven doorways. The eastern facade has only four doorways, broken by a large staircase
that leads to the roof. This apparently was the front of the structure, and looks out over what is
today a steep, but dry, cenote. The southern end of the building has one entrance. The door
opens into a small chamber and on the opposite wall is another doorway, above which on the
lintel are intricately carved glyphs—the “mysterious” or “obscure” writing that gives the
building its name today. Under the lintel in the door jam is another carved panel of a seated
figure surrounded by more glyphs. Inside one of the chambers, near the ceiling, is a painted
hand print.
Old Chichen
"Old Chichen" is the nickname for a group of structures to the south of the central site.
It includes the Initial Series Group, the Phallic Temple, the Platform of the Great Turtle, the
Temple of the Owls, and the Temple of the Monkeys.
Other structures
Chichen Itza also has a variety of other structures densely packed in the ceremonial
center of about 5 km² (2 mile²) and several outlying subsidiary sites.
Caves of Balankanche
The Caves of Balankanche are a network of sacred caves a short distance from the
center of Chichen. In the caves, a large selection of ancient pottery and idols may be seen still
in the positions where they were left in Pre-Columbian times.
Archaeological investigations
Chichén Itzá entered the popular imagination in 1843 with the book Incidents of
Travel in Yucatan by John Lloyd Stephens (with illustrations by Frederick Catherwood). The
book recounted Stephens’ visit to Yucatan and his tour of Maya cities, including Chichén Itzá.
The book prompted other explorations of the city. In 1860, Desire Charnay surveyed Chichén
Itzá and took numerous photographs that he published in Cités et ruines américaines (1863).
In 1875, Augustus Le Plongeon and his wife Alice Dixon Le Plongeon visited Chichén, and
excavated a statue of a figure on its back, knees drawn up, upper torso raised on its elbows
with a plate on its stomach. Augustus Le Plongeon called it “Chaacmol” (later renamed “Chac
Mool,” which has been the term to describe all types of this statuary found in Mesoamerica).
Teobert Maler and Alfred Maudslay explored Chichén in the 1880s and both spent several
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weeks at the site and took extensive photographs. Maudslay published the first long form
description of Chichén Itzá in his book, Biologia Centrali-Americana.
In 1894 the United States Consul to Yucatán, Edward H. Thompson purchased the
Hacienda Chichen, which included the ruins of Chichen Itzá. For 30 years, Thompson
explored the ancient city. His discoveries included the earliest dated carving upon a lintel in
the Temple of the Initial Series and the excavation of several graves in the Ossario (High
Priest’s Temple). Thompson is most famous for dredging the Cenote Sagrado (Sacred Cenote)
from 1904 to 1910, where he recovered artifacts of gold, copper and carved jade, as well as
the first-ever examples of what were believed to be pre-Columbian Maya cloth and wooden
weapons. Thompson shipped the bulk of the artifacts to the Peabody Museum at Harvard
University.
In 1913, archaeologist Sylvanus G. Morley persuaded the Carnegie Institution to fund
an extensive archaeological project at Chichén Itzá, which included mapping the ruins and
restoring several of the monuments. The Mexican Revolution and the following government
instability prevented the Carnegie from beginning work until 1924. Over the course of 10
years, the Carnegie researchers excavated and restored the Temple of Warriors and the
Caracol. At the same time, the Mexican government excavated and restored El Castillo and
the Great Ball Court.
In 1926, the Mexican government charged Edward Thompson with theft, claiming he
stole the artifacts from the Cenote Sagrado and smuggled them out of the country. The
government seized the Hacienda Chichén. Thompson, who was in the United States at the
time, never returned to Yucatan. He wrote about his research and investigations of the Maya
culture in a book People of the Serpent published in 1932. He died in New Jersey in 1935. In
1944 the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that Thompson had broken no laws and returned
Chichén Itzá to his heirs. The Thompsons sold the hacienda to tourism pioneer Fernando
Barbachano Peon, and his heirs own the property today.
There have been two later expeditions to recover artifacts from the Cenote Sagrado, in
1961 and 1967. The first was sponsored by the National Geographic, and the second by
private interests. Both projects were supervised by Mexico's National Institute of
Anthropology and History (INAH). INAH has conducted an ongoing effort to excavate and
restore other monuments in the archaeological zone, including the Ossario, Akab D’zib, and
several buildings in Chichén Viejo (Old Chichen).
Tourism
Tourism has been a factor at Chichen Itza for more than a century. John Lloyd
Stephens, who popularized the Maya Yucatan in the public’s imagination with his book
Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, inspired many to make a pilgrimage to Chichén Itzá. Even
before the book was published, Benjamin Norman and Baron Emmanuel de Friederichsthal
traveled to Chichen after meeting Stephens, and both published the results of what they found.
After Edward Thompson in 1894 purchased the Hacienda Chichén, which included
Chichen Itza, he received a constant stream of visitors. In 1910 he announced his intention to
construct a hotel on his property, but abandoned those plans, probably because of the Mexican
Revolution.
In the early 1920s, a group of Yucatecans, lead by writer/photographer Francisco
Gomez Rul, began working toward expanding tourism to Yucatan. They urged Governor
Felipe Carrillo Puerto to build roads to the more famous monuments, including Chichen Itza.
In 1923, Governor Carrillo Puerto officially opened the highway to Chichen Itza. Gomez Rul
published one of the first guidebooks to Yucatan and the ruins.
Gomez Rul’s son-in-law, Fernando Barbachano Peon (a grandnephew of former
Yucatan Governor Miguel Barbachano), started Yucatan’s first official tourism business in
the early 1920s. He began by meeting passengers that arrived by steamship to Progreso, the
port north of Merida, and persuading them to spend a week in Yucatan, after which they
would catch the next steamship to their next destination. In his first year Barbachano Peon
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reportedly was only able to convince seven passengers to leave the ship and join him on a
tour. In the mid-1920s Barbachano Peon persuaded Edward Thompson to sell five acres of
property next to Chichen for a hotel. In 1927, the Mayaland Hotel opened, just north of the
Hacienda Chichén, which had been taken over by the Carnegie Institution.
In 1944, Barbachano Peon purchased all of the Hacienda Chichén, including Chichen
Itza, from the heirs of Edward Thompson. Around that same time the Carnegie completed its
work at Chichen Itza and abandoned the Hacienda Chichén, which Barbachano turned into
another seasonal hotel.
In 1972, Mexico enacted the Leye Federa Sobre Monumentos y onas Arquelogicas,
Artisticos e Historicos that put all the nation's pre-Columbian monuments, including those at
Chichen Itza, under federal ownership. There were now hundreds, if not thousands of visitors
every year to Chichen Itza, and more were expected with the development of Cancun resort
area to the east.
In the 1980s, Chichen Itza began to receive an influx of visitors on the day of the
spring equinox. Today several thousand show up to see the light-and-shadow effect on the
Temple of Kukulcan in which the feathered serpent god supposedly can be seen to crawl
down the side of the pyramid.
Chichen Itza is today a World Heritage Site and is the second most visited of Mexico’s
archaeological sites. Many visitors to the popular tourist resort of Cancún make a day trip to
Chichen Itza, usually with time to view only a portion of the site.
Over the past several years, INAH, which manages the site, has been closing
monuments to public access. The most recent was El Castillo, which was closed after a San
Diego, Calif., woman fell to her death in 2006.
*****
CONTENT FOCUS
1.What does Chichen Itza mean?
2.Was this the usual name for the site in pre-Columbian time?
3.What is “Seven Great Rulers”?
4.Who built it?
5.Are the ruins of Chichen Itza federal property?
6.Did three natural holes providing plentiful water at Chichen make it attractive for
settlement?
7.Do they still exist today?
8.Was Chichen Itza a centre of political, sociocultural, economic and ideological life in
the northern Maya lowlands?
9.What was the city’s political organization?
10.Was the council comprised of members of elite ruling lineages?
11.Was Chichen Itza a major economic power in the northern Maya lowlands?
12.Did any revolt take place in Chichen Itza?
13.What were the buildings used for?
14.What does the Temple of Warriors complex consist of?
15.What is the largest ballcourt in ancient Mesoamerica?
16.What does El Carasol mean?
17.What does Akab Dzib mean?
18.Is “Old Chichen” the nickname for a groupof structures to the south of the central site?
19.Is there a variety of other structures in Chichen Itza?
20.When did Chichen Itza become popular?
21.Were there any archeological investigations in Chichen Itza?
22. Is Chichen Itza popular among tourists?
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Colosseum
The Colosseum at dusk: exterior view of the best-preserved section
The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin:
Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an eliptical amphitheatre in
the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is one of
the greatest works of Roman architecture and engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72
AD under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further
modifications being made during Domitian's reign.
Originally capable of seating around 50,000 spectators, the Colosseum was used for
gladiatorial contests and public spectacles. It remained in use for nearly 500 years with the
last recorded games being held there as late as the 6th century — well after the traditional date
of the fall of Rome in 476. As well as the traditional gladiatorial games, many other public
spectacles were held there, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments
of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building eventually ceased
to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such varied
purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry and a
Christian shrine.
Although it is now in a ruined condition due to damage caused by earthquakes and
stone-robbers, the Colosseum has long been seen as an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is
one of modern Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the
Roman Catholic Church, the Pope leading a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession to the
amphitheatre each Good Friday.
Name
The Colosseum's name has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of
Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios
(Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also
replaced several times and substituted with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its
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pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with
magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, the Venerable Bede (c. 672–735) wrote a famous epigram
celebrating the symbolic significance of the statue: Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma;
quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the
Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls,
so falls the world"). This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the
Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the
time that Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to
what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, probably being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By
the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" (a neuter noun) had been coined to refer to the
amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated
between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.
The name was further corrupted to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. Both names are
frequently used in modern English, but Flavian Amphitheatre is generally unknown. In Italy,
the amphitheatre is still known as il colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use
similar forms such as le colisée (French), el coliseo (Spanish) and o coliseu (Portuguese).
History
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian in
around 70–72. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the
Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd
century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in
AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built
the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake
surrounded by pavillions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was
extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up
nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.
The area was transformed under Vespasian and his successors. Although the Colossus
was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land
reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other
support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea.
According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered
this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to
refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great
Jewish Revolt in 70. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument
built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories. Vespasian's decision to build the
Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the
people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many
other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was
constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart
of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's
death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.
Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of
the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the
newly-designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground
tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum
to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning,
according to Dio Cassius) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's
interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252
80

and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum
under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–450), possibly to repair damage caused
by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484 and 508. The arena continued to be
used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435.
Animal hunts continued until at least 523.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period.
By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre,
though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a
whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades
under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being
rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the
Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake of 1349,
causing the outer south side to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build
palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved
into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it
until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively
stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble facade) was
burned to make quicklime. The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried
or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the
vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building
into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell
through the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of
Christ and installed with his premature death. In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for
bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the
Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade Stations
of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there
(see Christians and the Colosseum). Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration
projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened
to damage it further. The facade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and
1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure
was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Mussolini in the
1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving
millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time
prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40
billion Italian lira ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of
the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948.
Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000.
Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change
the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person
condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is
released.
Due to the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host
large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating.
However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a
backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray
Charles (May 2002),

Paul McCartney (May 2003) and Elton John (September 2005).
On July 7th, 2007, the Colosseum was voted as one of New Open World Corporation's New
Seven Wonders of the World.
81

Physical description
Unlike earlier amphitheatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely
free-standing structure. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 metres (615 ft / 640 Roman feet)
long, and 156 metres (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres. The height
of the outer wall is 48 metres (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured
545 metres (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval (287 ft) long and
(180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall and is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters
(3,531,466 ft³) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of
iron clamps. However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large
segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still
standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having
been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-
day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of
superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are
pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns
of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian
pilasters. Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably
honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They
originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain
off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a
hole in the center. It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to
catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the
Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were
used to work the velarium.
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled
or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern
stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at
ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators. Each entrance and exit was
numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman
Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the
elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which
fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of
the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII to LIV still survive.
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed
them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular
vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These
quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency
evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived
from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
Interior seating
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000
people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a
tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes
were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal
Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad
platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The
names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably
reserving areas for their use.
82

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the
non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum,
was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two
sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the
summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for
instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests
and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who
presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the
areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the
building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves
and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep
wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably
gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls
(praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles
from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat
to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
Arena and hypogeum
The arena itself was 83 metres by 48 metres (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman
feet). It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or
arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning
"underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still
clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath
the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts
provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed
underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the
like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of
construction can be seen.
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside
the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables,
with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels.
Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to
enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised
and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release.
There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms and according to ancient
accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby
aqueduct.
Supporting buildings
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In
addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games.
Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators.
This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the
gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a
popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area,
including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus
the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the
Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to
treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped
of their armor and disposed of.
83

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the
perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various
explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious
boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
Use
The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other
events. The shows, called munera, were always given by individuals rather than the state.
They had a strong religious element but were also demonstration of power and family
prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was
the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilised a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from
Africa, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippos, elephants, giraffes, lions, panthers,
leopards, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets
with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is
said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals
and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was
used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles.
Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water
for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-
enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians.
This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water
would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor
would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been
suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally
featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced
by the hypogeum).
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters,
technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes
planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight
of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the
urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting
episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero
of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but
mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
Today
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of
tourists each year paying to view the interior arena. There is now a museum dedicated to Eros
located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-
floored.
Christians and the Colosseum
Martyrdom of Saint Ignatius of Antioch, often said to have taken place in the
Colosseum. Note how the saint is framed by a stylized depiction of the Colosseum.
The Colosseum has long been regarded as having been the scene of numerous martyrdoms of
early Christians. However, this belief appears to have arisen only around the 16th century.
Roman and early medieval accounts refer to Christians being martyred in various vaguely
described locations in Rome (in the amphitheatre, in the arena etc) but without specifying
which; there were, in fact, numerous stadia, amphitheatres and circuses in Rome. Saint
Telemachus, for instance, is often said to have died in the Colosseum, but Theodoret's account
of his death merely states that it happened "in the stadium" (eis to stadio). Similarly, the death
of Saint Ignatius of Antioch is recorded as having been in "the arena", without specifying
which arena.
84

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as
a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at
a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the
itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia
Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not
the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian
order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.
It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to
be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566-1572) is said to have recommended that
pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it
was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it
was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at
the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.
Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's
proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a
pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing
controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare
it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time to come.
At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740-1758)
forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena,
which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his
life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th
century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a
Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good
Friday the Pope leads a procession to the amphitheatre in memory of Christian martyrs.
Flora
The Colosseum has a wide and well-documented history of flora ever since Domenico
Panaroli made the first catalogue of its plants in 1643. Since then, 684 species have been
identified there. The peak was in 1855 (420 species). Attempts were made in 1871 to
eradicate the vegetation, due to concerns over the damage that was being caused to the
masonry, but much of it has returned. 242 species have been counted today and of the species
first identified by Panaroli, 200 remain.
The variation of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome through the
centuries. Additionally, bird migration, flower blooming, and the growth of Rome that caused
the Colosseum to become embedded within the modern city centre rather than on the outskirts
of the ancient city, as well as deliberate transport of species, are also contributing causes. One
other romantic reason often given is their seeds being unwittingly transported on the animals
brought there from all corners of the empire.
*****
85

CONTENT FOCUS
1.What is the original name of the Colosseum?
2.Where is it situated?
3.Is it the largest amphitheatre ever built in the Roman Empire?
4.When did its construction start?
5.What was the Colosseum used for?
6.What was the seating capacity of the Colosseum?
7.Was the Colosseum used in the early medieval era or not?
8.What were the damages of the Colosseum caused by?
9.Was it an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome?
10.How did the Colloseumget its name?
11.Did the Colossal statue of Nero give the name tho the amphitheatre?
12.Did construction of the Colosseum begin under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian?
13.What buildings were constructed near the Colosseum?
14.Did the Emperor Vespasian finish the constructin of the Colosseum?
15.What destroyed the wooden upper levels of the Colosseum in 217?
16.Were there any changes during the medieval period?
17.Did the great earthquake of 1349 cause any damages?
18.What were the ideas of using of the Colosseum in the XVI-XVIII centuries?
19.What is the Colosseum today?
20.Is it used for host large events today? Why?
21.What is the size of the Colosseum?
22.Were there any specific sectors for different social groups inside the Colosseum?
23.What did arena consist of?
24.Were there any supportinf buildings near the Colosseum?
25.Is there any connection between the Colosseum and the first Christians?
26.Has the Colosseum a vide and well-documented history of flora?
86

SOURCES
1.Атлас чудес света. Москва, БММ АО, 1995
2.Древо познания. Наука и техника. Киев, Маршалл Кавендиш, 2006
3.Детская иллюстрированная энциклопедия. Москва, Дорлинг киндерсли, 1999
4.Encyclopedia Britannica 2001
5.http://en.wikipedia.org
6.news.bbc.co.uk
7.news.nationalgeographic.com
8.www.cnn.com/2007/TRAVEL/07/06/seven.wonders
9.www.new7wonders.com
10.www.panorams.dk
11.www.time.com/time/photogallery
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