Theoretical Perspectives of Public Administration

Public Administration-Meaning, Nature, Scope, Phases

1. Theoretical perspectives of public administration By Padmini Naik Lecturer in Political Science

2. Classical theories scientific management ( f.w.taylor ) administrative Management ( Gullick,urwick,fayol ) bureaucracy (max weber) neoclassical theories human relations theory (Elton mayo) rational decision making (Herbert Simon) contemporary theories ecological approach (FRED RIGGS) innovation and entrepreneurship (peter dructer )

3. Classical theories scientific management ( f.w.taylor ) administrative Management ( Gullick,urwick,fayol ) bureaucracy (max weber )

4. scientific management F .W .Taylor He is Known as Father of Scientific Management Born into a wealthy family in the US in 1856. Graduated from Stevens Institute Technology as a mechanical engineer in 1883.

5. Prevailing state of affairs Taylor found administration or management in his time in a highly unsatisfactory state of development. There was no standardization of work. The work in the factory was completely unplanned

6. Scientific Management Theory Scientific Management a term coined in 1910 by Louis Brandies Created and promoted by Frederick W. Taylor (1856– 1915) and his followers. Also called Taylorism , it was a theory of management that analyzed and synthesized workflows Main objective was improving economic efficiency , especially labor productivity . It was one of the earliest attempts to apply science to the engineering of processes and to management.

7. Principles of Scientific Management The development of a science for each element of a mans work to replace the old rule-of-thumb methods. The scientific selection, training and development of workers instead of allowing them to choose their own tasks and train themselves as best they could. The development of a spirit of hearty cooperation between workers and management to ensure that work would be carried out in accordance with scientifically devised procedures. The division of work between workers and management in almost equal shares, each group taking over the work for which it is best fitted instead of the former condition in which responsibility largely rested with the workers .

8. Advantages Enhanced teamwork- Cooperation between managers and workers. Better planning and decision making Improved economic and work efficiency Increased opportunities for workers to acquire scientific training.

9. Techniques Functional foremanship Motion and time study Piece rate system Standardization of machines, work and procedures

10. administrative Management ( fayol )

11. Henri Fayol, the French industrialist and management consultant of the early twentieth century. He has long been acknowledged as a founding father of the classical management school of thought.   Administrative Management Henry Fayol • One of his major work is "General and Industrial Management(1916)" His paper on,"The Theory of Administration in the State" is considered as major contribution to the theory of public administration. By Fayol, Administrative Theory: Universal Without doubt, Fayol is the best remembered for a three-fold contribution to management thought.

12. Firstly, Fayol is credited with the belief that organizational and business life was an amalgam of six activities of an industrial undertakings. Secondly, Fayol identified five key functions or elements that comprised managerial activity. Finally, Fayol advocated fourteen principles designed to guide the successful manager.

13. Henri Fayol: Elements of Management Fayol classifies the key functions of management into five main elements: a) Planning : Forethought to the operation of an organization. Experience, Unity, continuity, flexibility, precision are features of Good Planning. b) Organizing: Material organization and human organization (leadership, organizational structure). c) Commanding: Rests on certain personal qualities and knowledge of general management. d) Coordinating: Coordinating by integrating subordinates and keeping balance among material, social and functional parts. e) Controlling: Verifying whether activities take place in conformity with the plan adopted, instructions issued and principles established.

14. Administrative Management Theory- Fayol’s 14 Principles Division of work . This principle is the same as Adam Smith's 'division of labor'. Specialization increases output by making employees more efficient. Authority. Managers must be able to give orders. Authority gives them this right. Authority should be commensurate to responsibility. Discipline. Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the organization. Good discipline is the result of effective leadership, a clear understanding between management and workers regarding the organization's rules. Division of work . This principle is the same as Adam Smith's 'division of labor'. Specialization increases output by making employees more efficient. Authority. Managers must be able to give orders. Authority gives them this right. Authority should be commensurate to responsibility. Discipline. Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the organization. Good discipline is the result of effective leadership, a clear understanding between management and workers regarding the organization's rules.

15. Unity of command . Every employee should receive orders from only one superior. Unity of direction . Each group of organizational activities that have the same objective should be directed by one manager using one plan. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest . The interests of any one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole. Remuneration. Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services. Centralization. The degree to which subordinates are involved in decision making. Whether decision making is centralized (to management) or decentralized (to subordinates) is a question of proper proportion. The task is to find the optimum degree of centralization for each situation.

16. Scalar chain. The line of authority from top management to the lowest ranks represents the scalar chain. Generally, formal communications should follow this chain. Order. People and materials should be in the right place at the right time. Equity. Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates. Stability/tenure of personnel. High employee turnover is inefficient. Management should provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available to fill vacancies. Initiative. Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high levels of effort. Esprit de corps. Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the organization.

17. Administrative Management   Luther Halsey Gulick (1892-1992) A specialist in municipal finance and administration Gulick works with the Institute of Public Administration, professor of municipal science and administration at Columbia, and serves on Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Committee of Government Administration Gulick and Urwick wrote in 1937 “paper on the science of administration”. In this paper they stretched on the importance of structure of organization in determining function. • Based on which the structure of the organization can be designed.

18. Luther Gulick Gulick specified 10 principles of organization: 1. Division of work 2. Departmentalization : He identified 4 basis of departmentalization  purpose(function of organization)  process(skills)  persons(clients)  place(area) 3. Coordination : It means interrelating and unified the various part of work in a whole. 4. unity of command 5. Decentralization 6. Delegation 

19. 7 . Span of control : It means the number of subordinates or the unit of work that a superior can effectively control. It depends on 4 factors: a) Function(nature of work) b) Stability of the organization. c) Place of work. d) Personality of the superior. 8. Line and staff : The line agencies directly work for the achievement of the organizational objective. They are given authority to make decision, issue, orders and directions. The staff agencies includes specialist who perform secondary or supportive function. They assist the line agencies in the accomplishment of organizational purpose .

20. management functions:

21. Planning - developing an outline of the things that must be accomplished and the methods for accomplishing them Organizing - establishes the formal structure of authority through which work subdivisions are arranged, defined, and coordinated to implement the plan Staffing - selecting, training, and developing the staff and maintaining favorable working conditions Directing - the continuous task of making decisions, communicating and implementing decisions, and evaluating subordinates properly

22. Coordinating - all activities and efforts needed to bind together the organization in order to achieve a common goal Reporting - verifies progress through records, research, and inspection; ensures that things happen according to plan; takes any corrective action when necessary; and keeps those to whom the chief executive is responsible informed Budgeting - all activities that accompany budgeting, including fiscal planning, accounting, and control

23. Administrative Management Lyndal Urwick  

24. Urwick’s principles are 8 types: 1 . Principle of objective : an organization should have a definite purpose or objective. 2. Principle of correspondence : Authority and responsibility must go together at all levels. 3. Principle of responsibility : The supervisor must take the responsibility of his subordinate workers. 4 . scalar principle 5. principle of span of control 6. specialization / division of work 7. coordination 8. Principle of definition : Clear description of duties, authority and responsibility of each position and its relationship and other positions.

25. 29 principles Integrated Fayol’s fourteen principles Mooney and Reiley’s principles of process and effect, Taylor’s principles of management and the ideas of Follett and Graicunas

26. Bureaucratic Theory BY Max Weber

27. Introduction Max Weber’s Bureaucratic Theory Bureaucratic Theory was developed by a German Sociologist and political economist Max Weber(1864-1920). According to him, bureaucracy is the most efficient form of organization. The organization has a well- defined line of authority. It has clear rules and regulations which are strictly followed. Bureaucracy refers to a specialized system and process of maintaining uniformity or authority within an organization. Bureaucratic processes are most common in Large organizations Government

28. Job specialization Jobs are divided into simple, routine and fixed category based on competence and functional specialization. Authority Hierarchy • Officers are organized in hierarchy in which higher officer controls lower position holders i.e. superior controls subordinates and their performance of subordinates and lower staff could be controlled. Formal selection • All organizational members are to be selected on the basis of technical qualifications and competence demonstrated by training, education or formal examination.   Formal rules and Regulations • To ensure uniformity and to regulate actions of employees, managers must depend heavily upon formal organizational rules and regulations. Thus, rules of law lead to impersonality in interpersonal relations.   Impersonality • Rules and controls are applied uniformly, avoiding involvement with personalities and preferences of employees. Biasness and favoritism are not preferred. Career orientation • Career building opportunity is offered. Promotions and salary hikes are strictly based on technical competence. They work for a fixed salaries and pursue their career within the organization.

29. Criticism of Bureaucratic Organization Bureaucratic organization is criticized because of the following reasons :- • Bureaucratic organization is a very rigid type of organization. It does not give importance to human relations. It is suitable for government organizations. It is also suitable for organizations where change is very slow. • Too much emphasis on rules and regulations. The rules and regulations are rigid and inflexible. • There will be unnecessary delay in decision-making due to formalities and rules. • Bureaucracy involves a lot of paper work. This results in lot of wastage of time, effort and money

30. neoclassical theories Human relations theory (Elton mayo) Rational decision making (Herbert simon )

31. Human relations theory Elton Mayo (1880 – 1949) Elton Mayo (1880 – 1949) was an Australian psychologist, an industrial researcher and an academic organizational management scientist. His conducted studies, together with the Hawthorne studies, became the base for his lifelong breaking theories on Human Relations and scientific management. Elton Mayo is considered the founder of the Human Relations Theory   Meaning of Human Relations Human relations are the study of the ways in which people relate to each other in group situations, espe­cially work, and how communication skills and sensitivity to other people’s feelings can be improved. Definitions of Human Relation--

32. The main characteristics of human relations are as follows: 1. Human relations are an important process through which an individual’s attitude and work are integrated with a view to achieving a willing cooperation on their part in the achievement of the interests of an organization as a whole. 2. Members of the organization contribute their bit to get individual and group satisfaction. 3. The satisfaction desired by employees may be economic, social and psychological. 4. Human relations in an organization are a process of improving motivation by proper working condition, training programmes , timely payment of wages and incentives etc. 5. Human relations are an integrated approach derived from different disciplines such as psychol­ogy, sociology, economics and management. 6. Human relations are all pervasive; they are required in business and non-business organizations, small and large organizations, and at all levels. 7. Human relations are a continuous activity. 8. Human relations are a goal-oriented and focused approach

33. Hawthorne Studies (1924-1933)  This Theory gives higher importance to human relationship.  It consider employees as a higher being rather than factor of production.  It gives importance to workers need, feeling & interest on jobs. Its primary focus is on human factor of an organization.  They consist a series of experiments that focuses on behavior in work place.  Productivity is not only a technical but also social phenomenon or workers attitude groom productivity.  Workers are motivated by social needs.  Team work improve Efficiency

34. Illumination Experiment Electricity  This Experiment was conducted to measure the affects of lightning on the productivity to work in different department.  Under this experiment adequate lightning facility was provided to one department where as other department was not provided sufficient amount of lightning.  But the both condition, the productivity increase.  This experiment shows that the productivity not only depend on working condition but also social relationship among the worker at the work place .

35. Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment  Under this experiment 6 female & telephone assembled & were put in a separate room.  Frequently change were made in their working, in spite of such changes in the performance & productivity was increasing.  Thus, this experiment suggest that socio-physiological factors are keys for higher performance & productivity.

36. Mass Interview Program  Under this a huge mass of workers were interviewed in order to know their perception on the working life.  This theory primarily focuses on human relation rather than physical working condition.  This interview confirmed that the importance of informal relation helps in satisfying personal & social satisfaction to workers & influence their behavior in order to provide higher output

37. Bank wire room observation experiment  Under this experiment 14 male workers were found in a small group & were duly observed by the superior.  The main purpose of the experiment was to know the effect of social relationship in a work group.  This experiment concluded that employee would work hard. If they believe that management are concerned about their welfare & if superior paid attention & care to them.  According to this experiment employees are guided more by group product norms.

38. Hawthorne Effect  Productivity increases when workers believe that they are being observed closely.  Employees perform better when managers & co-workers make them feel valued.  Financial rewards are not necessarily conductive to increasing worker productivity.  Workers are about self-fulfillment, autonomy, empowerment, social status & personal relationships with co-workers.

39. rational decision making (Herbert Simon)

40. Simon’s Decision Making Process   It is a three-phase model of problem solving. Simon’s model continues to withstand the test of time and, even today, serves as the basis of most models of management decision making. Notice that the model depicts the problem-solving process as a flow of events that can proceed in either a linear or iterative fashion. That is, at any point in the process, the problem solver may choose to return to the previous step(s) for additional refinement

41. Intelligence The problem is identified, and information is collected concerning the problem. This can be a long process, as the decision to be made comes from the information. The intelligence stage may involve, for example, comparing the current status of a project or process with its plan. The end result of the intelligence phase is a decision statement. Design The design phase develops several possible solutions for the problem. This phase may involve a great deal of research into the available options.

42.   Choice In this phase, we evaluate the alternatives that we developed in the design phase and choose one of them. The end product of this phase is a decision that we can carry out. Implementation The decision that is ultimately carried out. The intelligence, design and choice we have made will be implemented in this phase. Reality of situation   After implementing the previous phases, we find the outcome. If the outcome is a failure then we have to start the procedure again or just go to the previous phase and check for any mistake or error. And if the outcome is a success then we will compare it with the reality of situation to check whether the decision is required one or not.

43. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES Ecological approach (FRED RIGGS) Innovation and entrepreneurship (peter dructer )

44. Ecological approach Fred W. Riggs (1917-2008 )  Professor Emeritus at political science Department of University of Hawaii.  Well known for his works in Comparative Public Administration.  His theory finds lots of relevance in developing countries.  Riggs criticizes “first generation” of modernization theories, especially Rostow’s stages of economic development that most developing countries tried to follow in the 60s and early 70s.  Riggs began with a bipolar analytical framework known as the so-called Agraria-Industria model.  Contextual distinction of public administration between the traditional agrarian societies and modern industrial nations.  Riggs was searching for a more appropriate model.

45. Later he developed the prismatic model to explain the administrative systems of Developing World. He categorized societies into three: 1-Fused 2-Prismatic 3-Diffracted He used Fused model to explain the ecology of traditional societies. Prismatic society to explain the developing world. Diffracted society to explain the developed societies. According to him no societies is neither totally fused nor diffracted. Everyone share some features of the other .

46. Fused Society…. Heavily depend on agriculture; Economic system based on Barter system. King and officials nominated by the King carry out all administrative, economic and other activities. The conscious establishment of policies is negligible. There is no distinct political or administrative structures. The political system is neither democratic, nor autocratic.

47.   Prismatic Society…. In a prismatic Society, there exists characteristics of Fused and diffracted Societies side by side. No real structural differentiation. Diffracted Society…. Highly differentiated. Highly developed specialized structures of work. Functions of the society are very specific. Level of integration is high. Pattern of behavior is characterized by norms of universalism and achievements.

48. Innovation and Entrepreneurship by Peter F. Drucker Text Drucker, P. F. (1986). Innovation and entrepreneurship. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Long career at Claremont College.  Entrepreneur J. B. Say, “The entrepreneur shifts resources out of an area of lower and into an area of higher productivity and greater yield.” Joseph Schumpeter 1911, Theory of creative destruction. Change is normal.

49. 7 Sources of Innovative Opportunity   Systematic innovation consists in the purposeful and organized search for changes and in the systematic analysis of the opportunities such changes might offer for economic or social innovation. Internal: unexpected, incongruity, process need, changes in industry structure External: demographics, changes in perception, mood, and meaning, new knowledge

50. Principles of Innovation Begin with analysis of opportunities. Innovation as conceptual and perceptual. Simple and focused. Start small. Aims at leadership. Don’ts Don’t be clever. Don’t diversify. Don’t diversify for the future; diversify for the present.

51. Conditions Innovation is work. It builds on strength. Innovation is an effect in economy and society.