THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT.ppt

Psychology

1. PSY 432
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
H. Zwidi

2. Human Development
Humandevelopmentbeginswithconceptionand
endswhenonedies.
Untilrecently,childdevelopmentbeganatthe
timeofchild’sbirth.
Today,itisrecognisedthatmanythingsofgreat
significancetothepostnataldevelopmentoccur
beforebirth.

3. Human Development
ChildDevelopment,physical,intellectual,social,andemotional
changesthatoccurfrombirthtoadolescence.
Althoughpeoplechangethroughouttheirlives,developmental
changesareespeciallydramaticinchildhood.
Duringthisperiod,adependent,vulnerablenewborngrowsintoa
capableyoungpersonwhohasmasteredlanguage,isself-aware,
canthinkandreasonwithsophistication,hasadistinctive
personality,andsocializeseffortlesslywithothers.
Manyabilitiesandcharacteristicsdevelopedinchildhoodlasta
lifetime

4. Human Development cont’d
There are a number offactorsinfluence child
development e.g. heredity, biological factors,
family, peers, school environment, community...
Important to study development because;
i.Contributes in a very practical way to human
development
ii.Enables society to support healthy growth
iii.Sound mental and social growth stems from
proper development

5. Human Development cont’d
Scholarshavelongdebatedtherelative
importanceofnature(hereditaryinfluences)and
nurture(environmentalinfluences)inchild
development.
Todaydevelopmentalscientistsrecognizethat
bothinfluencesareessentialandaremutually
influential.
Theconclusionthatstronglyinherited
characteristicsarechangeablehasimportant
practicalimplications..

6. Human Development cont’d
Continuityorstages:Manyaspectsofchildhood
developmentaremoregradualandcontinuous,suchas
thedevelopmentofphysicalskills,socialabilities,and
emotionalunderstanding.
Stabilityandchange:manydevelopmentalscientists
believethatlaterexperiencescanmodifyoreven
reverseearlyinfluences;studiesshowthatevenwhen
earlyexperiencesaretraumaticorabusive,
considerablerecoverycanoccur
Fromthisvantagepoint,earlyexperiencesinfluence,
butrarelydetermine,latercharacteristics.

7. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Atheoryisabodyofrules,ideas,principles,and
techniquesthatappliestoasubject,especially
whenseenasdistinctfromactualpractice
Itisanorganizedsetofprinciplesthatisdesigned
toexplainandpredictsomething.
Itisasetoffacts,propositions,orprinciples
analyzedintheirrelationtooneanotherand
used,especiallyinscience,toexplain
phenomena.

8. Gesell’s maturation theory
•TheMaturationalTheoryofchild
developmentwasdevelopedbyapsychologist
andpaediatriciannamedArnoldGesell
•Gesell’stheorywasshapedbythe
assumptionsthatdevelopmentisbasedin
biology,childrenalternatebetweengoodand
badyearsindevelopment,andthatbody
typesshareaconnectionwithpersonality
development.

9. Gessel’s maturation theory cont’d
MaturationalTheoryfocusesonphysicaland
mentaldevelopment,andGesellsawthese
developmentalpatternsbeingdeterminedbya
child’sheredity.
Gesellobservedandrecordedthechangeshe
observedinthegrowthanddevelopmentof
childrenfrominfancythroughadulthood.
TheMaturationalTheorytakesthestancethat
environmenthasnoeffectonachild’s
development.

10. Gesell’s maturation theory cont’d
Infact,ifachildsuffersfromanydevelopmental
problem,itisbelievedthattheproblemlies
withintheindividualchildandnotastheresultof
thechild’senvironmentandcircumstances.
WithintheMaturationalTheoryofchild
development,childrenareexpectedtoexhibit
certainbehaviorsaccordingtoamaturational
timetable.
Thiscanbeveryhelpfulforparentsandeducators
toseealistofnormativebehaviorforchildrenat
aspecificage.

11. Freud’s psychology theory of
development
SigmundFreudisprobablythemostwell-known
psychologistinhistory,andhisPsychoanalytic
Theoryofchilddevelopmentwasbasedonthe
ideathatachild’sbehaviorisgreatlydetermined
byunconsciousdesiresinthechild.
Freudunderstoodthehumanmindtobedivided
intothreecontrollingconcepts.
Hebelievedthatallchildrenarebornwith
certaininnateselfishdesiresthatdrivetheir
behavior.

12. Freud’s psychology theory of
development cont’d
Hecalledthepartofthemindwheretheseself
impulsesoriginatethe“id.”
The“id”alsofunctionedasthefirststageof
developmentinFreud’smodel.
Freudbelievedthatchildrenwouldbegintolearn
thatnoteverydesiretheyhavewillbemet,and
thiswouldteachthemtodevelopanappreciation
forthewaythingsareandanacceptancethat
thingswon’talwaysgotheirway.
Hecalledthisstagethe“Ego”

13. Freud’s psychology theory of
development cont’d
InFreud’stheory,theSuper-egowouldteamup
withtheEgotoregulatetheselfishimpulsesof
theId.
Freud’stheoryalsoconcernedachild’s
personalitydevelopmentwouldbedetermined
bythewaythechild’sparentsdealtwiththe
child’sinherentsexualandaggressivedesires.
AsaresultofthePsychoanalyticTheoryofchild
development,anyproblemsinbehaviorinachild
areoftenattributedtounconsciousprocessesor
desireswithinthechild.

14. Freud’s psychology theory of
development cont’d
AnegativeimplicationofthePsychoanalyticTheory
wasthetendencytobasenegativedevelopmental
patternswithinachildonthechild’sparents,
specificallythemotherofthechild.
Clearly,ifyourelyonamodelofchilddevelopment
thatbelievesdevelopmentishighlyinfluencedbya
child’snurtureortheenvironmentthatsurrounds
them,it’sclearthataparent’sactionsdohavea
seriousinfluenceonthechild’sdevelopment,but
placingalloftheblameonparentinteractionisn’t
tellingthewholestory.

15. Freud’s psychology theory of
development cont’d
•Psychoanalytictheoriesthussharean
emphasisonpersonalitydevelopmentand
earlychildhoodexperiences.
•Inthepsychoanalyticview,earlyexperiences
shapeone’spersonalityforanentirelifetime,
andpsychologicalproblemsinadulthoodmay
havetheiroriginsindifficultortraumatic
childhoodexperiences.

16. Freud’s psychology theory of
development cont’d
Inaddition,psychoanalytictheoriesemphasize
theroleofunconscious,instinctualdrivesin
personalitydevelopment.
Someofthesedrivesaresexualoraggressivein
quality,andtheirunacceptabilitytotheconscious
mindcausesthemtoberepressedinthe
unconsciousmind.
Here,theycontinuetoexertapowerfulinfluence
onanindividual’sbehaviour,oftenwithouthisor
herawareness.

17. Freud’s psychology theory of
development cont’d
•Mostpsychoanalytictheoriesportray
developmentasaseriesofstagesthrough
whichallchildrenproceed.
•AccordingtoFreud,childdevelopment
consistsoffivepsychosexualstagesinwhicha
particularbodyregionisthefocusofsensual
satisfactions;thefocusofpleasureshiftsas
childrenprogressthroughthestages.

18. Freud’s psychology theory of
development cont’d
Duringtheoralstage,frombirthtoage1,the
mouth,tongue,andgumsarethefocusof
sensualpleasure,andthebabydevelopsan
emotionalattachmenttothepersonproviding
thesesatisfactions(primarilythroughfeeding).
Duringtheanalstage,fromages1to3,children
focusonpleasuresassociatedwithcontroland
self-control,primarilywithrespecttodefecation
andtoilettraining.Inthephallicstage,fromages
3to6,childrenderivepleasurefromgenital
stimulation.

19. Freud’s psychology theory of
development cont’d
Theyarealsointerestedinthephysical
differencesbetweenthesexesandidentifywith
theirsame-sexparent.
Thelatencyphase,fromages7to11,iswhen
sensualmotivessubsideandpsychologicalenergy
ischannelledintoconventionalactivities,suchas
schoolwork.
Finally,duringthegenitalstage,from
adolescencethroughadulthood,individuals
developmaturesexualinterests.

20. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development
ThePsychosocialTheoryofchilddevelopmentis
basedontheworkofpsychologistErikErikson.
Erikson’sworkfocusedonthedevelopmentof
personalityinchildren,andhebelievedthata
child’spersonalitydevelopmentoccurredin
stages.
Healsoheldthatachild’spersonalitywasgreatly
impactedbythesocialinteractionsand
experiencestheygothroughduringtheirlifetime.

21. Erikson’s theory cont’d
Childrendevelopasenseofidentitybased
uponthesocialinteractionstheyexperience.
Eachsocialinteractionhasthepotentialof
impactingorreinforcingaperson’sidentity.
Belowisabriefsummaryofthe8stagesof
Erikson’stheory:

22. Erikson’s theory cont’d
i.Trustvs.Mistrust(birth-18months)–During
thisstage,achilddevelopstrustwhentheir
needsaremetinaconsistentmanner.
ii.Autonomyvs.ShameandDoubt(2-3years)–
Childrenlearntodevelopcontrolovertheirown
physicalskills,feelingasenseofautonomy.
iii.Initiativevs.Guilt(3-5years)–Childrenbegin
toexertcontrolovertheirenvironmentand
begintakinginitiative.

23. Erikson’s theory cont’d
iv.Industryvs.Inferiority(6-11years)–A
child’sinteractionwiththeirpeersaswellas
encouragementfromauthorityfigureshelps
themtodevelopselfconfidence.
v.Identityvs.RoleConfusion(12-18years)–
Adolescentsbeginassertingtheir
independenceandbeginformingpersonal
identity.

24. Erikson’s theory cont’d
vi.Intimacyvs.Isolation(19-40years)–Peopleinthis
stagedeveloplovingintimaterelationshipswith
otherpeople,andexperiencethisasadeepneed.
vii.Generativityvs.Stagnation(40-65years)–Adults
inthisstagefeeltheneedtodevelopsomething
thatwilloutlastthem.Formany,thismeans
parenthood.
viii.EgoIntegrityvs.Despair(65-death)–Peoplein
thisstageneedtobeabletoreflectonthelife
they’velivedandbesatisfiedonwhatthey
accomplished.

25. Erikson’s theory cont’d
•ThePsychosocialTheoryhelpstounderstand
theuniquecontributionthatsocialinteraction
hasonaperson’sdevelopmentoverthe
courseoftheirlifespan.
•Thetheoryalsocoversmorethanjustchild
development,butdevelopmentoverthe
courseofaperson’sentirelife.

26. Kohlberg’s moral development
•LawrenceKohlberg'sstagesofmoral
developmentconstituteanadaptationofa
psychologicaltheoryoriginallyconceivedby
theSwisspsychologistJeanPiaget.
•Kohlbergbeganworkonthistopicwhilea
psychologygraduatestudentattheUniversity
ofChicagoin1958,andexpandedand
developedthistheorythroughouthislife.

27. Kohlberg’s Theory
Thetheoryholdsthatmoralreasoning,the
basisforethicalbehaviour,hassix
identifiabledevelopmentalstages,eachmore
adequateatrespondingtomoraldilemmas
thanitspredecessor
Kohlbergfollowedthedevelopmentofmoral
judgmentfarbeyondtheagesstudiedearlier
byPiaget,whoalsoclaimedthatlogicand
moralitydevelopthroughconstructivestages.

28. Kohlberg’s Theory cont’d
ExpandingonPiaget'swork,Kohlbergdetermined
thattheprocessofmoraldevelopmentwas
principallyconcernedwithjustice,andthatit
continuedthroughouttheindividual'slifetime,a
notionthatspawneddialogueonthe
philosophicalimplicationsofsuchresearch
Thesixstagesofmoraldevelopmentaregrouped
intothreelevels:pre-conventionalmorality,
conventionalmorality,andpost-conventional
morality.

29. Kohlberg’s moral development
stages
Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
(How can I avoid punishment?)
2. Self-interest orientation
(What's in it for me?)
(Paying for a benefit)
Level 2 (Conventional)
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
(Social norms)
(The good boy/girl attitude)
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
(Law and order morality)
Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles
(Principled conscience)

30. Kohlberg’s moral development stages
cont’d
•Level I: Preconventional/Premoral
•Moral values reside in external, quasi-physical
events, or in bad acts.
•Thechildisresponsivetorulesandevaluative
labels,butviewsthemintermsofpleasantor
unpleasantconsequencesofactions,orin
termsofthephysicalpowerofthosewho
imposetherules.

31. Kohlberg’s moral development stages
cont’d
Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation
Egocentricdeferencetosuperiorpowerorprestige,or
atrouble-avoidingset.
Objectiveresponsibility.
Stage2:Naivelyegoisticorientation
Right action is that which is instrumental in satisfying
the self's needs and occasionally others'.
Relativism of values to each actor's needs and
perspectives.
Naive egalitarianism, orientation to exchange and
reciprocity.

32. Kohlberg’s moral development stages
cont’d
Level II: Conventional/Role Conformity
Moralvaluesresideinperformingtherightrole,
inmaintainingtheconventionalorderand
expectanciesofothersasavalueinitsownright.
Stage3:Good-boy/good-girlorientation
Orientation to approval, to pleasing and helping
others.
Conformity to stereotypical images of majority or
natural role behavior.
Action is evaluated in terms of intentions.

33. Kohlberg’s moral development stages
cont’d
•Stage 4: Authority and social-order-maintaining orientation
•Orientation to "doing duty" and to showing
respect for authority and maintaining the
given social order or its own sake.
•Regard for earned expectations of others.
•Differentiates actions out of a sense of
obligation to rules from actions for generally
"nice" or natural motives.

34. Kohlberg’s moral development stages
cont’d
•Level III: Post-conventional/Self-Accepted Moral Principles
•Moralityisdefinedintermsofconformityto
sharedstandards,rights,ordutiesapartfrom
supportingauthority.
•Thestandardsconformedtoareinternal,and
action-decisionsarebasedonaninnerprocess
ofthoughtandjudgementconcerningright
andwrong.

35. Kohlberg’s moral development stages
cont’d
Stage 5: Contractual/legalistic orientation
Normsofrightandwrongaredefinedintermsof
lawsorinstitutionalizedruleswhichseemtohave
arationalbasis.
Whenconflictarisesbetweenindividualneeds
andlaworcontract,thoughsympathetictothe
former,theindividualbelievesthelattermust
prevailbecauseofitsgreaterfunctional
rationalityforsociety,themajoritywilland
welfare.

36. Kohlberg’s moral development stages
cont’d
Stage 6: The morality ofindividual principles of conscience
Orientation not only toward existing social rules, but
also toward the conscience as a directing agent, mutual
trust and respect, and principles of moral choice
involving logical universalities and consistency.
Action is controlled by internalized ideals that exert a
pressure to act accordingly regardless of the reactions
of others in the immediate environment.
If one acts otherwise, self-condemnation and guilt
result.