Translation 1 Unit 1- History, Scope and Types of Translation.pdf

This unit covers the History,Scope and Types of Translation

1. Translation 1 Unit 1-
Scope and Types of Translation


Definition of Translation :
Translation is the process of changing a text from one language (Source Language – SL) into another
(Target Language – TL), while keeping its meaning, style, and effect as close as possible. It is not just
replacing words, but transferring sense, culture, and emotions across languages.
1.​Eugene A. Nida (1969)​
“Translation is reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the
message of the source language, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” 2.​Dr. Samuel Johnson (1755)
“To translate is to change into another language, retaining the sense.”
Key Terms in Translation
●​Source Language (SL): The original language of the text.​

●​Target Language (TL): The language into which the text is translated.​

●​Equivalence: The idea that meaning in the SL should be equal in TL (may be formal or
dynamic).​

●​Literal Translation: Word-for-word translation.​

●​Free Translation: Focus on meaning, not exact words.​

●​Transcreation: Creative translation that adapts to cultural context.​

●​Untranslatability: Words or concepts that cannot be translated fully due to cultural or linguistic
gaps.

History of Translation :

Translators have always played an important role in society. In the early days, they helped in
developing local languages and national identities. They continued to help society grow through
religion, science, literature, and education.
In Ancient Times The Septuagint
The first big translation in the Western world was the translation of the Hebrew Bible into
Greek.​
It happened in the 3rd century BCE in Alexandria, Egypt.​
This translation is called the Septuagint.​
It is said that 70 translators worked separately, and all versions came out the same (according to

2. legend).​
This translation helped Jews who no longer spoke Hebrew read their holy book.
Jerome (4th century CE )
Jerome translated the Bible into Latin. His translation is called the Vulgate.​
Cicero (55 BCE)
Cicero also translated from Greek to Latin. He believed a translator is like an artist. He said we should
translate meaningfully, not count words like coins. He said a translator should not translate
word-for-word, but sense-for-sense. He wrote: “Not word for word, but sense for sense.”
Kumārajīva (4th century CE)
Kumārajīva was a Buddhist monk and translator. He translated many Sanskrit Buddhist texts
into Chinese. His translation of the Diamond Sutra is very famous.
Arabs and Greek Knowledge
After the Arab conquest of Greek regions, many Greek books on science and philosophy were
translated into Arabic.​
This helped preserve and spread ancient knowledge.
In the Middle Ages :
Toledo School of Translators (12th–13th century)
In Toledo, Spain, translators worked on Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek books.​
They translated them into Latin and Spanish.​
This place became a center of learning in Europe.
Roger Bacon (13th century)
Roger Bacon said a translator must:
●​Know both languages well
●​Understand the subject matter
Geoffrey Chaucer (14th century)
Chaucer translated French and Latin works into English.​
He also adapted stories from the Italian writer Boccaccio.​
He helped build an English literary tradition through translation.
John Wycliffe (1382–84)
Wycliffe translated the Bible from Latin to English.​
This was the first full Bible in English.​
He wanted ordinary people to read and understand the Bible.

3. Thomas Malory (1485)
●​Wrote Le Morte d’Arthur, based on King Arthur’s legends.
●​It was a free translation/adaptation of French and English stories.
●​Malory also added his own new stories, like that of Sir Gareth.
William Tyndale (1525)
●​Translated the New Testament from Hebrew and Greek into English.
●​He was one of the first to use the original biblical texts, not Latin.
●​His Bible became the first mass-produced English Bible.
●​Tyndale was executed for translating the Bible without church permission. Burned at stake.
●​His work was finished by his followers and influenced the King James Bible.
Martin Luther (1522–34)
●​Translated the Bible into German.
●​He believed a translator should always translate into their own native language.
●​His Bible helped shape modern German
17th Century: Art, Faithfulness, and Clarity in Translation
Cervantes and the Tapestry Metaphor
●​Cervantes, the famous Spanish author of Don Quixote (1605–1615), had a critical view of
translation.
●​He said translations are like viewing a beautiful tapestry from the back you can see
the picture, but it’s messy and unclear.
●​He believed only Greek-to-Latin translations were truly clear.
John Dryden’s Artistic View
●​John Dryden, an English poet and translator, believed that a translator is like a painter
copying a person’s portrait.
●​He thought translation should feel natural in English, as if the original writer was English.
●​But he warned against changing too much a translator should be faithful to the original.
●​John Dryden classified translation into three types: metaphrase, paraphrase, and imitation.
Metaphrase is a literal, word-for-word translation. Paraphrase focuses on conveying the
general meaning rather than strict word-for-word accuracy. Imitation is a more liberal
adaptation where the translator takes significant liberties with the source text. Dryden favored
paraphrase as the ideal middle ground, avoiding the constraints of metaphrase and the
potential for distortion in imitation. ​
Metaphrase:​
This involves a very close, literal translation, often line-by-line and word-for-word. Dryden
considered this approach too rigid and likely to produce unnatural or nonsensical text in the
target language. ​
Paraphrase:​

4. This method prioritizes conveying the sense and meaning of the original text while allowing for
some flexibility in wording and sentence structure. Dryden believed this approach struck the
right balance, capturing the essence of the original while adapting it to the target language's
natural expression. ​
Imitation:​
This is the most liberal approach, where the translator takes significant liberties with the
source text, even adapting or altering its themes and ideas. Dryden viewed this as potentially
diverging too far from the original author's intent.
Alexander Pope’s Neat Translation
●​Alexander Pope translated Homer’s works.
●​He tried to bring order and structure to the “wild” style of the original.
●​This shows how translators adapted texts to suit their own style and readers’ taste.
Two Key Concepts Developed:
●​Faithfulness = How truly a translation represents the original meaning.
●​Transparency = How naturally the translation sounds in the new language
○​He changed a lot, but his version is still the most popular.
Key Thinker: Friedrich Schleiermacher (1813)
●​He said there are two ways to translate:
○​Domestication = Make the text sound like it was written in the reader’s language.
○​Foreignization = Keep the feeling of the original culture.
●​He preferred foreignization: moving the reader towards the author.
Key Idea of Nida’s Theory :
“Translation is reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of
the message of the source language — first in meaning, second in style.”

Dynamic Equivalence : Dynamic equivalence theory, developed by Eugene Nida, is a translation
approach that prioritizes equivalent effect in the target language, rather than strict adherence to the
source text's form. The goal is for the translated text to have the same impact on the target audience
as the original text had on its audience. This often involves adapting sentence structures and wording
to achieve a natural and understandable translation in the target language.

Meaning first, style second
Based on linguistics + context + emotions
20th Century: Interpretation and Theory
●​Translators now believed translation involved interpretation and personal choice.
Joseph Conrad & Aniela Zagórska

5. ●​Conrad told his niece: “Don’t just translate word for word. Use your feeling and make them
sound natural.”
Jorge Luis Borges
●​He translated famous writers (Kafka, Woolf, Poe).
●​Believed a translation could:
○​Be better than the original
○​Be different, and still be right
Translation Studies Becomes a Field
●​In 1972, James S. Holmes defined “Translation Studies” as an academic discipline.
●​It became a field that combines literature, linguistics, philosophy, history, and more.
Interpreting Becomes Separate
●​Interpreting = Spoken translation.
●​Translation = Written.
●​Interpreting became a separate area of study with a focus on training and practice.
21st Century: New Challenges & Tools
●​Translators now shape languages by borrowing words and ideas.
●​Translation Studies includes computer science, AI, legal studies, media, etc.
●​The internet created a big market for translation:
○​Good: more work, global clients
○​Bad: low pay, unpaid “volunteer” jobs
Modern Tools
●​MT = Machine Translation (like Google Translate)
●​CAT = Computer-Assisted Translation​
Still, many translators want to be seen as artists, not machines.

Works Cited :

Eco, Umberto. Mouse or Rat? Translation as Negotiation. Translated by Alastair
McEwen, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003.
Nida, Eugene A., and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. E. J. Brill,
1969.
Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation. Routledge,
1995.