Translation chapter 1 & 2.pdf. communication and translation

translation and communication

1. TRANSLATION
Skills

2. INTRODUCTION
•Translation is as old as human civilization. Since the
dawn of civilization, we, human beings, have been
using language to translate our thoughts and ideas.

3. •We use a set of symbols or codes to communicate
or transfer an idea or thought or a feeling to the
person whom we address during an act of
communication.

4. •With the evolution of human society, we became
more anxious to know about the thoughts and
feelings of people in distant places.
•Hence we used two sets of symbols and codes to
transfer the thoughts and ideas of people speaking
a different language to our own language. This gave
rise to translation as we see and use it today.

5. •The story of translation dates back to the third
millennium BC. The Babylon of Hammurabi’s day
(2100 B.C.) was a polyglot city, and much of the
official business of the empire was made possible
by writers who translated edicts into various
languages.

6. •In India too our first writers were translators. Free
translations and adaptations of epics like Ramayana
and Mahabharata have shaped Indian literature in a
big way.

7. •Moreover, Indian Literature until the nineteenth
century consisted mainly of translations,
adaptations, interpretations and retellings.

8. •Translations of literary works and knowledge-texts
on medicine, astronomy, metallurgy, travel, ship-
building, architecture, philosophy, religion and
poetics from Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Persian and
Arabic enhanced our awareness of the world.

9. •India is multi-lingual country where all the regional
languages coexist simultaneously on an equal basis
but the dominance of English continues. Over the
years English has become the only means of
communication in all political, business and
educational affairs.

10. •Translation allows different cultures to connect,
interact, and enrich one another.

11. •In the Indian situation, the role of translation is
very significant as it is the home to people
speaking 22 recognized languages and hundreds of
mother tongues and dialects.

12. •Every day in business and office communication,
we are required to make use of English and one of
our Mother tongues to communicate with people.

13. •So we are bilinguals by default and use translation
as a means to communicate. It is through
translation that people in the periphery and the
centre, the dominant and the dominated cultures
communicate with one another.

14. •We can say that India would not have been a
nation without translation as we use translation to
communicate and communication keeps us united
as a nation.

15. The Concept of Translation
In the field of languages, translation today has several
meanings:
•(1) The general subject field or phenomenon (‘I studied
translation at university’)
•(2) The product – that is, the text that has been translated
(‘they published the Arabic translation of the report’)
•(3) The process of producing the translation, otherwise
known as translating (‘translation service’).

16. •The process of translation between two different
written languages involves the changing of an
original written text (the source text or ST) in the
original verbal language (the source language or
SL) into a written text (the target text or TT) in a
different verbal language (the target language or
TL):

17. Source text (ST) Target text (TT)
in source language (SL) in target language (TL)

18. Jakobson’s categories of Translation
•(1) Intralingual translation, or ‘rewording’ – ‘an
interpretation of verbal signs by means of other
signs of the same language’
•(2) Interlingual translation, or ‘translation proper’ –
‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of
some other language’

19. •(3) Inter-semiotic translation, or ‘transmutation’ –
‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs
of non-verbal sign systems’. (Jakobson 1959/2012:
127)
•An inter-semiotic translation carries a source text
(or artefact) across sign systems and typically
creates connections between different cultures
and media.

20. •Intralingual translation would occur when we
produce a summary or otherwise rewrite a text in
the same language, say a children’s version of an
encyclopedia. It also occurs when we rephrase an
expression in the same language.
•In the following example, revenue nearly tripled is
a kind of intralingual translation of the first part of
the sentence, a fact that is highlighted by the
trigger expression in other words.

21. •In the decade before 1989 revenue averaged around
$1 billion a year while in the decade after it averaged
nearly $3 billion a year – in other words, revenue
nearly tripled.

22. Importance of translation
•The significance of translation in our daily life is
extensively multidimensional. Not only does
translation pave the way forward for global
interaction, but allows nations to forge interactive
relationships when it comes to making
advancements in technology, politics, media etc.

23. •Despite the fact that English has a far and wide
reach today, the impact of local culture and
language remains as strong as ever. With the
growth of Internet and communications
technology, it is relatively easier to reach audiences
that are thousands of miles away purely in the
pretext of effective translation.

24. •This in turn has resulted in a need for translation
in diverse fields such as education, mass
communication, science and technology, literature,
tourism, religion, trade and business, etc.

25. Rise of the Translation Industry
Today, the translation industry as we know it includes
a multitude of companies providing services such as -
➢Translating written material and paper-based
documents
➢Interpreting services and Sign-language services
(special session)
➢Digital documentation translation
➢Software translation and website translation
(localization)

26. •Although quite extensive, the translation industry
remains quite fragmented. This is because the top
100 translation firms make profits ranging from as
high as $450M to as low as $4M. At the same time,
profits are on the rise, and it is estimated that the
industry will grow to more than #37 billion by
2018, primarily on the back of military contractors
and private translation outsourcing agencies.

27. Significance of Translation
•Quality language translation aims to bridge the
communication gap by helping companies reach a
multivariate global audience by talking in a language
their clients can understand and relate to.
• Whether it is a traditional brick and mortar
businesses or an emerging online venture,
translation services coupled with the rising online
population offers a lucrative market that wasn't
possible 20-30 years back.

28. •That's the reason why people have woken up to
quality translation and its importance in this era of
globalization. Some of the places where translation
plays an important role include -

29. •Growth of Multinational
Companies
•Translation is exceptionally important for
companies and businesses which operate
in multiple countries and often need to
share and receive information from
different global offices and branches
across the world.

30. •Cultural Interchange
•Music, literature, films, and various
other art forms transcend global
boundaries because of the way they
are effectively translated to reflect
local languages and sentiments.

31. •Translated and subtitled films today
generate more revenue than ever for the
global film industry, with blockbuster
movies looking at China as the next big
market, where the success of translated
films have led production houses touch
the $1bn mark more frequently than
ever.

32. •A Nation's External Affairs
•Today, international diplomacy is the
most important aspect of a nation's
external affairs. Be it a global summit
or new economic deal, diplomats and
world leaders always present their
ideas and thoughts in a language they
are comfortable in.

33. •Accurate Transfer of News
•Unless transferred and translated
properly, world news would be nothing
more than gibberish when received by
news agencies. Whether it is news
coming from local bodies, regional
centers, or even countries with strict
news censorship, translation serves as an
effective tool without which news will
remain ineffective and unreliable.

34. Boost in Tourism

35. Need for translation
•In a world where English is everywhere, is
translation still important? Is it even necessary?
•English is the third most widely-spoken language in
terms of native speakers, of which it has at least
330 million. But if you count the people who speak
it as a second language, it’s the most popular
language in the world. So, why is translation so
important?

36. •Here are 5 reasons why translation is important
and will remain so, despite the growing ubiquity of
English.

37. 1. Translation is Important Because Not
Everyone Speaks English
2. Translation is Important Because
People Prefer Their Native Language
•To effectively sell to people, it’s not enough to
speak a language that they understand (especially if
their understanding is limited). You must speak to
them in the language their heart speaks.

38. •Dale Carnegie may have been right when he said:
“a person’s name is to that person the sweetest
and most important sound in any language.” But
the next sweetest sound is their native language.
Babies as young as 5 months old have been shown
to recognize and prefer it.

39. 3. Translation Connects the Global
Economy
•There’s a reason demand for translation services is
booming. While English has been periodically crowned
as “the language of global business,” translation and
interpreting services remain a vital part of doing
business around the world.

40. 4. Emerging Markets Mean Emerging
Languages
•English may be on top of the world now, but that doesn’t
mean it will stay that way forever. Other languages are
growing in importance as developing countries take their
places in the global economy and more of their citizens
gain Internet access. For example, most of the world’s
web content used to be in English. That is no longer the
case. And remember, even people who speak English as
a second language generally prefer to read, watch and
shop in their first language.

41. 5. Translation Spreads Ideas and Information
•What’s the number one reason translation is so important? It allows
ideas and information to spread across cultures. In the process,
translation changes history.
•Arabic translators kept the ideas of ancient Greek philosophers alive
throughout the Middle Ages.
•The Bible has been translated into at least 531 languages. No matter
what you believe, the impact on history is undeniable.
•Translation is helping sports teams and organisations overcome
language barriers and transcend international boundaries.

42. Challenges in translation
•Challenges in translation often arise from the
multiple ways people use specific words to
express concepts and ideas. They often use words
that go beyond the primary meaning of each term.
•But as the language service industry has boomed
in recent years, more people understand that
translation is more than rewriting the source
content into a target language.

43. •Translators and language specialists need to go
beyond word-to-word translation to transfer the
exact meaning from one language to the other.
•In creative areas, translation is combined with
localization and transcreation, while in niches that
require 100 percent accuracy, translators need in-
depth knowledge of the technical terms and
industry terminology to overcome translation
challenges.

44. •1. Translating Idioms
•Idioms are linguistic expressions, specific to each
language or culture. While they’re essential elements of
the language, they’re also difficult to explain when
you’re not aware of the cultural differences between
the source and target languages.

45. •Think about “it’s raining cats and dogs” or “wrapping
your brain around something”. If translators went for a
literal translation of these expressions, a foreign
audience wouldn’t understand what the text was about.

46. •2. Humour is the Biggest Challenge in
Translation
•Explaining humour is the most challenging task for
translators because the sense of humour depends on
the cultural background of a person. Think about the
famous ‘British humour’ and how even other English-
speaking populations rarely have a taste for it. Now,
imagine how hard it is to overcome language barriers
and still be funny.

47. •3. Translating Phrasal Verbs

48. •4. Prefixes and Suffixes Are Challenges
in Translation

50. •5. Words with No Correspondent in the
Target Language and Missing Names
•Every language has words that are impossible to
translate into some other languages, such as
“serendipity” or “procrastination”. When one language
has a specific word to describe a situation, finding an
alternative expression in another language becomes a
challenge in translation.

51. •Asian languages, for example, have many words to
describe feelings and sensations that are hard to
translate into other languages using a single word.

52. •6. Language Structure
•SVO English, Italian, Spanish, French, Chines (42%
world languages): e.g. She loves him
•SOV Greek, Latin & all Indian languages (45% world
languages): e.g. She him loves
•VSO (9% world languages) Hebrew, Arabic, Irish,
Philipino: e.g. loves she him
•VOS (3% world languages) Malagasi: e.g. loves him she
•OVS (1% world languages) Cariban: e.g. him love she

53. 7. Compound Words

54. •8. Multiple Meanings

57. Interpretation
•Interpreting is defined, by Otto Kade, as ‘a form of
Translation (in the wider sense) in which (a) the
source language text is presented only once and
thus cannot be reviewed or replayed, and
•(b) the target language text is produced under
time pressure, with little chance for correction and
revision’ (Pöchhacker 2009: 133, following Kade
1968).

58. •Difference between interpretation and
translation
•Contrary to popular belief, interpretation isn’t word-
for-word translation of a spoken message. If this were
true, the result would make little sense to the target
audience—sentences in one language are often
constructed in an entirely different way to in another.

59. •Interpreters work on projects involving live
translation: Conferences and meetings, medical
appointments, legal proceedings, live TV coverage,
sign language

60. •Translation
•Perhaps the biggest difference between interpreters
and translators, then, is that most translators use
computer-aided tools in their work.
•Where interpreters have a fundamental proficiency in
spoken communication, translators need excellent
written skills. They’re often specialists in particular
fields and perfectionists by nature, having to adhere to
source content’s style and tone as well as grammar
rules and overall accuracy.

61. Translation Vs. Interpretation:
•Your Translator Is Not Your Interpreter
•Professional translation and interpretation are closely
linked and the terms are often used interchangeably.
However despite the obvious similarities, these two
disciplines are very different and it’s incredibly rare to
see an individual who does both professionally.

62. •On the surface, the main difference is that
translators work with the written word while
interpreters deal with speech. Translators are
fundamentally different from interpreters.

63. •Here are 6 key differences between professional
translation and interpretation.
•Translators focus on written content
•First, let’s define both key terms:
•Translation: a written rendering of a foreign text’s
meaning.
•Interpretation: an oral rendering of a foreign
speech’s meaning.

64. •Translations aren’t immediate
•When a translator begins to translate content, he or
she will use professional translation software and a
series of reference books before beginning a
meticulous transference process.

65. •Translators use their knowledge and research to
understand the target country’s cultural and
linguistic nuances so they can write better
translations. Naturally, this process takes
significantly more time than an interpreter’s
rendering, which occurs on the spot.

66. •Translators don’t have to be fluent in
their second language
•Translators typically only translate into their native
tongue and are not required to tap into a great wealth
of vocabulary for an instant translation. Though they
aren’t always conversationally fluent, translators can
often write better than native speakers. Interpreters
must have conversational fluency.

67. •Translations demand greater accuracy
•Translators don’t do live events
•If you’ve ever seen an international hearing, you may
have noticed politicians wearing earpieces and
professionals speaking rapidly. These people are
interpreters, not translators. You’ll frequently find
interpreters in conferences, business meetings,
courtrooms and police stations. In these situations,
interpreters are essential to successful communication
in the moment.

68. •Translators use a cultural knowledge
base
•While translators may use a dictionary to find
appropriate terminology during the translation process,
an interpreter is probably close to memorizing the
dictionary. This quick knowledge of diction helps
interpreters translate much more quickly.

69. •While translators may use a dictionary to find
appropriate terminology during the translation
process, an interpreter is probably close to
memorising the dictionary. This quick knowledge
of diction helps interpreters translate much more
quickly.

70. •Instead of studying vocabulary, translators are
more likely to study the variations in dialect or the
cultural implications of certain symbols. To write a
quality translation that does the original work
justice while catering to a target region,
professionals must have a deep understanding of
common cultural practices in the area.

71. Translation - Meaning
The English word translation has been derived from the Latin
word translation, which itself comes from trans- and latum—
together meaning "carrying across" or “bringing across”. In other
words, it is the business of carrying across a message/written
content from one text to another, from one person to another and
from one language(source language) to a different language
(target language). It can happen within the same language (from
one dialect to another dialect or from one form to another) or
between languages. It is best seen as a communication process
where the transfer of a message/written content from one
language into a new language takes place.

72. Definition
Translation may be defined as follows:
The replacement of textual material in one
language (SL) by equivalent textual material
in another language (TL).

73. For example, if we translate the English text What time is it? Into
Italian as Che ore sono? There is replacement of SL (English)
grammar and lexis by equivalent TL (Italian) grammar and lexis.
•Hindi
•Marathi
•South Indian languages

74. Translation - evolution:
Over a period of time, the meaning of
translation has undergone a drastic change
from ‘word-to-word’ to ‘sense-for-sense’;
from ‘literal’ and ‘faithful’ to ‘creative’ and
‘free’ as discussed below:

75. •Word-for-word - In this type of translation one to
one equivalent of Source Language (SL) is given in
the Target Language (TL).
•Sense-for-Sense - In this type of translation words
in the Target Language (TL) must accurately
convey the sense of the Source Text (ST)
•Literal/Faithful - This may start from a word for
word translation but make changes in the text
according to the grammar of the Target Language
(TL).

76. •Creative/Free – Free translation aims to convey all the
meanings but is not constrained by the form of the Source
Text (ST) at all. It has to stylistically reproduce the meaning
and intent of the original text. It tries to evaluate the
potential meaning of the Source Text in the Target Language
text (TL).
•Full Translation - The entire text in Source Language (SL)
is replaced in Target Language (TL).
•Partial Translation – In partial translation, some part/s of
the Source Language (SL) are left untranslated; they are
transferred to and used as it is in the Target Language (TL).

77. •Adaptation - Adaptation means ‘an
acknowledged transposition’. It also implies a
process of alteration and adjustments that exists
in the original. An adapted text is generally much
closer to the original source text.
•Appropriation - On the other hand, an
Appropriation of a certain text, in comparison
with adaptation, frequently travels a greater
distance away from its source. In appropriation,
inter-textual relationship may be more embedded.

78. •Trans-creation – It is the process of adapting a
message from one language to another while
maintaining its content, style and tone.
•Transliteration - It is the process in which
alphabets/words of one language are transferred
into the corresponding similar sounding
character of another alphabets/words. It helps
people across the world to pronounce the words/
names in the foreign language correctly.

79. A good translation is not merely word-for-word or
sentence-to-sentence translation but an interpretation
of the original text. For those, who do not know the
source language, it is a creative work although a difficult
one. An ideal translator should not look for mere facts
in the literary texts to be translated without loss of
sense but should articulate the meaning in such a way
so that the impression of the original text is aroused in
the readers. S/he can read into the original meanings that
are part of the sensibility and the culture. Today, the notion
of the original text being sacrosanct and the translated text
being inferior doesn’t hold much water.

80. PROCESS OF TRANSLATION
The process of translation can be seen and achieved in three different phases-
1. Analysis
2. Transfer
3. Restructuring
In the first phase, the translator reads and interprets the source text (ST). Thus
s/he is the reader and a decoder of the original text. This is followed by a
second phase where s/he tries to find out the most appropriate word for the
text and also arrange them carefully for the similar expression in the target
language (TL). And finally in the third phase s/he restructures the source text
into the target text. Readers are very important in the entire creative process
of writing/translation. Therefore, the language of the writer and that of a translator
is determined primarily by the readers.

81. 1. Analysis
Analysis is the process that involves examining of the SL text in order to
arrive at the message coded in it. While analysing a text one goes through
at least four kinds of meaning-grammatical, referential, connotative and
socio-cultural.
Grammatical Meaning refers to the meaning of a linguistic structure
emphasising the relationship between different units of a language. A
sentence can be ambiguous and it may be intentional on the part of the
writer. In such a case, the onus is on the translator to reproduce it correctly.
Referential Meaning refers to the relationship between language and the
entities which are external to the language. In order to comprehend the
text correctly one has to know the dictionary meaning. There can be
multiple meanings attached to a sentence and a translator has to interpret the
referential meaning of the ambiguous words/sentences. (Diamond/stone)

82. Connotative Meaning refers to the secondary
meaning/expression (#denotative) of the word. It is
different from the Referential meaning. (Donkey)
Socio-cultural Meaning emphasises the relationship
between language and socio-cultural assumptions,
which lie behind any usage of the verbal expression.
The translators’ main focus is on the comprehension
of the whole/part of the text in all its dimensions.

83. 2. Transference/transfer
Transference means transmission of the message received
after decoding the SL into TL. The most important aspect of
it is the ability of the person to understand the text and
articulate the message of SL into TL. Two things should be
kept in mind in order to understand how the process of
Transference works-
•There is no one-to-one relationship between the grammatical
and the lexical units of two languages i.e. SL and TL. (Pichi)
•The grammatical and the lexical structure of each language
have its own particular meaning.

84. It is because of these characteristics that sometimes translators are
unable to convey the SL meaning in the TL text. Therefore, the
communicative value of the SL text is created in the TL text. It
contains the invariant information of the SL text in the TL text in the
following ways:
Creating Communicative Values - It can be best translated when the
communicative values of these expressions are first understood in the
SL and the functional equivalents of their message are set up in the
TL. In substituting the TL meaning for the SL meaning the translator
has to determine the temporal context of the use of the expression.
Preserving the Invariant Information - In the transfer process, the
information component of the message is generally redistributed in
the TL.

85. The redistribution can be:
Complete Redistribution where the Referential Content of the
message of the SL expression is completely redistributed. For
Example - Fight like cats and dogs (tom and jerry) will be Kuttey
Billiyon ki tarah ladnaa in Hindi.
Analytical Redistribution where the Referential Content of one
lexical unit of the SL is redistributed over several units of TL. For
Example - Jeth word in Hindi can be translated as Husband’s Elder
brother in English.
Synthetical Redistribution where the Referential Content is spread
over several lexical items in the SL is confined to the single item of
the TL. For Example - Chacheri Bahne in Hindi is translated as
Cousin Sisters in English.

86. 3. Restructuring
Restructuring involves creation of the TL text with a meaning
similar to that of the original text. An exact translation is impossible
therefore restructuring is directed to approximate the SL text.
There are two major types of translations based on three
dichotomies - SL and TL Culture, Grammar and Lexicon and
Personalities of writer/Translator; they are–Semantic and
Communicative translation.
•Semantic Translation - Here, the translated text is literal and
faithful to the original text. The element of the original culture is
represented as far as possible.
•Communicative Translation - The translated text is relatively free
and natural. An attempt is made to produce an effect of the original
text, as close as possible.

87. The Process of translation which has been explained above can be understood by the flowchart.
Translation
SL Text Reading TL Text Reading
Source Text Target Text
Reading Evaluation
Analysis Structuring
Understanding Transfer Verbalisation

88. MYTHS ABOUT TRANSLATION

89. Translators don’t see texts as simple sequences of
words. A text is a whole: what matters is how
these words connect and how ambiguous they
may be; how the paragraphs are structured
and what the general tone of voice and register
are. What’s more, a translator should know the
culture of the target language: and in the case of
languages spoken in more than one country, the
connotations and nuances multiply.
1. Translators simply copy words into a
different language

90. 2. To translate you just need to know a second
language
But for translation, you need much more. Your goal
is to reflect the meaning and phrasing of the
source text. You don’t want to be an unfaithful
traitor! And you know already that translation is not
about copying words from the dictionary. So, what
you need is thorough, detailed, complex
knowledge of the second language, and insight
into what the author’s intention in the text is.
Even if the text is a user manual for a dishwasher.

91. 3. To translate you don’t need to have specialist
knowledge of your native language
Unfortunately, this misconception is common among
beginner translators. I think it may be related to
another popular myth – the native speaker myth.
Yes, native speakers are the best source of knowledge
when it comes to colloquial use of language. But take
a random English, American, Australian, or Canadian
person. Are they deeply aware of how the English
language works? Can they give irregular forms of
every verb? Do they never make language mistakes?

92. 4. Translators know all the existing words in
their translation languages
Do you know all the existing words in your native language?
I hardly think so.
Translators are no different, and I’ve already discussed this
in the above-mentioned articles about dictionaries. We are
language specialists but we are not memory sticks with all
the dictionaries in the world. We may know more strange
words than a regular language user, though. And we take
pleasure in weird vocabulary items. We enjoy collecting
them. Tasting them on the tongue. Writing them down.

93. 5. Translators are social outcasts
Without a doubt, translating is a solitary task. You sit
at your desk, accompanied by your computer and
the text, sometimes by a cat. You usually work from
home.
Then again, translators (unlike interpreters) don’t
normally go on business trips or work in teams.
Even if you’re part of a team, you don’t meet the
other team members often, but you just exchange
emails.

94. 6. Translation is boring and tedious work
This sentence is a myth because it’s an opinion.
Naturally, every person has a different perception of reality
and finds different things boring. This is a matter of
individual preference.
What I find boring is football and cars. What I find exciting
and fulfilling is looking up things in a dictionary, reading
about language, and racking my brains to find the right
phrase in my translation. That doesn’t suggest that any of
the given activities is boring. Different strokes for different
folks.

95. 7. Translators translate literature
That’s a myth we frequently come across.
Translators are normally associated with books, and
in particular – with fiction, poetry, and drama. Well,
this is actually a nice and justified association. But
translators translate so many other non-literary texts!
This is a huge category: from technical and
medical texts, to financial, legal translations, to
marketing and journalist transcreation. And to link
it with the previous myth – they are not boring at all!

96. 8. Translators make a lot of money
This is a controversial issue. There are translators who make
piles of money. And there are translators who struggle to make
ends meet. In between, there’s a large group of translators who
make more or less than that.
There are many factors to consider. I’ll look at three of them.
TRANSLATORS EARN THE EQUIVALENT OF TRANSLATED
WORDS.
TRANSLATORS EARN WHAT THEY QUOTE.
TRANSLATORS EARN WHAT THE CLIENTS ARE WILLING
TO PAY.

97. 9. Translators are dying out
This myth may come true soon.
Machine translation technologies based on neural
networks are becoming increasingly accurate and
precise. As a result, many clients no longer use
human-made translations. This is why we fear that
there will be no work for us soon – or that it will be
even less valued. In fact, this is already happening
in the technical translation sector.

98. PRINCIPLES OF TRANSLATION FOR MEDIA
Writing for any form of media is a challenge for the
writer who has to compose the copy that catches as
well as holds the interest of the listeners/ viewers. It is
all the more challenging to translate the matter in such
a way that it not only creates the effect of the original
but is appropriate as well. This challenge is met by the
copy writer through various ways especially
innovating in terms of language/dialect, writing and
presentation.

99. A journalist has to write news and features for the
media in which s/he is employed and a translator has to
translate it for the target language audience from the
source text. A translator’s work is more challenging
because s/he has to translate the original text in such a
way where s/he should retain the interest of the
listeners/viewers. Journalists use words to inform the
readers about various developments taking place around
them. Translators too use language in such a way that
the information and ideas are understood and
appreciated by the target audiences.

100. There are three principles of translation for media:
•Use of short paragraphs
•Short sentences
•Spoken language
While translating news/articles from the source text, the translators
should break the text into short paragraphs. Putting too much
information into a paragraph makes it difficult to understand. Each
paragraph should have one thought expressed that can be easily
understood by its readers/viewers. It is easy to read, understand and
is appealing to eyes in its printed form. It helps the readers visualise
the action and feelings. You should always check the paragraph break
so that the subjects requiring lengthy explanations are divided in a
proper manner.

101. 3 idiots - what is a book? Printed medium of communication
A good sentence delivers only one thought. It is important for the
electronic media because the audience will not have the opportunity
to hear it again and understand it. Media translators use simple
language that allows readers to understand the writer. Simple and
short sentences in conversational language are preferred while long
sentences may confuse the readers. Normally, sentence fragments are
avoided but when used with care it also enhances the readability. One
should not overuse adjectives and adverbs. Use of correct words in a
sentence helps the receiver understand the intension and the precise
meaning of the writer. To achieve brevity, the writer should use as
few words as possible but the meaning of the text should be clear. To
achieve clarity, instead of using synonyms of the word, same words
should be used in a sentence/paragraph to convey the meaning.

102. Print Media
Newspaper is read by educated as well as the neo-literates, so the language
of translation is such that can be understood by both. Clarity is maintained
by using short sentences and avoiding jargons and literary expressions. The
translator also tries to stick to the original and use lesser words to convey
the idea. Appropriate level of formality is maintained in translation. Long,
complex introductory phrases and crowding a sentence with too much
information, is avoided.
In Print media, there is time to revise the story while in the electronic media
there is no scope because of the ephemeral nature of the medium. In print
media, if a story needs recasting, the same can be done by the journalist in
the office but in the electronic media, when the reporter is giving a story
from a distant place, there is hardly any time for editing and it is aired
directly. Similarly, in print media, if the story is long it can run to the next
page, but in electronic media the story has to be told in brief and has to be
cast according to the visuals, to lend an air of authenticity.

103. Electronic Media
Electronic media such as radio and television use conversational language
which is simple, informal and easy on ears so that it can be understood by
everybody. While translating for radio, one should use simple and short
sentences to create a picture for the listener. The headlines should hook the
attention of the listener, the first sentence should tell the listener what the news
is, and the subsequent sentence should add other elements to it. Since a
broadcaster is telling a story the language of the translator too, should be
simple. There should be one idea in one sentence and the economy of words
has to be maintained in translation too. Information should be conveyed in the
logical order flowing from the lead sentence in the target language. Every
word should have a purpose and superfluous words thoroughly deleted.
Translation for television programmes is done keeping in mind the time
constraints and the use of visuals that impart a story authenticity and
credibility. There is brevity and simplicity in the news items. The sentences are
kept short and crisp using conversational language but it should not be
colloquial.

104. Translation for Films, Television Shows
Music, cinema and various other art forms transcend
global boundaries because of the way they are effectively
translated to reflect the sentiments in the target language.
Translated and subtitled films today generate more revenue
than ever for the global film industry, with blockbuster
movies looking at various overseas markets.
Translation for films, television shows and on-line videos
etc. is carried out, not just through the written or spoken
words but on multiple semiotic channels, i.e. via sounds
and/or images. The main translation modes in this regard
are Subtitles, Dubbing and Voice-overs.

105. Subtitles, as you may be aware, are the written translation of the
spoken dialogues on screen, synchronised with the audio. Subtitles
are the captions at the bottom of the programme that keep moving
and changing with each scene so that the audience can read and
understand what the characters on the screen are saying.
Dubbing means translation of foreign language films/television
shows into the language of the target audience. When the source
language (SL) of a programme is dubbed in the target language
(TL), the translation of the original dialogue is carefully matched
to the lip movement of the actors in the film. Dubbing involves
recording the lines again in the target language for the audience to
understand. Thus there is a basic difference between the two-
Subtitles are for eyes whereas Dubbing is for ears.

106. Good subtitling is an art that requires negotiating and conflicting
requirements. While translating subtitles, one should keep in mind the lip
movement of the actors, exact time taken for dialogue delivery, nature of
dialogues and suitable words in the target language that can justify the
original emotions and the mannerism of the actors on the screen. It should
always be kept in mind that the entire effort would be wasted if the viewer
does not immediately grasp what is being written. This is even more so
because the moving picture or other illustrations are competing with the
spoken word for the attention of the viewers. On the whole, one should
aim for subtitles that are faithful to the audiovisuals.
One needs to be able to write clearly and concisely. Writing subtitles is a
craft and this can be acquired through practice and picking up the
techniques which will make it powerful and expressive. Too much
information should not be packed in a sentence which should be kept short
and crisp with few words to explain things. Complex words and long
sentences should be avoided for clarity. Dialogues which are culture
specific should be translated carefully for achieving the desired effect.

107. While translating the subtitles care should be taken not to tamper with
the original as little as possible. One should not try to polish the
incoherent speech, incorrect grammar, accent of the character in
dramas because it is kept for certain effect. A translator should aim to
give viewers a flavour of the accent or dialect by spelling a few words
phonetically and also by including unusual words/sentence that can be
easily read and understood. Similarly, in humorous sequence, the
punchline should be written separately from the preceding text. Thus
you should preserve the style and use the words that can be easily lip-
read.
While translating an advertisement, the words and the visuals should
be properly synchronised. Selection of the language should be done
keeping in mind the literacy level of the target audience so that the
idea of the campaign is conveyed in the target language.

108. STRATEGIES OF TRANSLATION FOR MEDIA
Media persons use words to express themselves, present information and
ideas so that a common reader not only understands but also appreciates
and absorbs the knowledge gained. In this regard, some strategies adopted
by media persons while translating the text for media are:
•While translating the material, one needs to take into account the age
group, mental and intellectual maturity and the level of exposure of the
audience into account
•The needs of the target audience should be met, either in terms of
suitable structures/forms or in terms of the appropriate transfer of
meaning from the source text to the target text. The translation should
have and is of the original composition.
•Familiarity with a social cultural context in which a text is set and a flair
for blending it in the target language with is required.

109. •Since a translator is called co-creator therefore she/
he should use once on creativity to the fullest extent.
A good idea would be to choose and put words
appropriately to produce correct tone and convey the
desired meaning.
•Earlier faithfulness to the original text was
considered to be one of the prime aims of
translation. However, with multiple cultural
Linguistics diversity is one can take liberty with
original text in terms of adaptations/appropriations
to regain the sense and spirit of the original text.

110. •The translator should be familiar with the use of
tools like good monolingual and bilingual
dictionaries, encyclopaedias, glossaries of
technical and standard works, style guides etc
pertaining to the SL text.
•If the media translator knows the art of putting the
text in the target language in an attractive manner
with the use of appropriate expressions and
vocabulary, and structures; it makes it more
acceptable to the audience in the target language.

111. •The style chosen for translation for the specific
media should not only be appropriate for the target
audience but also sound natural and spontaneous.
•Before letting the work go on air/publication, it
should be doubly–checked and suitably suitability
of the product for the intended purpose and
audience in ensured.
•An expert in the specific area may be requested to
go through the translation and give suggestions for
further improvement.

112. How is translation done in different modes,
disciplines and applications in media?
•Modes of translation:
•Modes the translation refers to the various methods and
approaches used to convert text to speech from one
language to another, depending on the medium, concept
type and the context of communication. These modes
are designed to address different translation needs,
ensuring that the message is accurately conveyed to the
target audience, whether in written or spoken form.
Each mode has specific techniques and challenges based
on the nature of the context and the environment in
which translation takes place.

113. •Translation can occur in various forms based on
the content, medium and target audience. The
common modes include:
1.WrittenTranslation
2.Oral translation (interpretation)
3.Machine translation
4.Audio-visual translation
5.Localization
Each mode requires specific skills and adapts to
the context and the communication needs at hand.

114. •In written translation, the translator takes a text from source
language and convert it into the target language. This is the
most traditional form of translation and can include various
forms of content such as novels, documents, marketing,
material, or academic papers. It is mainly used in books,
manuals, legal documents, articles, websites and contracts.
•Written translation is a process of converting written text
from one language into another, aiming to retain the original
meaning, and context. It requires a deep understanding of
both the source and target languages, as well as culture and
contextual awareness, to produce a translation that is
accurate, readable, and culturally appropriate.
1. Written translation

115. Key skills in written translation:
•Language proficiency: strong command of both source and
target language is essential, as literal translation can miss the
intended meaning or become awkward.
•Cultural sensitivity: understand the cultural context and
nuances in the source language allows translator to adopt the
text to the target culture without misinterpretation.
•Attention to detail: precision, is crucial, particularly for
specialised content like legal, medical, or technical documents,
where slight errors can lead to significant consequences
•Adaptability: translators often need to adjust for tone, idioms,
or expressions that do not have direct equivalents, ensuring
that the translation resonates naturally in the target language.

116. •Context and overview.
•A non-profit organisation request the translation
of health brochure from English to Hindi. The
brochure is designed to educate rural population
in India about basic health practises, nutrition, and
sanitation. The language in the English version is
simple but includes technical terms related to
healthcare and hygiene.
•The goal is to make the content accessible and
easy to understand for Hindi speakers, many of
whom may have limited formal education.

117. Challenges:
•Simplifying technical terms: some health related
terminology in English does not have direct equivalent in
Hindi. The challenge is to simplify or explain terms in a way
that rural, non-special audience can understand.
•Cultural relevance: certain health practises common in
Western culture might not be familiar or relevant to Indian
communities. For example, recommendations around diet,
exercise and hygiene may need to be adopted to suit local
practices and resources.
•Maintaining clarity: the brochure must remain clear and
straightforward, avoiding overly formal or complex
language. The translator needs to ensure that the message
is both informative and easy to follow for the target
audience.

118. Translation approach:
•Researching cultural practices: the translator conducts
research into the local culture and health practices of the
target audience to ensure that advice given in the brochure
is relevant and understandable.
•Simplifying technical terms: the technical terms like
“immunisation” or “hygiene”, the translator, either simplifies
them or provides explanations in Hindi. For example,
“immunisation” might be translator as ‘teeka lagana’, a term
is commonly understood in India.
•Using clear and direct language: the translator ensures that
the Hindi version uses simple, direct language without
unnecessary formalities. Instead of translating word-for-
word, they focus on containing the core message in a way
that is easy to comprehend

119. •Oral translation, more commonly referred to as,
interpretation, is the process of converting spoken language
from one language (the source language) into another (the
target language) in real time or near real time. It plays a role
in felicitating communication between people who do not
share a common language, ensuring that messages are
accurately conveyed across linguistics barriers.
•Unlike written translation, where the translator has time to
analyse, revise, and refine the text, interpretation is
spontaneous and immediate. This makes it a highly
demanding skill, requiring interpreter to have excellent
language, proficiency, deep, cultural, understanding, and
ability to think quickly on their feet.
2. Oral translation

120. •Oral translation can be done in two main forms:
1.Consecutive interpretation: the interpreter
translates after the speaker finishes speaking or pauses,
allowing for a more detailed and thoughtful translation.
This mode is commonly used in smaller, more formal
settings where precision is essential.
2.Simultaneous interpretation: the interpreter
translates in real time while the speaker is still talking,
often with a delay of just a few seconds. This mode is
typically used in large conferences, international
meetings or live events where time is limited and
multiple languages may be involved.

121. •1. Consecutive interpretation:
•In consecutive translation, the interpreter waits until
the speaker pauses or completes a segment of speech,
then translates that portion into the target language.
•How it works:
•The speaker talks for a few sentences or a segment of
a speech
•The interpreter, listens attentively, possibly taking notes
•After the speaker pauses, the interpreter conveys the
message, the target language
•The interpreter may also ask for clarification, if needed,
ensure that the message is translated accurately

122. •Where it’s used:
•Business meetings: in international business discussions, where
precision is vital, consecutive interpretation allows both parties
to understand each other clearly
•Medical consultations: when doctors and patients speak
different languages, an interpreter, translates, medical advice and
patient concerns
•Legal proceedings: court interpreters play a critical role in
translating testimonies, legal arguments, and statements,
ensuring fairness in the legal process.
•Example: in a legal setting, a Hindi speaking, defendant in an
Indian court may need consecutive interpretation to
understand the English speaking judge. The interpreter listens
to the judge remarks, then translate them into Hindi for the
defendant.

123. •2. Simultaneous interpretation:
•In simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter translates the
speakers words as they are spoken, with only a slight delay. It
requires immense concentration and the ability to multitask
since the interpreter must listen to the source language and
speak the target language almost simultaneously.
•How it works:
•The interpreter wears a headset to listen to the speaker
•While the speaker talks, the interpreter begins translating in
real time, often whispering or speaking into a microphone
for the audience
•The audience, using headphones or other devices, hears the
interpretation while the speaker continues without pausing

124. •Where it’s used:
•International conferences: major organisations like the United
Nations or the European Union use simultaneous interpretation
to allow people from different countries to participate in
discussions
•Live events or broadcasts: news channels or live sports events
often require simultaneous interpretation to translate, live
commentary or interview interviews
•Diplomatic meetings: in high-stakes, diplomatic talks, simultaneous
interpreter, ensure smooth communication between world
leaders, allowing for real time, negotiation, and discussion
•Example: at an international health conference, a Tamil speaking
audience may require simultaneous interpretation to understand
an English speaking, keynote speaker. The interpreter listens to the
speech in English and translate it into Tamil in real time, ensuring
the audience can follow along.

125. •Skills required for oral translation:
•Interpreter must possess a combination of linguistic
and cognitive skills to perform well. These include:
•Language proficiency: an interpreter must be fluent in
both the source and target language, with a strong
grasp, grammar, syntax, and vocabulary. Knowledge of
slang, idioms and regional variations is also essential.
•Active listening: the interpreter must be able to listen
instantly to the speaker and absorb information
quickly without missing key details
•Quick thinking: since there is no time to stop or
consult dictionary, interpreter must think on their
feet and make quick decisions about word, choice,
sentence structure and tone

126. •Memory: in consecutive interpretation, interpreter rely
heavily on their short-term memory to retain long
segments of speech before translating them. This requires
excellent recall and note-taking abilities.
•Cultural sensitivity: interpreter need to understand the
cultural context of both the source and target languages.
This helps them convey not just words, but also the in
chanted meaning and tone, adopting where necessary to
avoid cultural misunderstandings
•Stress management: simultaneous interpretation, in
particular, can be stressful due to its fast pace. Interpreter
need to remain calm and composed, even in high-pressure
situations, to ensure accurate and clear translations.

127. •Challenges of oral translation:
•Complex or technical language: in fields like medicine,
law, technology, the interpreter must have domain
specific knowledge. Misunderstanding a technical term
can lead to serious consequences, particularly in legal
or medical settings.
•Idioms and cultural references: expressions or cultural
references in one language often do not have direct
equivalence in another. For instance, English idioms like
“barking up the wrong tree” may need creative
adoption to convey the same idea in Hindi or Tamil

128. •Maintaining pace with the speaker: in simultaneous
interpretation, interpreter, often have to keep up with fast
speaking speakers. If they fall behind, they may miss critical
parts of the speech, leading to incomplete translations.
•Accuracy under time constraints: in both consecutive and
simultaneous modes, the race little time to pause or
reflect. The interpreter must deliver an accurate
translation immediately, with no room for error.
•Non-verbal cues: body language, tone, and facial
expressions also carry meaning. An interpreter must
understand and convey not only the spoken words, but
also the speakers attitude or emotions. For example,
translating a joke or sarcastic comment requires careful
attention to ensure that the tone is captured accurately.

129. •Case study: simultaneous interpretation in Lok
Sabha
•Key components of the interpretation
process:
1.Interpreter’s role:
•As the Tamil speaking MP gives their speech,
interpreters sits in booth equipped with headphones
and a microphone
•They listen to the Tamil speech and instantly
translate it in both Hindi and English in real time
•MPs who do not understand Tamil wear headphones
to hear the speech translated into either Hindi or
English depending on their preferences.

130. •2. Technical setup:
•Each MP has a headset that allows them to select a
language channel (e.g. Hindi or English) for
interpretation
•The interpreter listens to the original language (Tamil,
in this case) through their headphones and
simultaneously translates it into the target languages,
allowing non-Tamil speakers to follow along without
any significant delay.

131. •3. Challenges faced by interpreter:
•Speed: the MP may speak quickly or use law, complex
sentences, requiring the interpreter to process and
translate the information rapidly without falling behind
•Technical terms: the discussions of agricultural reforms
might involve technical terms related to policy,
economics, and farming, such as “minimum support
price” (MSP), “subsidies”, or "crop insurance”. These
terms need to be translated precisely to maintain the
accuracy of the debate.
•Cultural nuances: the MP might use regional idioms,
expressions, or references to local agricultural practices,
which may not have direct in Hindi or English

132. •4. Ensuring contextual accuracy:
•The interpreter must ensure that the translated
speech maintains the original speaker’s, intent and
tone. If the MP is making emotional appeal about the
plight of farmers, the interpreter should convey that
emotional intensity, rather than delivering a flat,
literal translation
•Regional references to agricultural practices specific
to Tamil Nadu might need clarification or adoptation
for MPs from other regions, who may not be familiar
with them

133. •Outcome:
•The Hindi and English speaking MPs are able to
follow the Tamil MP’s speech without any confusion.
•When the Tamil MP finishes, a Hindi speaking MP
from UP response to the points raised, and the
simultaneous interpreter now translates the Hindi
speech into English and Tamil.
•Throughout the session, interpreter seamlessly,
ensure that MPs from all regions, regardless of their
native language, can participate in the debate, ask
questions, and make informed decisions about the
bill being discussed.

134. Key challenges and skills in Lok Sabha interpretation:
•Handling multiple languages: in the Lok Sabha, MPs may, switch between
Hindi and English and their regional languages during debates.
Interpreter must be highly skilled in multiple language pairs to provide a
real time translation.
•Domain specific knowledge: since Lok Sabha debates, often involved
discussions on complex subjects like economics, law, or agriculture,
interpreter must be familiar with the relevant terminology in both
languages to ensure accuracy
•Balancing speed and accuracy: simultaneous interpreter in the Lok Sabha
must keep up with a fast pace of Parliamentary debate while maintaining
high accuracy. If an MP speaks too fast, then interpreter might have to
contains the message slightly while ensuring that the core meaning is
conveyed.
•Cultural sensitivity: parliamentary debates can include cultural
references, idiomatic, expressions, or rhetorical flourishes that might
not translate easily into another language

135. Importance of interpretation in Lok Sabha.
•Fostering inclusive dialogue: India's linguistic diversity means that
without interpretation, some MPs would be excluded from
participating in debates conducted in a language they don't
understand. Interpretation promotes inclusivity by ensuring that
MPs can speak in their native language while others still understand
them.
•Ensuring fair representation: every MP represents a constituency,
often with its own language and culture. Interpreting these speeches
accurately ensures that the concerns of people from all regions, P H,
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal or Maharashtra are heard and considered
in the national legislature.
•Maintaining parliamentary procedure: without proper interpretation,
debates, the Lok Sabha could become disjointed, misunderstandings
could arise, leading to inefficiency. High-quality interpretation
ensures smooth communication, maintaining the procedural
integrity of the legislative process.

136. 3. Machine translation.
•Machine translation refers to the automated process of
translating text or speech from one language to another
using computer software or algorithms. This type of
translation is carried out without human involvement,
although it often requires post editing by human translator
to ensure accuracy, fluency, and cultural appropriateness.
•Machine translation has evolved significantly over the past
few decades, from basic word for word, translations to
more sophisticated systems that can translate entire
sentences and even paragraphs without better context
and fluidity. The development of artificial intelligence (AI),
neural networks, and natural language processing (NLP)
has driven this progress.

137. Types of machine translation systems:
a. Rule based machine translation (RBMT): in this
approach, linguistic rules and dictionary are used to
translate text. It lies on deep understanding of
grammar and syntax in both the source and target
languages.
Example: the version of Systran (a machine translation
system used by Google in the past) rely on rule based
translation. For example, the system who analyse the
structure of a sentence in French and apply predefined
grammar rules to translate it into English.

138. b. Statistical machine translation (SMT): statistical machine
translation generates translations based on the analysis of
large corpora of parallel text. It uses probability derived
from the frequency of sudden prices and sentences in the
data.
Example: Google translate in Shelley used, SMT. If the
system had translated a French phrase like “je suis
heureux” as “ I am happy” in thousands of training
examples, it would be more likely to use this translation
for similar context in the future. SMT performs well for
common language pairs, such as English to Spanish, where
there is a lot of data.

139. c. Neural machine translation (NMT): neural machine
translation is the most advanced form of machine
translation today. It uses deep learning and neural
networks to understand the context and meaning of
words in a sentence, allowing for more fluent translations.
NMT does not just translate word-for-word but processes
entire sentences or paragraphs as units, capturing the
meaning and nuances better than previous method
Example: modern Google translate and other systems like
deepL usNMT. For instance, translating the weather is nice
today from English to Hindi with NMT or yield more
natural translation like ………………… instead of an
awkward or lateral one.

140. d. Hybrid Systems: some machine translation systems
combine different approaches, such as using rules for
grammar, alongside statistical or neural methods for
vocabulary and context.
Example: a hybrid system might use rule-based
translation for grammar-intensive languages like
Japanese but rely on NMT for context and fluency
when translating English into Japanese

141. How machine translation works:
Step-by-step process:
1. Input text: The text to be translated is provided to the machine
translation system, either as typed text, a scanned document, or even
spoken language in the case of voice translation tools.
2. Text analysis: the system analysis the input text to understand its
grammatical structure, syntax and meaning. This is especially crucial in
NMT systems, which need to grasp the broader context.
3. Translation: using algorithms (in SMT) or neural networks (in NMT),
the system maps the source language to the target language. It either
applies translation rules (RBMT), selects the most probable translation
(SMT), or generates a context-based translation (NMT).
4. Output: the system generates the translation in the target language
and presents it to the use. NMT systems can also refine their
translations based on feedback and corrections, improving over time
through learning.

142. Challenges of machine translation:
Lack of context: even when NMT, machine translations can struggle with
context, specially in highly advanced or creative text. For example, a
machine might mistranslate idioms, humour, or culturally specific phrases.
Cultural sensitivity: machines might not capture the cultural subtleties
embedded in language. A joke or emotional appeal may lose its impact in
translation because the machine doesn't understand the cultural
references.
Quality issues for specialised domains: machine translation struggles with
highly specialised domains, such as legal or medical text, where
terminology and syntax are critical for accuracy. Without proper human
post editing, errors can lead to misunderstandings or even legal/safety
risks.
Grammar and syntax issues: languages with complex grammatical
structures may present challenges, specially when translating from more
straightforward languages like English. Sentence, structure and word
order often differ significantly across languages, making it hard for
machine to generate smooth, natural sentences.

143. 4. Audio-visual translation (AVT)
•Audio-visual translation refers to the process of translating
and adopting content in audio-visual media, such as films,
television shows, video games and online videos. This form
of translation is unique because it's not only involves
translating spoken and return text but also requires
considering the visual and auditory elements that
accompany the content. The goal of AVT is to ensure that a
target audience, who speaks a different language, carefully
experience the content as close as possible to the original
intent.
•There are different modes of audio-visual translation, and
each comes with its own set of challenges and techniques,
as described below.

144. •Key modes of audiovisual translation:
1.Subtitle
2.Dubbing,
3.VoiceOver,
4.Closed captioning,
5.Audio description.

145. •1. Subtitling:
•Subtitling involves translating the spoken dialogues into return text
that appears at the bottom of the screen. The key challenges
ensuring that the text fits within the limited time available while
maintaining the original meaning, and tone. Subtitles must be
concise, as they need to match the pace of the speech and the
viewers ability to read.
•Challenges:
•Time and space constraints: subtitles need to fit within a true line
limit, typically appearing for only a few seconds on screen. Therefore,
translator often have to contain dialogue without losing its meaning.
•Cultural references: some references or idioms may not translate
well requiring creative solutions
•Lip sync: do not as stringent as in dubbing, subtitles need to appear
in sync with the dialogue to avoid confusing the audience.

146. •2. Dubbing:
•Dubbing, replace the original spoken dialogue with translated
dialogue, recorded by voice actors in the target language. This mode
of translation is popular in films, animated series, and video games
with the audience to listen their own language rather than read
subtitles.
•Challenges:
•Lip sync: one of the primary challenges of dubbing is matching the
translator dialogue to the movement of the actors lips. The
translator has adopted the text to fit the timing and rhythm of the
original speech.
•Maintaining tone and emotion: the voice, actors and translator must
ensure that the emotional tone of the original dialogue is maintained
in the dubbed versions
•Cultural adaptation: in some cases, jokes, idioms, and cultural specific
references need to be adopted to make sense to the target
audience.

147. •3. VoiceOver:
•VoiceOver is similar to dubbing, but with a crucial difference.
The original audio is not entirely replaced. Instead, the
translated version is super imposed over the original audio,
and the original speech can still be faintly heard in the
background. This is common in documentary, interviews, and
news broadcast where the authenticity of the original voice is
important, but the content needs to be understood by the
target audience.
•Challenges:
•Pacing: the translated VoiceOver needs to match the timing of
the original dialogue without lagging or overlapping excessively.
•Tone: the translator and voice actor must convey the tone of
the original speaker, whether it's a formal, casual, emotional, or
factual

148. •4. Close captioning:
•closed captioning refers to the display of text on the
screen, not only translating dialogue, but also describing
relevant non-verbal sounds and actions, such as music,
sound, effects, or event silence. This type of translation is
used primarily for the hearing impeded, and for situations
where audio might not be accessible.
•Challenges:
•Describing non-verbal film: translator need to explain
sounds that contribute to the storytelling, like a door
creaking, birds chirping, or ominous background music.
•Condensing visual information: since the audience realise
on the text, captions must be clear and informative while
not overwhelming

149. •5. Audio description:
•audio description is a form of translation designed for visually
impaired audiences. It involves narrating the visual elements of a
scene that are crucial to understanding the story, such as facial
expressions, movements, and key actions. It is essentially a
verbal commentary that provides context for scenes where
there is no spoken dialogue or where visuals are central to the
story.
•Challenges:
•Balancing detail and timing: the description must be concise
enough to fit within the silent moments of the audio without
overshadowing, the main dialogue.
•Prioritising important visual elements: describe us must decide
which elements of the visual storytelling are essential to convey

150. 5. Localisation in media
•Localisation is crucial in media, particularly in films,
TV shows, video games and advertising. These
industries need to ensure that the content they
create is accessible and relevant audiences
worldwide. This involves translating not just the
words but the overall experience.
•Example 1: Netflix.
•Example 2: video game localisation.
•Localisation: case study: Airbnb.

151. Myths about translation
1.Translation is just word for word conversion.
2.Anyone bilingual can translate
3.Machine translation tools are enough.
4.Translation is a quick process.
5.Literal translations are more accurate.
6.Translation is only about language.
7.All translations are the same.
8.Translators don't need specialised knowledge.

152. Meaning of Faithful translation:
Walter Benjamin’s essay
•Faithful translation, as discussed in Walter
Benjamin, he says “the task of the
translator”, refers to a translation that
remains true and not only to the literal meaning
of the original text, but also to its spirit,
intent and philosophical essence.
Benjamin argues that translation is not just about
conveying the original meaning word-for-word
but about preserving the deeper, underlying
meaning, and the truth that resides in the source
text.

153. •In his essay, Benjamin emphasises that the task of
translator goes beyond reproducing the surface
level content. Instead, it involves maintaining the
aesthetic and cultural dimensions of the
original work while acknowledging that translation
is always an incomplete process. He presents
the idea that languages are inherently
different, and therefore, a perfect, want to
correspondence is impossible, rather than striving
for a perfect reproduction, the translator should
aim to convey the intentions and universal
truths embedded within the text.

154. •Key ideas in faithful translation, according
to Walter Benjamin:
1.Language as a medium of truth: Benjamin views
language, not just as a means of communication, but
as a medium that reflects universal truths. A faithful
translation, therefore should convey the pure
language or underlying essence of the original work,
rather than merely replicating it surface level details.
2.Translation as an art form: for Benjamin, translation is
not just a mechanical act, but an art form. A
translator should creatively engage with the original
text to reveal the deeper connections between
languages and cultures.

155. 3. Translatability and incompletion: Benjamin suggests
that every text contains an element of
“translatability” meaning that its essence can be
transferred into another language, but never fully. A
faithful translation must acknowledge that it cannot
completely capture the original’s essence, but it strives
to reflect it as closely as possible.
4. Cultural and temporal boundaries: translation should
transcend cultural and temporal differences while
preserving the original historical and cultural
significance. A faithful translation not only bridges
linguistic differences but also makes the original work
resonate within the target culture.

156. Learning how to translate
•Learning how to translate in words, understanding the
complexities of language, culture and communication.
Translation is not just about replacing words in one
language with words in another; it's about conveying
meaning, context and intent accurately between
different linguistic and cultural systems. Mastering
translation requires linguistic proficiency, cultural
awareness, and specialised skills depending on the field,
such as legal, medical, literary or technical translation.

157. •Key steps in learning how to translate:
1.Develop proficiency in source and target
languages: to translate effectively, a deep understanding
of both the source language and the target language is
necessary. This includes grammar, vocabulary, idiomatic,
expressions, and cultural references.
2.Understanding cultural context: languages are
embedded in specific cultures. To convey the
intended meaning, translator must understand, not
only the words, but also the social, historical and
cultural context. A phrase that works in one language
might have no direct equivalent in another, requiring
creative solutions to maintain meaning.

158. 3. Familiarise with translation techniques: there
are different approaches to translation, depending on the
goal:
•Literal translation: translating word for word, used in
technical or legal documents where exactness is key.
•Communicative translation: adopting the message to be
more culturally relevant to the target audience while
maintaining the original meaning.
•Creative or literary translation: capturing the style, tone,
and artistic expression, common in literary text like
novels or poetry.

159. 4. Acquire specialised knowledge: translator, often
specialised in specific field, like legal, medical or technical
translation. Each field has its own vocabulary and conventions,
so learning these specialised terms and structures is critical.
5. Master tools and resources: many translators rely
on computer assisted translation, CAT tools or translation
memory software to help speed up the process, ensure
consistency, and improve accuracy. Learning to use these tools
effectively is a key skill in modern translation work.
6. Practice consistently: translation is a skill that
improves with practice. Starting with simple text and gradually
moving to more complex documents allows translators to
refine their techniques, handle more difficult, cultural nuances,
and develop confidence in both language and strategy.

160. •Challenges in learning translation:
•Idiomatic expressions: translating idioms or culturally specific
references can be challenging because their meaning are often tight to
the original culture. For example, the English idiom, it's raining, cats and
dogs cannot be translator literally into other languages without closing
the meaning.
•Cultural sensitivity: what may seem acceptable or polite in one culture
could be offensive in another translator must be culturally, sensitive,
adjusting tone terms and references accordingly.
•Maintaining tone and style: especially in literary translation, capturing
the tone, style and rhythm of the original text is essential. A no one, for
instance, may have a particular mode or literary flair that must Be
preserved even when the language changes.
•Untranslatable words: every language has words that are difficult to
translate directly. For example, the Hindi word Jugaad refers to a clever
of resourceful solution to a problem, often using limited resources.
English doesn't have a single word with the same cultural resonance, so
translator must find ways to communicate the concept effectively.

161. Communicative translation
•Communicative translation is a translation that focuses
on conveying the meaning, intention, and context of the
original message in a way there is both clear and a
natural to the target audience. Unlike literal translation,
which translates word for word, communicative
translation emphasises, creating a version of the text
that feels fluent, culturally appropriate, and effective in
communication.
•The goal is to ensure that the translated message
achieves the same impact as original, regardless of the
differences between languages and cultures.

162. •Key features of communicative translation:
1.Audience-Centred: the translation adapts the
message to fit the cultural norms and linguistic
expectations of the target audience. The translator
ensures that the translation is clear, accessible, and easy
to understand, considering how the target audience
would naturally express similar ideas.
2.Focus on meaning and intention: rather than
preserving the exact structure of the source text,
communicative translation prioritises meaning. The
translator ensures that the original intent of the message
is conveyed, even if the sentence, structure, idioms, or
vocabulary need to change.

163. 3. Cultural adaptation: the translator may replace or
adjust, cultural references, idioms, or metaphor is from the
source text to make them relatable to the target audience.
For instance, a joke or proverb in one culture may not
make sense in another, so the translator finds an equivalent
expression or rewrite it for clarity.
4. Natural flow: communicative translations read
smoothly and naturally in the target language. They avoid
awkward, literal translations that sound, foreign or stiff,
instead, opting for phrasing that reflects how native
speakers would express the same ideas.
Example: The ball is in your court
The decision is now yours

164. •Advantages of communicative translation:
1.Clarity and comprehension: the target audience is
more likely to understand the message since the
translation uses natural and familiar language.
2.Cultural relevance: by adapting cultural references,
communicative translation ensures that the content
resonates with the target audience, making it more
relatable and encouraging.
3.Emotional impact: communicative translation
captures the tone, emotions, and intent of the original
text, allowing the translation to evoke similar feelings in
the target audience

165. •Challenges in communicative translation:
1.Balancing faithfulness to the source: in some
cases, adapting content, too freely may lead to a loss
of the original meaning or intent. The translator must
strike a balance between maintaining the messages
accuracy and making it accessible to the audience.
2.Cultural sensitivity: misunderstanding cultural
norms can result in translations that inadvertently
offend or confuse the target audience. This is
particularly important when translating between
cultures with different levels of formality or social
values.

166. •Communicative translation in professional
contexts:
•Advertising and marketing: in global advertising,
communicative translation is often used to adapt slogans and
campaigns to different markets. For example, McDonald's slogan,
“I’m lovin’ it” has different translations in different countries that
capture the same positive, catchy tone in their own language.
•Legal and diplomatic communication: in legal or
diplomatic contexts, communicative translation ensures that the
message is clear and culturally appropriate, especially in
international negotiations or legal contracts, where
misunderstandings could have significant consequences
•Media and entertainment: in film or TV, subtitles and
dubbing, communicative translation is used to adapt humour, slang,
and dialogue to reflect the cultural context of the target audience,
ensuring that viewers from different backgrounds, enjoy the same
experience.

167. •Communicative translation is an essential approach
when the primary goal is effective
communication, and cultural understanding. By
prioritising meaning and intent over literal accuracy,
this method ensures that the translator text resonate
with the target audience, while still maintaining the
core message of the original. Whether in literature,
business, advertising, or everyday communication,
communicative translation, just the gap between
languages and culture, ensuring that messages are not
just translated, but truly understoo.

168. Transliteration as the failure of
translation
•Transliteration refers to converting text from
one writing system to another, focusing only on
how the words sound rather than their
meaning. While transliteration can be useful for
names, specific terms or cultural references, it is
generally considered a failure in translation when
applied broadly because it fails to convey
meaning. Transliteration transfer the phonetic
structure of words, but not their semantic
content or cultural context.

169. •Why transliteration can fail in translation?
1.Loss of meaning: Transliteration does not explain
what a word or phrase means in the target language. It
merely attempts to represent the sounds of the original
language, which can leave the audience with no
understanding of the actual content. For example, the
Hindi word नमस्ते is often transliterated into English as
Namaste. While this accurately represent the sound, it
doesn't convey the meaning (hello or greetings)example.
namaste - I bow to you in reverence/respect

170. 2. Lack of context: transliteration ignores the
cultural nuances and context behind words. Many
words and expressions carry cultural or emotional
significance that transliteration does not capture. For
instance, translating रामायण as Ramayana through
transliteration only gives the English audience. The
sounds of the word, not the cultural death and the
significance of the epic.
Mahabharata - story tale of the Bharat dynasty
Ramayana - journey of Ram

171. 3. Failure to adapt to audience: a proper
translation should adopt to the target audience, ensuring
the meaning is clear and culturally appropriate.
Transliteration, on the other hand, often results in
phrases or words that are unintelligible or awkward in
the target language. This is especially true when idiomatic
expressions are involved.

172. •When transliteration is appropriate:
1.Names and proper nouns: transliteration is often used
for names of people, places, or certain cultural concepts that
have no equivalent in the target language. For example,
Mumbai is the transliterated name of the city from Hindi/
Marathi into English.
2.Technical terms: some industries, like science or
technology, use specific terms that are transliterated for
global usage. For instance, the word yoga is a transliteration
of the Sanskrit word योग.
3.Cultural concepts: certain cultural elements that have
no direct translation, like karma (from Sanskrit), are often
transliterated, but still require explanation in the target
language to fully communicate the concept.

173. •Limitations of transliteration:
1.Idiomatic phrases: idiomatic expressions of proverbs when
transliterated, lose their significance. For example, in Hindi, the
phrase “अंधेर नगरी चौपट राजा” is an idiom that suggests chaos or
mismanagement. Transliteration into “Andher Nagari Choupat
Raja” fails to communicate the meaning behind the phrase,
while a proper translation like “A land of confusion under an
incompetent ruler” conveys the intent.
2.Cultural miscommunication: many cultural references
are tied deeply to their linguistic roles. A transliteration would
simply provide the sound without explaining the deeper,
cultural meaning, which can lead to miscommunication or
misinterpretation. For instance, the festival name होली when
transliterated as Holi might not communicate to a non-Indian
audience that it is a celebration of colours, renewal, and social
harmony.

174. •Transliteration vs. communicative translation:
1.Transliteration: focuses solely on converting sounds from the
source language to the target language without concerned for
meaning. This can be useful for names, technical terms or specific
cases, but it fails in conveying the message.
2.Communicative translation: focuses on conveying the meaning,
context and intent of the original message in a natural way for the
target audience. The adapts to cultural differences and idiomatic
expressions.
•While translation can be a useful tool for preserving the sounds of a
language, often considered a failure in translation when it does not
convey the meaning or cultural context behind the words. Proper
translation, particularly communicative translation, seeks to bridge
the gap between languages by ensuring that the message, intent, and
cultural answers are understood by the target audience. In contrast,
transliteration provides sounds without meaning, often leaving the
audience, confused, or disconnected from the true essence of the
message.

175. •Transliteration as failure with reference to
media, movies or Ads:
•In media, movies, and advertising, transliteration is
sometimes used when adapting content from one
language to another. However, when over relied upon or
used inappropriately, it can lead to misunderstandings or
a failure to convey the intended message, losing cultural
or contextual meaning.

176. 1.Transliteration in movie titles:
•Case study: Bollywood movie title:
•The Bollywood movie दिलवाले दुल्हनिया ले जाएंगे was transliterated as
‘dilwale dulhania le jayenge’ when presented to known Hindi speaking
audiences.
•Transliteration: ‘dilwale dulhania le jayenge’
•Translation: the brave hearted will take the bride.
•For Hindi speakers, the phrase ‘dilwale dulhania le jayenge’ is full of
cultural meaning, evoking the themes of Romance and bravery
central to the movie. However, transliterating this title into English
simply converts the sounds and doesn't provide non-Hindi speakers
with any sense of what the movie is about. If it had been translated as
the brave hearted will take the bride, the core message would be
clear. As a result, English speaking audiences may miss the cultural,
emotional and undertones, and the title loses its impact and
relevance. This is an example of how transliteration can fail, as the
sound alone does not communicate the movies themes.

177. 2. Transliteration in advertisement:
Case study: Coca-Cola in India.
In some marketing campaigns, global brands like Coca-Cola have attempted to
maintain consistency by transliterating their slogans directly into Indian
languages.
Original English slogan: "open happiness"
Translation in Hindi: ओपन हैप्पीनेस (khulee khushee)
Effective translation: खुशि का दरवाजा खोलो (khushiyon ka daravaaja kholo)
open the door to happiness
In this case, Coca-Cola's decision to use a transliterated slogan fail to resonate
with the Hindi speaking audience, the word ओपन हैप्पीनेस sounded awkward
and did not connect emotionally with the audience. A better approach would
have been to translate the slogan as खुशि का दरवाजा खोलो, which captures
the essence of the message while maintaining cultural relevance. By sticking to
transliteration, the ad failed to create the intended emotional impact.

178. 3. Transliteration in subtitles:
Case study: movie dialogue translation failure,
In movies, especially when transliterating for international audiences,
translating dialogue can be misleading. For instance, in the popular
Indian movie, Lagaan, characters frequently use the Hindi word साहब
(Sahab) to address British offices, meaning, sir or master in colonial
India,
Transliteration: Sahab
Effective translation: sir
If the subtitles simply transliterate the word साहब as sahab , English
speaking viewers, and familiar with Hindi culture would not understand
the formality or respected embedded in this term. And effective
communicative translation would translate साहब as sir to ensure that
the audience understands the social hierarchy and cultural difference
being conveyed in the scene.

179. Chapter 2
Types of translation

180. •In translation, there are generally two main
approaches:
•Formal translation (literal translation): this approach
aims to keep the translation as close as possible to the original text.
In formal translation, the translator tries to maintain the sentence
structure, word, order, and meaning without altering much of the
language. This approach can sometimes result in translations that
sound a bit unnatural in the target language, as it prioritises
accuracy over readability.
•Word-to-word translation: this is a more rigid type of
translation where each word in the source language is directly
translated to the equivalent word in the target language. This
method does not take into account, idiomatic, expressions,
grammar, or context, so it often leads to awkward or incorrect
phrasing. Word for word translation can be useful for basic
vocabulary, understanding or in language learning contexts, but it's
generally not ideal for conveying full meaning in complex sentences

181. •Formal translation (literal translation):
•Formal translation, often referred to as literal or direct
translation, is an approach that it tries to remain as
faithful as possible to the original text in terms of syntax,
structure and meaning. This type of translation often
retains the vocabulary and sentence structure of the
source language, sometimes at the expense of readability
or fluency in the target language.
•Formal translation is commonly used in contexts where
accuracy is crucial, such as legal documents, academic
research papers, technical manuals, and historical texts. It
is also preferred when interpreting religious or literary
work, as these texts often require close adherence to the
original wording.

182. •Key characteristics:
1.Faithfulness original syntax: maintain the sentence
structure and grammar of the original language. The
sentence structure is similar to the original text, though
this can make it sound rigid or unnatural in the target
language.
2.Word choice: uses words that match the original text as
closely as possible. Vocabulary in formal translation closely
matches the source words with minimal interpretation.
3.Contextual meaning: does not significantly alter phrases to
fit the cultural or idiomatic context of the target language,
though some adaptations may be necessary for clarity.
Limited adjustments for cultural or idiomatic differences.

183. •Word-to-word translation:
•Word-to-word translation, often called direct translation, translate
each individual word from the source language to the target
language without regard to grammatical structure, idioms or
context. This approach produces literal, word for word equivalent,
which can lead to confusion as it ignores linguistic roles and
idiomatic expressions, unique to each language. This type of
translation prioritises strict adherence to the original structure and
wordings, which may result in awkward, facing or loss of natural
flow in the target language. Word-to-word translation often occurs
when trying to maintain the exact meaning of the words, but it may
not always sound natural in the target language.
•Word-to-word translation takes formal translation a step further by
translating each word individually with little or no regard for
sentence, structure, idioms or drama differences between languages.
This method often results in incorrect or nonsensical sentences
since languages have unique rules for structure and meaning.

184. •Key characteristics:
1.Direct equivalents: each word is translated to its direct: in
the target language, regardless of grammar or syntax
2.No structural adjustment: the syntax remains the same,
even if it sounds unnatural or incomprehensible. Little to
no attention is paid to context, idiomatic expressions, or
overall readability.
3.Limited meaning conveyance: often fails to convey
idiomatic or contextual meaning. Often fails to convey the
intended meaning accurately, as it sacrifices, context and
grammatical structure.

185. •Word-to-word translation is typically used in basic language
learning or in some machine translation applications where a
rough understanding of words is sufficient. It is generally not
recommended for conveying complex ideas or emotions, as it
can result in awkward , incorrect or misleading interpretations.
•Example (Hindi to English):
•Original (Hindi): नाचना नहीं जानती, आंगन टेढ़ा. (naach naa Jaane,
aangan tedha)
•Literal (word to word) translation (English): does not know to
dance, blames the courtyard as crooked
•This idiom means Someone blames external factors for their
own shortcomings. The word for word translation is too
literal and doesn't sound natural in English.
•The correct equivalent would be: a bird work, man always
blames his tools.

186. •Formal translation strives for accuracy, but with an attempt at
some readability, while word-to-word translation is purely literal,
making it less useful for meaningful communication in real word
contexts.
•Formal translation is best for cases where exact meaning is
important, whereas word to word translation is helpful when
breaking down the meanings of individual words, especially in
language study,
•In practice, a formal translation might lane slightly towards
readability, while word to word translation, prioritises fidelity to
individual words without making adjustments for syntax or
idiomatic usage.
•Formal translation is preferred when accuracy is crucial, such as in
legal, academic, or scientific texts, while word to word translation
is often used for vocabulary, learning or in automatic systems
where literal meaning, suffices.

187. Level Formal
translation
Word-to-word
translation
Verbal
Adjust words and
phrasing for readability;
captures intent.
Translates each word
individually, regardless
of readability.
Literal
Keeps structure similar
but allows reordering for
natural flow.
Keeps exact structure,
often resulting in
awkward syntax
Lexical
Selects words that
convey precise or
contextual meaning
Uses basic dictionary
equivalents for each
word

188. •Lexical level:
•The lexical level in translation refers to the process of
selecting words and phrases that accurately conveys the
intended meaning of the original text, considering
nuances, idioms and cultural differences.
•This level of translation is concerned, primarily with
individual words and how each word’s specific meanings
and connotations fit within the sentence and context. At
the lexical level, translation focuses on the selection of
individual words or terms. The lexical level is particularly
important when it comes to convey specialised or
nuanced vocabulary, such as legal or technical terms.

189. •Strategies for Lexical-level translation:
1.Using contextual clues: understanding this surrounding text
to choose the correct meaning or answers.
2.Employing cultural equivalents: replacing idioms, illusions or
cultural references with equivalents in the target language
that carry a similar impact
3.Adopting tone and formality: choosing words that match the
formality or tone of the original text.
4.Consulting subject matter experts: for technical or
specialised texts, translator may consult experts to ensure
accuracy in the target language.
5.Adding explanations: when no direct equivalent exists,
translator might add brief explanations to clarify the
meaning, especially for cultural or technical references.

190. Semantic translation
•Semantic translation is an approach that focuses
on conveying the deeper meanings, cultural
nuances, and connotations behind words and
phrases rather than really translating each word
or maintaining rigid syntactic structure. It's often
used for texts that demand a high degree of
interpretation and sensitivity to the source
materials, intent, such as literary works,
philosophical texts, poetry or culturally rich
content.

191. •Semantic translation aims to capture the sense and
subtext of the original text, focusing on the
meaning, intention and emotional tone of each word
and phrase. It differs from literal or word – to –
word translation by prioritising the ideas conveyed
rather than the exact wording.
•The purpose is to preserve the sense of the original
text; semantic translation attempts to bridge the
cultural, emotional and intellectual experiences of
the source and target audiences. This approach is
particularly important for sensitive, nuanced, or
culturally rich texts, where strict adherence to form
could misrepresent or dilute meaning.

192. •It aims to preserve the meaning, emotional
resonance, and cultural context of the original text,
ensuring that it conveys the intended message as
accurately as possible in the target language. This
type of translation is particularly effective for
literary works, poetry, advertisements, and media,
where cultural preferences, idiomatic expressions,
and to play a significant role. Unlike formal
translation, which focuses on word for word,
accuracy, semantic translation, emphasises the
preservation of meaning, even if it means, adjusting
the structure or a vocabulary.

193. •Comparison with other types of
translation:
1.Literal translation: focuses on directly converting each
word into its equivalent in the target language without
necessarily capturing idiomatic, meaning or cultural
nuances.
2.Word for word translation: strict, often dictionary
based approach that translates each word directly,
potentially leading to awkward or incorrect phrasing
3.Semantic translation: emphasises meaning over exact
word alignment. It captures the emotional and cultural
significance, making it less literal and more
interpretative.

194. •For example:
•Original text (English): “Red bull gives you wings”
•literal translation (Hindi): रेड बुल आपको पंख देता है
•Semantic translation (Hindi): रेड बुल आपको ऊर्जा देता है
•Explanation: the metaphor of wings, the original slogan
symbolises energy and excitement. The semantic
translation at top hits by focusing on energy, which
resonates more directly with the Hindi audience.

195. •In translation, semantic translation ensures that the
core meaning, tone and emotional impact of the
original content are preserved, making it more relatable
and understandable for the target audience. By adapting
idioms, metaphor, casual language, and cultural
references, The translation conveys the message in a
way that resonates with the linguistic and cultural
nuances of the Hindi speaking audience. This approach
is essential in various contexts, including literature,
advertisement, media, social media, and everyday
communication.

196. •Characteristics of semantic translation:
1.Context driven: each word or phrase is translated with
its context in mind, considering surrounding text, cultural
references, idiomatic expressions, and intended audience.
The main goal is to retain the meaning of the source text,
even if the exact wording is altered in the target
language.
2.Focus on connotation: semantic translation seeks to
convey not only the literal meaning, but also the
connotations, implied meanings and emotional weight

197. 3. Cultural sensitivity: adaptations are made so that the text
fits the cultural and societal norms of the target language,
making the message both meaningful and relatable. It
recognises and speaks cultural differences, often adapting
references, or idioms to something relatable in the target
language while maintaining the original message.
4. Preservation of tone and style: it aims to reflect the original
text’s tone, style as closely as possible, even if this requires
deviate from a strict literal translation. In literary or emotional
texts, semantic translation ensures that tone and emotional
impact of the original text are retained.
5. Natural flow: the translated text should sound natural and
fluent in the target language, rather than awkward or forced.
This involves restructuring sentences or using idiomatic
expressions that align with the culture of the target language.

198. •Applications of semantic translation:
1.Literature and poetry: to preserve stylistic nuances,
literary devices, and emotional undertones that are often
unique to the original language.
2.Religious texts: to maintain the spiritual and doctrinal
integrity, while making the text accessible to a wider
audience,
3.Philosophical and theoretical texts: to ensure complex
ideas, and concepts are accurately conveyed without
altering the intended meaning of philosophical depth.
4.Cultural and historical texts: to retain references to
historical or cultural context that might be unfamiliar to
the target audience, but essential to understanding the
text.

199. •Strategies in semantic translation:
•Semantic translation is a process by the primary focus is on
retaining the meaning of the original text, specially when it
involves cultural nuances, emotions, or idiomatic
expressions that may not have a direct equivalent in the
target language. The goal is to preserve the intended
message, tone, and context, even if that means deviating
from a word for word translation.
1. Interpreting idioms and phrases: instead of directly translating
idioms, which may not make sense in the target language, a
semantic translator finds phrases or explanations that convey
the same idea.
2. Adapting cultural references: adjusting references to
something that holds a similar meaning or emotional impact for
the target audience.

200. 3. Capturing tone and style: replicating the original tone –
whether formal, humorous, melancholy, or ironic – so that
the translator text evokes the same emotional responses.
4. Clarifying implicit meaning: some phrases carry
underlying meanings that may not be immediately clear to
the target audience. The translator might add clarifying
words or rephrase to ensure understanding.
5. Maintaining aesthetic and rhythmic qualities: for poetry
or highly stylistic, texts, semantic translation considers the
flow, rhythm, and aesthetic structure of the language..

201. •Challenges in semantic translation:
1.Ambiguity: many words or phrases carry multiple meanings,
and context alone may clarify which interpretation is
correct.
2.Cultural nuances: what is familiar or advocated in one
culture maybe foreign or meaningless in another. The
translator must know both cultures well enough to convey
the intended impact without losing significance.
3.Balancing fidelity and creativity: while aiming to stay true to
the original, the translator must also make creative choices
to ensure that meaning and emotion are retained.
4.Technical language calling In texts that blend technical or
philosophical content with the stylistic expression, semantic
translation must balance accuracy with readability

202. •Role of semantic translation in media:
•Media, semantic translation play a crucial role in capturing the
essence of news, entertainment, advertisements and cultural
references. Media translation must balance, cultural relevance,
accessibility, and engagement, often going beyond literal
translation to resonate with the audience.
1. News headlines and reporting: in news translation,
maintaining clarity and capturing the tone of the message is crucial.
Media outlets may use somatic translation to ensure that headlines
and articles appeal to the target audiences, cultural understanding.
•Example (Hindi to English):
•Original (Hindi): दिल्ली की हवा में जहर घुला है
•Literal translation: there is poison mixed in the air of Delhi
•Semantic translation: Delhi’s air is heavily polluted

203. 2. Entertainment: film titles and dialogue.
Film and television translation requires understanding the
storyline, culture, references, and emotions conveyed in
dialogues, as literal translations, often lose the essence of
the original.
Example (movie titles):
Original (Hindi): दिलवाले दुल्हनिया ले जागे
Literal translation: The big-hearted will take the bride
Semantic translation: the brave heart will take the bride

204. 3. Advertisements:
Advertisements often rely on cultural context, word, play,
or emotions to attract audiences. Semantic translation in
this context helps capture the spirit of the ad campaign and
engages the audience effectively.
Example (Hindi to English):
Original (Hindi):हमारा साबुन धीमा है
Literal translation: our soap is slow
Semantic translation: are soap lasts longer

205. 4. Cultural references and slogans:
In media, slogans or popular expressions often include
cultural references, unique to our language. Translator must
adopt these to maintain relevance and impact.
Example (Hindi to English):
Original (Hindi): असली स्वाद जीवन का (a tagline from a
Coca-Cola brand)
Literal translation: the true taste of life
Semantic translation: the real flavour of life.

206. 5. Social media posts and hashtags:
Social media language often includes casual, trending or
youth friendly expressions. Translating hashtags and posts
semantically ensures they remain catchy and relevant.
Example (Hindi to English):
Original (Hindi): #दिल_से_देसी
Literal translation: #Desi_from_heart
Semantic translation: # truly Desi

207. 6. Public service announcements (PSAs):
public service announcements often use straightforward. It
impactful language to convey importance. Social messages.
Translating PSAs requires sensitivity to ensure that the
core messages effectively communicated across languages.
Example (English to Hindi)
Origin (English): keep calm, and wear a mask.
Literal translation: शांत रहें, और मास्क पहनें
Semantic translation: सुरक्षित रहें, मास्क पहनें (stay safe, wear a
mask)

208. Grammatical level, including
symbols, images, literary devices,
and style in translation
•When translating a text, the grammatical level
encompasses several linguistic aspects that influence how
meaning, tone and style are conveyed across languages.
•This include:
1.Grammar and syntax
2.Symbols and characters
3.Images and visual representation
4.Literary devices
5.Style

209. 1.Grammar and syntax,
Sentence structure: each language has its own rules for order,
sentence, construction, and punctuation. In translation, it's important
to maintain the grammatical integrity of the source language while
ensuring the target language sentence structure feels natural.
Normally in Hindi, the word order is generally subject-object-verb
(SOV). The verb comes at the end. In English, the word order is
subject-verb-object (SVO). The structure is rearranged while
preserving the meaning.
Tense, aspect and mood: the way tenses and aspects are
expressed may defer between languages, as well as the use of mood
(indicative, subjective, imperative) in sentences.
Agreement: some languages require agreement between nouns,
adjectives, and verbs in terms of gender, number, or case. A
translator needs to navigate these rules in both languages.

210. 2. Symbols and characters:
Alphabet and writing systems: if the languages in
question have different writing systems (e.g., translating
from Chinese characters to the latin alphabet), this
becomes a major consideration in the translation.
Cultural symbols: some words or symbols might have
particular cultural meaning or connotations in one
language that don't directly translate. Translator may need
to find a corresponding symbol, metaphor, or explanation
in the target language.

211. 3. Images and visual representation:
Metaphor and imagery: in literary translations, visual
imagery, or metaphorical language must often be adapted to
resonate with the target audience. For example, a metaphor
that is rooted in the flora of one culture may need to be
replaced with one from the flora of the target culture to
maintain the visual impact.
Text formatting: in some contexts (e.g., poetry, comic
books, or advertising), the visual presentation of text – font,
line breaks, emphasis – plays an important role. These
stylistic elements might need to be reserved or creatively
adapted to the target language.

212. 4. Literary devices:
Alliteration, assonance, and rhyme: in poetry or literary prose,
these devices might need to be preserved or creatively reimagined in
the translation to maintain the original musicality, rhythm, or sound play,
Irony, Sarcasm and humour: these devices often rely on linguistic
inventions, cultural references, and tone. Translator must find ways to
recreate the intent and effect of these devices in the target language.
Ambiguity and wordplay: wordplay (examples, puns, double
meanings), presents a challenge, as its effectiveness often depends on
the specific phonetic and semantic properties of the language. The
translator may need to adopt or even substitute play with a different
device that works in the target language.
Symbolism: symbols that carry weight in one culture may need
adaptation or explanation when translator. Symbols resonance in the
target language may not have the same. Cultural significance in the
target language translator carries similar, emotional, or thematic weight

213. 5. Style:
Formality and register: different languages have various levels
of formality and different ways of expressing politeness or respect
(example, the use of ‘tu’ vs ‘voi’ in Italian, or honorific in Japanese). A
translator must maintain the appropriate level of formality, tone and
a voice in the translation.
Narrative style: the stylistic tone source text – whether it is
collocate, academic, poetic or casual – needs be reflected in the
translation. This might require adjusting sentence, structure, what
choice and even altering the register to suit the target audience.
Cultural idioms: certain idiomatic expressions may translate
directly, but can be substituted with equivalent expressions or
adopted creatively. Some translators may opt for a “dynamic”
translation (focusing on meaning over form), rather than a “literal”
one.

214. •Challenges in translating these elements:
1.Loss of meaning: some elements of style, wordplay,
or cultural references may be impossible to translate
directly, requiring the translator to find creative solutions
or even provide a footnote or explanation
2.Cultural differences: the meaning of a literary
device, symbol, our image differ across cultures, so the
translator must strike a balance between fidelity to the
original text and accessibility for the target audience.
3.Preserving the original voice: achieving a balance
between maintain the original tone and adopting it to fit
to the target languages, idiomatic and stylistic norms is a
key challenge for translator, particularly in literary works.

215. •In literary translation, the grammatical level involves for
more than just syntax and morphology. It requires
careful attention to measure, cultural symbols, literary
devices and stylistic answers. Translator must creatively
navigate this linguistic and cultural factors to produce a
faithful, coherent and encouraging text in the target
language that resonates with its intended audience
while maintaining the spirit of the original work. While
some expressions and cultural symbols may be directly
translator, others require adoption to make sense in the
target language, ensuring that the translation fails
natural, and fluent to the reader.

216. Adaptation and transfer of
form or inter-media translation
•Adaptation and transfer of form, often called inter-
media translation, refers to the process of translating
not just between languages but across different media
or forms of expressions. This includes transferring a
story, idea or content from one medium to another –
such as from a novel to a film, a poem to a song, or a
graphic novel to a video game. It can also involve
transforming content between different artistic or
communicative forms, such as painting to
photography or oral tradition to written text.

217. •Adaptation and inter – media translation, refer to the
process of transferring a text or work from one form
or medium to another. This can involve changing the
form of expression (example, from a novel to a film
or a play to a video game) or shifting the medium of
communication, (example, from literature to Vishwa
arts, or from a book to work comic). These processes
are essential in many culture and creative industries
where one medium might provide a richer or more
encouraging experience for the target audience than
another.

218. 1. Adaptation:
Adaptation is a process of taking a work from one medium and
transforming it into another while attempting to preserve its core
meaning, themes, and emotional restaurants. It often involves change in
form, structure and content to better suit the conventions and strengths
of the new medium.
Examples of adaptation:
a. Literary adaptations (book 2 film/TV):
Example: the Lord of the rings.
In this case, the rich, detailed narrative and world building from the novel
are contained and adjusted for a film formats. Some plot points and
characters are removed or altered to fit the pacing to a film, while
others are introduced to help visualise the fantastical world.
Adaptation process: extensive changes to structure, character,
development, and visual representations are made. The transition from a
return text to a wish medium requires considerable modification.

219. b. Theatre to film adaptation:
Example: les miserables (musical to film)
The musical was adopted from Victor Hugo’s novel into our
stage production and then made into a film.
Adaptation process: the theatrical musical numbers and
sets had to be adopted for the cinematic medium. Some
aspects where enhanced with visual effects, whereas others,
such as the performances, where tailored for film acting
techniques rather than stage performance.

220. c. Video game adaptation (book to game)
Example: the Witcher (book series by Andrzej
Sapkowski show video games and then TV web series)
The plot of the Witcher games tops, the original of the
novels, transforming the story into an interactive
experience, where players make choices, affecting the plot.
Adaptation process: the main storyline was retained,
but much of the narrative was adjusted to make it suitable
for interactive gameplay. The character of Geralt of Rivia,
for example, is controlled by the player, which adds a new
dimension of character development, and choice.

221. 2. Inter-Media translation:
Inter-media translation refers to the transfer of content
from one medium to another in ways that are not
necessarily literacy, but focus more on the semiotic
transformation of meaning from one form of media to
another. For example, the process of turning a book into a
film involves a semiotic shift from the textual science
system to a official one.

222. Examples of inter-media translation:
a. Comic books to film:
Example: the Avengers (Marvel, comic books to the Marvel cinematic
universe films),
The adventures comic books, which use a mix of visual art and texts to
tell stories, a transformed into blockbuster film that focus heavily on visual
effects, sound and action. While the core of the story remains the same,
the medium associates changes in how action sequences are framed, how
characters are traded, and how the narrative unfolds in a cinematic space.
Inter-media process: the original comics, art style, pacing and visual
storytelling are adopted into a 3D, action-packed, visual experience.
Dialogue and character arcs are often condensed or altered to better fit
the pacing and tone of the film. A film also brings a different experience to
the audience than a comic dance, as the viewer is more passive, absorbing
the story, visually and aurally, rather than actively encouraging with a
sequential imagery of a comic

223. b. Film to video game:
Example: Star Wars (films to video games)
Several videos games have been adopted from the Star Wars film
franchise, including games like Star Wars: knights of the old Republic
(RPG) and Star Wars: battlefront. This video games take the narrative and
universe of the Star Wars films and imagining them within an interactive
format. Players can assume the role of iconic characters like us Luke
Skywalker most Darth Vader, explore key locations like Tatooni or the
death star, and experience epic space battles or duels with lightsabers.
Inter media process: the iconic scenes and characters are translated
into the video game medium, whether the player actively participate is in
the story. By the basic world, building and characters remain, video game,
adaptations, often expand upon or alter the plot to give players, more
agency and freedom. Gameplay machine like combat, exploration, and
progression systems introduce new ways of interacting with the material.
Film provides a fixed narrative, whereas a video game allows for choice
and often emphasises action oriented, player, driven experience, with
sometimes altered pacing to accommodate interactive gameplay.

224. c. Literature to film:
Example: the Lord of the rings
Peter Jackson is the Lord of the rings trilogy, adapts JRR Tolkien’s complex,
rich lady, detailed nobles into visually immersive films. The films remain
relatively faithful to the core plot and characters, but adjustments were made
to streamline the narrate, contains characters, and focus on visual spectacle.
Key subplots from the novels, like the journey of Tom Bombadil, where
omitted and the characterisation of certain figures was altered to fit the
cinematic medium.
Inter-media process: in adapting Tolkien’s novels, the descriptive
language, inner monologues, and expensive world Building found in the books
are contained into visual storytelling. Film requires some emphasis on
dialogue, action, and visual effects to convey the scope of middle earth, while
the books 12 deeper into the characters, thoughts and elaborate history.
Film adaptations often rely on performance, cinematography, and special
effects revolve the rich atmosphere of the books, using landscape, CGI, and
practical effects to represent the world Tolkien created. While the books
invite readers into a more imaginative and introspective experience, the films
are a more immediate, sensory-driven way to experience the world.

225. d. Television to novel:
Example: the X – files (TV series to novel adaptations). The X files,
television series, which follows FBI agents, moulder and Scully as they
investigate, paranormal events, has inspired a series of novels that expands
on the universe of the show. While the novels stay true to the shows,
core themes and characters, they often love for deeper exploration of
certain storylines and can present events in a more descriptive, internally
reflective man, then the fast-paced nature of television allows.
Inter-media process: adopting the X files TV series interval allows for
more detailed character development, background, information, and
nuanced narrative exploration. The books can develop deeper into the
psychological aspects of the agents, and the cases they investigate, while
the TV series often focuses on episodic storytelling with a blunt of
mystery, action, and suspense. The return format enables greater flexibility
in pacing and exploration of themes, while the visual medium of television,
prioritises, immediate engagement and visual impact.

226. Media transfer infection to film or drama
to film, elements of style

227. We shall discuss several case studies that illustrate the adaptation of Indian
novels, play, and other media into Successful films, showcasing the stylistic
choices and create a decisions that were made during the transition:
Example: Haider – adaptation from Hamlet by William Shakespeare.
Background: Vishal Bhardwaj’s Haider transposes Shakespeare’s Hamlet
into the politically charged atmosphere of 1990s, Kashmir. The film blends the
plot of Hamlet with the regional conflict, creating a nuanced narrative on
identity, revenge, and trauma.
Stylistic elements:
Setting and context: Kashmir landscape is integral to the film's
atmosphere, portraying the turbulence of Hamlet's internal struggle within a
similarly, tumultuous political setting.
Political undertones: the film uses Hamlet, original themes of bar and
revenge, casting them in the context of Kashmir's history, adding depth, and
cultural relevance.
Visual, and sound symbolism: the soundtrack, with its use of Kashmir,
folk music, and the cold, muted, cinematography, emphasise themes of
alienation and melancholy

228. Example:
Harry Potter and the sorcerer's stone:
Inter media process: the Harry Potter books are beloved for their
detailed world building, character, development, and intricate plots. In
adopting the first book into a film, significant cuts were made to the narrative
to streamline the story. The films focused on major plot points and
characters, while many subplots and background details from the books were
omitted or simplified. Certain scenes were reimagined or expanded, using
CGI and special effects to bring the magical world to life. The inner thoughts
and emotional depth of characters, which are prominent in the novels, had to
be conveyed through performance, dialogue, and visual cues in the films.
Challenges of novel to film transfer: novels, often rely on inner
monologue, descriptions, and complex world building, which are harder to
convey in a visual, time, constraint, medium, like a film. In film, a lot of
emphasise is placed on action, dialogue and visual spectacle, which can
sometimes mean that the slower, more reflective base of the novel is
contained or omitted.

229. Use of imagery, non-verbal
communication, and intonation in
translation

230. •Imagery, non-verbal communication, and intonation
are crucial in adopting stories from return text to
medium like film. They help communicate
emotions, themes, and character dynamics without
relying solely on dialogue, and they add layers of
meaning that enhance the viewers experience.

231. 1. Imagery:
a. Visual symbolism: imagery of replace descriptive language
from novels. For instance, in Haider, (adopted from Hamlet) the use
of snow covered landscapes, barren, trees, and shadows symbolises
isolation, death and political coldness. Such imagery helps convey
emotional tones, and themes without words.
b. Colour and light: colour schemes and lighting, choices,
communicate mood and character states. For example, in Devdas,
the use of red in Paro’s attire and surroundings contrast with the
darker, sombre lighting around Devdas, emphasising the warmth and
vibrant of Paro’s love and the despair that defines Devdas’ journey.
c. Props and costumes design: film makers, use props and
costumes as imagery to reflect character identities and cultural
backgrounds. In 2 states, traditional attire and cultural decorations
are frequently shown to signify the cultural clash between north and
South India.

232. 2. Non-verbal communication:
a. Facial expressions: in adaptations, actors, facial expressions,
often reveal fertilities in characters in their lives that might be
detailed in prose. For example, in Maqbool, the lead actors, facial
micro-expressions convey guilt, fear, and ambition, elements that
in a novel might be narrated in the characters inner thoughts.
b. Body language: body moments and positioning conveyor
relationships, power dynamics, and emotional status. For example,
in Guide, the protagonist Raju's changing posture – from
confidence and apprise to Hans and defeated – mirrors his moral
decline and subsequent redemption.
c. Gestures and touch: in adaptations of romantic novels, such
as Parineeta, subtle gestures like a lingering touch or a slight
hesitation, convey affection, or tension that might otherwise be
expressed through narrative

233. 3. Intonation:
a. Tone of voice: in film, actors, Intonation helps Express
emotional nuances that would otherwise be conveyed through in a
dialogue in books. For example, in Haider, haters townships from an
anchor to helplessness to Sorrow, capturing the psychological depth
and turmoil of his character without the need for lengthy explanations.
b. Processes and silence: silence and deliberate processes at dramatic
weight, and can imply hesitation, reflection, or tension. In Guide,
moment of silence during Raju's transformation, add a sense of
introspection, enhancing his journey from materialism to spirituality.
c. Dialect and accent: the use of regional accents, specific to different
characters in adaptations like 2 stages, highlights cultural differences
and contributes to authenticity. Accents and dialogues emphasise social
or regional identities, giving a deeper sense of place and belonging to
characters.

234. •How these elements enhance translation from text
to screen:
a. Emotional depth: imagery and non-verbal cues create
emotional engagement by helping viewers, feel what characters
experience without needing detailed explanation. This depth builds
empathy and allows audience to connect visually,
b. Cultural nuances: Intonation, dialect and non-verbal
communication helps audiences, understand cultural context,
especially when adapting novels, rooted in specific traditions or
regions, like Parineeta, or two stages.
c. Thematic resonance: by translating themes into visual and
auditory forms, filmmakers can amplify or reinterpret themes from
novels. For instance, in Maqbool, the shadows and lighting not only
follow the plot of Macbeth, but also convey themes of moral DK
and the inevitable downfall due to ambition.

235. Free translation: the translator’s license
and question of zero translatability:
•Free translation refers to a flexible approach with
the translator, prioritises conveying the essence,
meaning or emotional impact of the original text
rather than hearing strictly to its literal wording.
This method is often applied when cultural
differences, linguistic structures, or idiomatic
expressions, take a word for translation,
impractical or ineffective.

236. The translator license:
The translator license refers to the creative freedom,
granted to translator to adopt a source text to a target
language where preserving its intent, tone, and impact.
This involves:
1. Adopting cultural preferences: translator may alter
culturally specific elements to make them comprehensive to
the target audience.
For example: in Slumdog millionaire, certain cultural phrases
and situations were adjusted in the screen play to resonate
with global audience.

237. 2. Recreating idiomatic expressions: lateral
translations of idioms often fail.
For example: a Hindi idiom like “naach na jaane aangan tadka”
might be freely translated as “a poor craft man blames his
tools” in English to capture the meaning rather than the words.
3. Preserving tone and emotional resonance:
translator might modify text to maintain the emotional weight
of the original. In poetry, for instance, rhythm and mood often
outweigh literal accuracy.
4. Reimagining structure: translator may rearrange
narrative elements to fit the storytelling conventions of the
target culture or medium. For instance, film adaptations of
novels like the namaz by Jhumpa Lahiri use non-linear
storytelling to better capture themes of identity and
displacement.

238. Zero translatability:
Zero translate ability rises when concepts: expressions or
cultural nuances in the source language cannot be
adequately conveyed in the target language. This challenge
often stems from:
1. Cultural-specific contexts: words or practises tied
deeply to a culture may lack equivalents.
For instance: the Hindi term Jugaad, denoting a frugal
innovation or improvised solution, has no perfect English
counterpart

239. 2. Untranslatable idioms and metaphors: some
idioms lose their impact when translated directly.
For example, dil ka tadka, (literally, a piece of the heart) convey
deep affection in Hindi, but might seem overly dramatic in
English.
3. Stylistic and phonetic limitations: poetry and
wordplay often resist translation due to differences in phonetics
and structures. In Hindi, chand chhupa badal mein captures
lyrical beauty that may not fully transfer into another language.
4. Philosophical or spiritual concepts: terms like
dharma or karma from Sanskrit/Hindi have layered meanings tied
to Indian philosophy, which are challenging to encapsulate in a
single English word.

240. Balancing free translation and fidelity:
1. Prioritising audience: a translator approach often
depends on the intended audience. For example, translating
regional Indian play for an international film audience might
involve simplify culturally dense references to improve
accessibility.
2. Compromise between literal and free
translation: in cases where zero translate ability arises,
translator, often opt for explanations or use analogies to
bridge the gap.
For example: in adapting Shatranj Ke Khiladi (the chess
players) by Premchand, the cultural setting and symbolic
significance of chess required detailed visual and narrative
enhancement in Sathyajit Ray’s film version.

241. Ethical consideration:
1. Faithfulness vs creativity: excessive liberty in free
translation may distort the original’s intent, while strict
fidelity can alienate or confuse the audience.
2. Responsibility to the source: translator’s license
must respect the author's voice, ensuring cultural and
linguistic integrity even while adapting for a new context.
Free translation and the question of zero translatability
highlight the delicate balance between creativity and fidelity
in translation. While translators wield significant creative
power, they must navigate cultural, linguistic and emotional
boundaries with care, striving to bridge the gap between
languages and cultures without losing the soul of the
original work.

242. Chapter 3
Translation and adaptation