Twenieth-CenturyEng. Enflish-Literature.ppsx

lecture

1. Faculty of Languages
Department of Literature
Semester 6
20
th
Century English
Literature
Dr.Amina Megheirbi
Lecture 14

2. Drama in the Twentieth
Century
•TwentiethCenturyBritishtheatreiscommonlybelieved
tohavestartedinDublin,Irelandwiththefoundationof
theIrishLiteraryTheater(1899)byWilliamB.Yeats,
LadyGregory,andJ.M.Synge.
•TheirpurposewastoprovideaspecificallyCelticand
Irishvenuethatproducedworksthat“stage[d]thedeeper
emotionsofIreland.”
•TheplaywrightsoftheIrishLiteraryTheater(which
laterbecametheAbbeyTheater,asitisknowntoday)
werepartoftheliteraryrevival.I
•nEnglandthewell-madeplaygenrewasbeingrejected
andreplacedwithactorsanddirectorswhowere
committedtobringingbothreformandaseriousaudience
tothetheatrebyappealingtotheyounger,socially
consciousandpoliticallyalertcrowd.

3. The early twentieth century denoted the split between ‘frocks and frills’ drama and serious
works, following in the footsteps of many other European countries.
The West End, England’s Broadway (a mainstream professional theatre staged in the large
theatres of London), tended to produce the musical comedies and well-made plays, while
smaller theatres and Irish venues took a new direction. The new direction was political,
satirical, and rebellious.
Common themes in the new early 20th century drama were political, reflecting the unease
or rebellion of the workers against the state, philosophical, delving into the who and why
of human life and existence, and revolutionary, exploring the themes ofcolonization and
loss of territory.

4. They explored common societal business practices (conditions of factories), new
political ideologies (socialism), or the rise of a repressed sector of the population
(women).
Industrialization also had an impact on Twentieth century drama, resulting in plays
lamenting the alienation of humans in an increasingly mechanical world. Not only did
Industrialization result in alienation; so did the wars.
Between the wars, two types of theatre reined. In the West End, the middle class
attended popular, conservative theatre dominated byNoël CowardandG.B. Shaw.

5. After the wars, taboos were broken and new writers, directors, and actors emerged
with different views.
Many played with the idea of reality, some were radically political, others questioned
the legitimacy of previously unassailable beliefs.
Towards the end of the century, the term ‘theatre of exorcism’ came into use due to
the amount of plays conjuring the past in order to confront and accept it.
Playwrights towards the end of the century count among their numbers:Samuel
Beckett,Harold Pinter, Andrew Lloyd Webber,Brian Friel,Caryl Churchill, andTom
Stoppard.
The last act of the century was a turn back towards realism as well as the founding of
Europe’s first children’s cultural center.

6. TYPES OF MODERN DRAMA
•Realism
•Realism,intheater,wasmeanttobeadirectobservationofhumanbehavior.Itbeganasaway
tomaketheatermoreusefultosociety,awaytoholdamirroruptosociety.Becauseofthis
thrusttowardsthe“real”playwrightsstartedusingmorecontemporarysettings,backgrounds
andcharacters.
•Social Realism
•SocialRealismbeganshowingupinplaysduringthe1930s.Thisrealismhadapolitical
consciencebehinditbecausetheworldwasinadepression.Theseplayspaintedaharshpicture
ofruralpoverty.Thedramabegantoaimatshowinggovernmentsthepenaltiesofunrestrained
capitalismandthedepressionsthatlaxeconomiescreated.Oneofthemaincontributorstothis
stylewasG.B.Shaw.

7. •Avant Garde Theatre
•“Dramatic truth couldn’t be found in the tangibleness of realistic drama, but in
symbols, images, legends, myths, fantasies, and dreams”(Klaus)
•Symbolism/Aestheticism
•InEngland,SymbolismwasalsoknownasAestheticism.Averystylizedformatof
dramawhereindreamsandfantasieswerecommonplotdevices,Aestheticismwas
usedbynumerousplaywrightsfromYeatstoPinter.Thestagingwashighlystylized,
usuallyusingminimalsetpiecesandvagueblocking.Whiletheplaywrightswho
couldbeconsideredAestheticistslivedandworkedatthebeginningofthecentury,it
influencedallofthefollowingstyles.

8. •Surrealism
•LikeAestheticism,Surrealismhasitsbaseinthemystical.Itdevelopedthe
physicalityoftheatreanddownplayedwords,hopingtoinfluenceitsaudiences
throughaction.
•Othercommoncharacteristicsofsurrealplaysareunexpectedcomparisonsand
surprise.ThemostfamousBritishplaywrightinthe20ssurrealiststyleisSamuel
Beckett.
•TheatreofCrueltyisasubsetofsurrealismandwasmotivatedbyanideaof
AntoninArtaud.Itarguestheideathattheatreisa“representationalmedium”and
triedtobringcurrentideasandexperiencestotheaudiencethroughparticipation
and“ritualistictheaterexperiments.”
•Artaudthoughtthattheatreshouldpresentandrepresentequally.Thistypeof
theatrereliesdeeplyonmetaphorsandrarelyincludedadescriptionofhowitcould
beperformed.

9. The Theatre of the Absurd
The‘TheatreoftheAbsurd’isamovementmadeupofmanydiverseplays,mostof
whichwerewrittenbetween1940and1960.
Whenfirstperformed,theseplaysshockedtheiraudiencesastheywerestartlingly
differentthananythingthathadbeenpreviouslystaged.
Infact,manyofthemwerelabelledas“anti-plays.”Inanattempttoclarifyanddefine
thisradicalmovement,MartinEsslincoinedtheterm“TheTheatreoftheAbsurd”in
his1960bookofthesamename.Hedefineditassuch,becausealloftheplays
emphasizedtheabsurdityofthehumancondition.
Whereaswetendtousetheword“absurd”synonymouslywith“ridiculous,”Esslin
wasreferringtotheoriginalmeaningoftheword–‘outofharmonywithreasonor
propriety;illogical’.
Essentially,eachplayrendersman’sexistenceasillogical,andmoreover,meaningless.
Thisideawasareactiontothe“collapseofmoral,religious,political,andsocial
structures”followingthetwoWorldWarsoftheTwentiethCentury.

10. THEMES
Whileabsurdistplaysfeatureawidevarietyofsubjectmatter,therearecertain
themes,orideas,whichreoccurfrequentlywithinthemovement.
Thesethemesaretheproductofanewattitudethatsweptpost-WorldWarIIEurope.
Itconsistedprimarilyoftheacknowledgementthatthe“certitudes”and
“assumptions”ofpriorgenerationshad“beentestedandfoundwanting,thatthey
[were]discreditedascheapandsomewhatchildishillusions”(Esslin23).
Twothemesthatreoccurfrequentlythroughoutabsurdistdramasareameaningless
worldandtheisolationoftheindividual.

11. AWorldWithoutMeaning
ThedeclineofreligiousfaithintheTwentiethCenturyispartlyresponsibleforthegrowing
notionthatlifehadnoidentifiablepurpose.Whereasonewhobelievesintheafterlifeseeslife
asameansofgettingthere,onewhodoesnotbelieveislefttoeitherconcludethatthereisno
purposeortofindanalternativejustificationforhis/herlife.
Inhisplay,TheChairs,Ionescocapitalizesonthismeaninglessness.Throughouttheplay,
thetwomaincharacterspreparechairsforinvisibleguestswhoareallcomingtohearthe
meaningoflifeasdeclaredbyanorator.Themaincharacterskillthemselvesjustbeforehe
speaksandthentheaudiencediscoversthattheoratorisadeaf-mute.Ionescohimself
describedthesubjectoftheplayas,“notthemessage,northefailuresoflife,northemoral
disasterofthetwooldpeople,butthechairsthemselves;thatistosay,theabsenceofpeople,
theabsenceoftheemperor,theabsenceofGod,theabsenceofmatter,theunrealityofthe
world,metaphysicalemptiness”(qtd.inEsslin152).Thiskindofworldviewischaracteristic
oftheTheatreoftheAbsurd.

12. TheIsolationoftheIndividual
TheplaywrightsinvolvedwiththeTheatreoftheAbsurdwerenotconsciousof
belongingtoamovementwhilewritingtheirplays.Ironically,theyeachthoughtof
himselfas“aloneoutsider,cutoffandisolatedin[hisown]privateworld”(Esslin22).
Thisperspectiveclearlypenetratestheirwork,asmostoftheplaysemphasizethe
isolationoftheindividual,orman’sinabilitytoconnectwithothers.
SamuelBeckett’sWaitingforGodot(1952),themostwell-knownplayfromthe
absurdistmovement,featuresthisidea.Thetwomaincharacters,Vladimirand
Estragon,arebothtrampswhospendtheentiretyoftheplayontheoutskirtsofsociety.
Thoughtheyhaveeachother,theyareatthesametimeisolatedfromoneanother.One
indicationofthisisthattheyareneverabletoadequatelycommunicate;their
conversationgoesincircles.

13. Form
Theformofapieceofartisoftenneglectedinfavorofitssubjectmatter.More
specifically,dramaisoftenstudiedintermsofwhatitissayingratherthaninhowitis
sayingit.(Atleastthisissoinmostacademicsettingsbecausestudentstypicallyreada
playratherthanseeitperformed.)
Form,however,isarguablythemostimportantaspectofabsurdistplays.Itiswhat
separatesthemfromothersimilarlythemedmovements.
Essentially,theseplaywrightswerereactingagainstrealismbecauseitdidnotalign
withtheirobjectives.Theydidnotwanttoshowlifeasitreallywas,butrather,the
inner-lifeofman–whatwasgoingoninsidehishead.

14. DevaluationofLanguage
Onecharacteristicofthispoeticformwasthedevaluationoflanguage.The
absurddramatistsfeltthatconventionallanguagehadfailedman–itwasan
inadequatemeansofcommunication.
Asaresult,themovementofthecharactersonstageoftencontradictstheirwords
ordialogue.Forexample,bothactsofWaitingforGodotconcludewiththeline
“Yes,let’sgo,”onlytobefollowedbythestagedirection,“Theydonotmove”
(Beckett6).
Essentially,thedramatistsaretryingtoemphasizeadisconnectbetween“word
andobject,meaningandreality,consciousnessandtheworld”(Blocker1).
Moreover,indoingsotheyexposehowunreliablelanguageis;onecaneasilysay
onethinganddotheopposite.

15. Anothercommonwayinwhichtheypresentedtheuselessnessoflanguagewasby
havingtheircharactersconstantlyspeakincliches,oroverused,tiredexpressions.
OneprimeexampleofthisisfromIonesco’sTheBaldSoprano:
•Mrs.Martin:Howcuriousitis,goodLord,howbizarre!…
•Mr.Martin[musing]:Howcuriousitis,howcuriousitis,howcuriousitis,and
what a coincidence!
(Ionesco14).
Thephrase“howcuriousitis”hasbeensaidsomanytimes,evenoutsideofthis
play,thatithaslostitsmeaning.Therefore,theirrepetitionofitisempty–theyare
speakingwithoutactuallycommunicating.
Basically,thedramatistsareclaimingthatlanguagehasbecomeameansof
occupyingtimeandspaceratherthanawaytoeffectivelycommunicatewithone
another.

16. LackofPlot
Anotherpoeticaspectofabsurdistplaysisthattheylackaplotoraclearbeginningand
endwithapurposefuldevelopmentinbetween.
Thereisusuallyagreatdealofrepetitioninbothlanguageandaction,whichsuggests
thattheplayisn’tactually“goinganywhere.”
InWaitingforGodot,thestagedirectionsindicatethatVladimirandEstragonare
constantlymoving.Forexample,theyrepeatedly“rummage”throughtheirpocketsand
“peer”intotheirhats.
Theseactionsaresofrequent,however,thattheaudiencebeginstofeelasiftheyare
watchingthesamethingoverandoveragain.Theycouldevenbecalledstaticactionsas
theycontributenothingtotheflowoftheplay.
YetthislackofpurposefulmovementinWaitingforGodotandmostotherabsurdist
dramasisintentional.Therefore,ifonedoesnotviewtheplayasastory,butratherasa
singleideabeingactedout,thissupposedlackofplotbecomesirrelevant.

17. Conclusion
Aboveall,theabsurddramatistssoughttoreconcilemanwiththemodernworld.
Esslineloquentlystatesthat“thedignityofmanliesinhisabilitytofacereality
inallitssenselessness;toacceptitfreely,withoutfear,withoutillusions–andto
laughatit”(Esslin429).
Theabsurddramatistswerethefirsttopropagatethisideaofacceptanceinthe
faceofabsurdity.Indoingso,theychallengedthepreconceptionsofwhatdoesand
doesnotconstitutetheatre.
Indeed,theabsurddramatistsredefinedtheartformandcreatedaspaceinwhich
succeedingmovementscouldflourish.

18. •KeyFigures
SamuelBeckett(1906-1989)
ArthurAdamov(1908-1970)
EugeneIonesco(1909-1994)
JeanGenet(1910-1986)
EdwardAlbee(1928)
HaroldPinter(1930-2008)
TomStoppard(1937)