Understanding the Structure of Arguments(LR).pptx

A presentation covering the structure of logical arguments, types of arguments, categorical proposition, mood, figure, classical square of opposition, equivalent statements in arguments and connotation and denotation of terms.

1. UniT Vi Logical Reasoning Presented by Sushruti M S

2. Logic and Logical Reasoning: Why should we study logic? Critical thinking and analysis To make strong and valid arguments One of the bases of research LOGICAL REASONING - "A scientific way of thinking about ideas". (Cambridge dictionary) LOGIC - Set of principles governing correct/reliable reasoning. It creates coherence . An Introduction

3. A statement supported by evidences / facts Its structure includes two parts : Argument: Meaning and Structure

4. A and B are the premises C is the conclusion A. Public libraries provide learning resources for all ages. B. They provide safe spaces for people to read, study and gather. C. Therefore, public libraries should be funded in every community. A. John is armed. B. He is dangerous. Examples A is the premise B is the conclusion

5. Forms of argument CAUSE AND EFFECT ARGUMENT INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT ABDUCTIVE ARGUMENT ANALOGICAL ARGUMENT

6. Statements are arranged from specific observations to general rule The conclusion may not always be valid as the observations can be limited Inductive Argument Eg. Premises: We have seen 100 roses. All of them were pink. Conclusion: All roses are pink.

7. Statements are arranged from general to specific. Truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion. Deductive argument Eg. Premises: All humans are mammals. All women are humans. Conclusion: All women are mammals.

8. Arguing that because two things are similar , what is true of one is also true of the other. Can be fallacious Analogical argument Eg. Premises: Elephants are mammals. Dolphins are mammals. Elephants have tusks. Conclusion: Thus, dolphins also have tusks.

9. What may happen if certain conditions are present? (Cause>Effect) Making predictions / forecasts CAUSE AND EFFECT argument Premises: There is a high shortage of food due to the increased death of plants The water bodies are drying up. Conclusion: The common cause of these two effects is “there is a drought”. Why something happened? (Effect>Cause) Finding the reason Eg. Premise: It has not rained for one year. Conclusion: A drought will occur.

10. A statement in an argument, consisting of: Categorical Proposition A quantifier A word that represents the quantity (All, some, no) Subject term The first category Predicate term The second category Copula Link word that connects the subject and the predicate (is, is not, are, are not) "All roses are flowers". Quantifier : All Subject term: Roses Predicate term : flowers Copula : are

11. Distributed/Universal Properties of a Categorical Proposition Undistributed/Particular Affirmative Negative QUANTITY QUALITY The use of a quantifier to signify the quantity of the subject term. All roses are flowers. No roses are flowers. Some roses are/aren't flowers Whether the proposition asserts or denies the overlap between the two categories. All roses are flowers. No roses are flowers / Some roses are not flowers

12. Types of Categorical Propositions

13. An argument consisting of 3 categorical propositions. Categorical Syllogism Premises: All mammals have tails. All dogs are mammals. Conclusion: All dogs have tails. MAJOR TERM : Predicate term of the conclusion MINOR TERM : Subject term of the conclusion MIDDLE TERM : Present in both the premises All the three terms occur twice in the syllogism

14. Way of representing the arrangement of the three propositions. 64 moods - 4 are first figures Barbara, Celarent, Darii, Ferio Mood No heroes are cowards. E Some soldiers are cowards. I Thus, some soldiers are not heroes. O

15. Figure Used to understand the position of the middle term in the categorical syllogism. Figures of the four moods : Barbara, Celarent, Darii, Ferio Type answer here

16. Contradictories If one is true, the other is false. Both cannot be true/false together.

17. Contraries If one is true, the other should be false. Both can be false.

18. Sub-contraries If I is true, O is doubtful. If I is false, O is true. Both can be true.

19. Subalterns If A/E is true, I/O is true If I/O is true, A/E may or may not be true.

20. V alid Classical Square of Opposition

21. Equivalence in Propositions Ways of creating equivalents Conversion Conversion by limitation Obversion Contraposition All S are P. > All P are S. All S are P. > Some P are S. All S are P. > No S are non - P. All S are P. > All non - P are non - S. Equivalent propositions are those which mean the same. Eg. All women are mammals. No woman is a non - mammal Switch the positions of the S and P terms. Switch the positions of S and P terms and replace universal with particular. Change the quality and replace the P term with its complement. Switch the position of S and P terms and replace both with their complements.

22. Connotation and Denotation of terms Denotation Connotation Dove A white bird Olive branch Branch of an olive tree Monday Blues A colour Exam fever An immune response A symbol of peace Attempt to compromise / end conflict Feeling bored to work after a weekend Fear of exam Straightforward / dictionary meaning Symbolic / metaphorical / idiomatic meaning