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1. TOPIC :INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMICS &BUSINESS ECONOMICS SUBJECT :BUSINESS ECONOMICS COURSE :BBA.., LL.B.(5-YDC) FACULTY OF LAW

2. PAPER – III : BUSINESS ECONOMICS Unit – I: Business Concepts, Precepts and economic rationale of optimization. Nature and scope of Business economics. Basic problems of an economy – basic concepts and precepts Marginalism , equimarginalism opportunity cost, time prespective , discounting, risk and uncertainty, Efficiency, externality, and trade off, Constrained and unconstrained optimization. Unit – II : Theory of demanf . Factors affecting demand. Demand Function. The law of demand. Demand Schedule – Individual demand schedule and demand curve, market demand schedule and market demand curve. Exceptions to the law of demand. Measurement of elasticity. Point elasticity of demand. Price elasticity, income elasticity and cross elasticity of demand. Factors determining elasticity of demand and demand forecasting. Unit – III : Meaning of Supply. Law of supply. Elasticity’ of supply. Measurement of elasticity of supply. The theory of production. Production function. Equal production curves of isoquants . Marginal rate ofr technical substitution. Law of diminishing returns. Law of variable proportions. Returns to scale. Meaning of cost of production. Prime and supplementary costs. Opportunity cost. Total average and marginal costs. Unit-IV: Short run and long run price determination under perfect, monopoly, monopolistic and oligopoly markets ( competition). Criterion of pricing under various market structures. Pricing strategies and practices. Unit-V: Macro economics and business – Nature, concepts and measurements of national income. Determination of national income. Classical and Keynesian approaches. Types of inflation – Demand pull and cost push inflation. Phillips curve, stagflation. Concepts of economic growth and development. Factors determining growth of an economy Obstacles to development. SYLLABUS

3. ) A. DEFINITION, NATURE OF ECONOMICS SCOPE OF ECONOMICS

4. Meaning of the word ‘Economics’ The word ‘Economics’ originates from a Greek word ‘ Oikonomikos . ’ Th i s G reek w o rd h as t wo p ar t s : – ‘ O i k o s ’ m ea n i n g ‘H o m e’ – and ‘ N o m o s ’ meaning ‘Management . ’ Hence, Economics means ‘Home Management . ’ To arrive at th e current definition of economics, it has taken almost 235 years. I. DEFINITION

5. DEFINITION Adam Smith, who is regarded as Father of Economics , published a book titled ‘ An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations ’ in 1776 . Economics is the study of wealth only and deals with consumption, production, exchange, and distribution of wealth.

6. Economics & Business Economics Those activities of mankind are studied which are concerned with earnings and spending of money. For the successful handling of these activities certain laws and rules are formulated which are known as various theories of economics. Use of these rules & tools provided for analysing business conditions and applying them for arriving at a decision is known as business economics.

7. Meaning & Definition of Business Economics According to Spencer and Siegelman , “ Business Economics may be defined as the integration of economic theory with business practice for the purpose of facilitating decision making by management.” Decision Making : Means selecting one out of a set of two or more alternatives or in other words, making a choice. Planning : Means planning for the business activities to be undertaken for future.

8. NATURE OF ECONOMICS   There is a great controversy among the economists regarding the nature of economics, whether the subject ‘economics’ is considered as science or an art. If it is a science, then either positive science or normative science. )

9. ECONOMICS AS SCIENCE  ‘ Economics’ has several characteristics similar to science. Economics is also a systematic study of knowledge and facts Economics deals with the correlation-ship between cause and effect . All the laws in economics are also universally accepted. Theories and laws of economics are based on experiments. Economics has a scale of measurement . However, the most important question is whether economics is a positive science or a normative science? Positive science deals with all the real things or activities. It gives the solution what is? What was? What will be? It deals with all the practical things. For example, poverty and unemployment are the biggest problems in India. Normative science deals with what ought to be ? What ought to have happened? Normative science offers suggestions to the problems. These statements give the ideas about both good and bad effects of any particular problem or policy. For example, illiteracy is a curse for Indian economy. .

10. ECONOMICS AS ART According to Т.К. Mehta, ‘Knowledge is science, action is art.’ According to Pigou , Marshall etc., economics is also considered as an art. In other way, art is the practical application of knowledge for achieving particular goals . Science gives us principles of any discipline however, art turns all these principles into reality . Therefore, considering the activities in economics, it can claimed be as an art also, because it gives guidance to the solutions of all the economic problems. 1. Solution of problem 2. Verification of economic laws Conclusion: From all the above discussions we can conclude that economics is neither a science nor an art only. However, it is a golden combination of both. According to Cossa , science and art are complementary to each other. Hence, economics is considered as both a science as well as an art.

11. III. SCOPE OF ECONOMICS The scope of economics means the area of the economics study.  Economics can be studied through a) Traditional Approach and (b) Modern Approach . a) Traditional Approach : In the traditional approach, Economics is studied under five major divisions namely: Consumption. Production. Exchange. Distribution. Public finance.

12. b) Modern Approach : In the modern approach, the study of economics is divided into: i ) Microeconomics and ii) Macroeconomics . Microeconomics analyses the economic behaviour of any particular decision making unit such as a household or a firm. Microeconomics studies the flow of economic resources or factors of production from the households It is also known as Price theory. Macroeconomics studies the behaviour of the economic system as a whole or all the decision-making units put together. Macroeconomics deals with the behaviour of aggregates like total employment, gross national product (GNP), national income etc. So, macroeconomics is also known as income theory .

13. B. BASIC CONCEPTS & PRECEPTS : ECONOMIC PROBLEMS, ECONOMIC AGENTS, ECONOMIC ORGANIZATIONS, MARGINALISM, TIME VALUE OF MONEY, OPPORTUNITY COST

14. I. ECONOMIC PROBLEMS The economic problem – sometimes called the basic or central economic problem – asserts that an economy's finite resources are insufficient to satisfy all human wants and needs. It assumes that human wants are unlimited, but the means to satisfy human wants are limited. The economic problem is the problem of rational management of resources or the problem of optimum utilization of resources. It arises because resources are scarce and resources have alternative uses. Had there been unlimited resources to satisfy unlimited wants, there would have been no economic problem. But resources are scarce in relation to the demand of the people. Economic problem is to match limited resources to unlimited wants and needs. Three questions arise from this: • What to produce? - - Problem of allocation of resources • How to produce? – Problem of choice of technique • For whom to produce? – Problem of Distribution

15. What to produce? - 'What and how much will you produce ?‘ e.g . "What should I produce more; laptops or tablets?" The decision to produce one good will reduce the production of the other goods. The economy has to decide based on the basis of importance of various goods. How to produce? This question deals with the assets and procedures used while making the product, also focusing on efficiency. It is the problems of selection of factor combination, labour intensive or capital intensive. The decision is made considering the resources available with the country and the need of its economy. A producer also considers prices and productivities of alternative factors. He chooses that technique which economizes the use of scarce resources. For whom to produce? - 'To whom and how will you distribute the goods?' and 'For whom will you produce this for?' – whether to produce goods for more poor and less rich or vice versa. Good are produced for those people who have paying capacity, which depends upon their income. Economics revolve around these fundamental economic problems.

16. II. ECONOMIC AGENT Economic agents are any individuals, institutions or groups of institutions that play a part in any economic circuit through their rational actions and decisions. In general, economists consider three or four types of economic agents: Households (Consumers) Firms (Producers) Governments Central Bank

17. Households - Ones who consume a produced good or service, generally by financial purpose. They have a dual role in the economy. On one side, they are consumers , they demand goods and services; and on the other, they own the means of production through which the goods and services are produced. Firms - Economic agents whose role is to transform factors of production into goods and services to sell. Firms use factors of production (land, labor, and capital) to produce goods and services, creating value and wealth .. Government – An economic agent which provides rules for how firms and consumers should interact . They also distribute the wealth through social services in education, health and poverty programs. Central Banks – Some economists also consider Central Banks as fourth economic agent. Central Banks manage country currency, money supply, and interest rates

18. III. ECONOMIC ORGANIZATIONS It refers to the way in which the means of production and distribution of goods are organized, such as capitalism or socialism or a mixture of both. Capitalism - In capitalist economies, governments play a minimal role in deciding what to produce, how much to produce, and when to produce it, leaving the cost of goods and services to market forces. Capitalism is based around a free market economy, meaning an economy that distributes goods and services according to the laws of supply and demand. Socialism –In  socialist economies , important economic decisions are not left to the markets or decided by self-interested individuals. Instead, the government—which owns or controls much of the economy's resources—decides the what, when, and how of production. This approach is also called "centralized planning.“ Mixed – A mixed economy is variously defined as an economic system blending elements of market economies with elements of planned economies, free markets with state interventionism, or private enterprise with public enterprise.

19. IV. MARGINALISM Marginalism generally includes the study of marginal theories and relationships within economics. The key focus of marginalism is how much extra use is gained from incremental increases in the number of goods created, sold, etc. and how these measures relate to consumer choice and demand. Marginalism covers such topics as marginal utility, marginal gain, marginal rates of substitution, and opportunity costs, One of the key foundations of marginalism is the concept of marginal utility . The utility of a product or service is its usefulness in satisfying our needs. Marginal utility extends the concept to the additional satisfaction derived from the same product or service. )

20. TYPES OF UTILITIES AND EQUIMARGINILISM

21. V. TIME VALUE OF MONEY The time value of money (TVM) is the concept that money available at the present time is worth more than the identical sum in the future due to its potential earning capacity. The time value of money is the greater benefit of receiving money now rather than later. It is founded on time preference. TVM is also sometimes referred to as present discounted value or future compounded value. In TVM, we deal with four terms, interest rate, time period, future (compounding) value, and present (discounting) value. Interest - Interest is charge against use of money paid by the borrower to the lender in addition to the actual money lent. It can be Simple vs. Compound Interest

22. VI. OPPORTUNITY COST As our resources are limited, we are always forced to make choices between alternate commodities. The amount of goods and services that must be sacrificed to obtain more of any good is called the opportunity cost of that good. Opportunity cost is also known as alternate cost. To sum up, It is the value of the second best alternative forgone. It is the benefit that is lost in making a choice between two competing uses of scarce resources. It is the amount of other product that must be forgone or sacrificed to produce a unit of a product. Example - You are working in bank at salary of Rs 40000 a month. You receive two more job offers: To work as an executive at Rs 30000 a month To work as a journalist at Rs 35000 per month The OC of working in a bank is Rs, 35000.

23. EQUI MARGINALISM equi -marginal utility, also known as Gossen's Second Law, is an economic principle that explains how consumers spend their limited income to get the most satisfaction:  Explanation The law states that consumers should spend their money on different goods in a way that the marginal utility of the last rupee spent on each good is the same.  Example If you're deciding how to spend seven rupees between apples and oranges, you might spend three rupees on oranges and four rupees on apples. If the utility of the third orange is six and the utility of the fourth apple is two, you'll continue to spend money on apples until the marginal utility of the last rupee spent on each commodity is equal.