Unit 2- The beginning of English.pptx from history of English literature

History of English literature: the beginning

1. The beginnings of English Old and Middle English 600–1485 Beowulf, the Dane, dear king of his people ( B e o w u l f ) That evil ended. So also may this! ( Deor’s Lament)

2. CONTEXTS AND CONDITIONS Literature is old as human language and new as every sunrise. It starts with words and with speech in oral form in any culture as Homerian epics, Asian narratives of Gilgamesh, Bhagavad Gita , Bible, Koran from generation to generation with variations, additions, omissions and embellishments until they are set down in written form in version which have come down to us. The old English period or Anglo-Saxon period refers to two of the three Germanic tribes : Jutes, Angles and Saxon who left their homes on the shores on the North Sea and Baltic to colonize distant Britain in the middle of 5 th century. Angeln was the home of Angles (“ anghles ” or angul or ongul ) means hookmen or fishermen and the Saxon from seax , sax means swordman . Angles were the most conquering tribes and their new home was called Anglalond , Englelond and then England. Jutes and Saxons conquered Britain in later half of 5 th century (499 A. D). They were brave fighters and sea rovers. English literature started with songs and stories of those three tribes. In English , the first signs of oral literature tend to have three kind of subject matter- religion, war and

3. the trials of daily life. Their poetry reflected their profound emotions and bravery with accent, alliteration and sudden break in the middle of each line for martial rhythm. The main characteristics of this literature are the love of freedom, responsiveness to nature, strong religious convictions, belief in fate, respect to womanhood and a devotion to glory as the ruling motive in every warrior’s life. Before Norman conquest (1066) fragments of literary text remains as quite substantial body of work of Anglo-Saxon age. Almost the centuries after the Roman forces return to Rome in 410, it remains largely dark to us, apart from illuminating flashes and fragments of which some were destroyed during 1530s . The remaining fragments confirm the motivation and inspiration of producing literature and listening to it are the same throughout the history: it gives comfort, consolation and illuminate as well as mirror our problems to affirm and reinforce social, political and ideological standpoints. The spread of Anglo-Saxon, then English moulded national identity out of all cultural and linguistic influences which the country underwent as a melting pot of Icelandic, Vikings, Latin, French, Germanic, Celtic and many local linguistic, cultural, and social forces to develop English; The language of England , then of Britain.

4. The works of this era: Genesis A, Genesis B , Cynewulf’s work (Juliana, The Fate of the Apostles, Christ, Elen ) , King Alfred’s Anglo-Saxon Chronicles , Aelfric’s Homilies, Lives of Saint, Caedmon’s Hyms , The seafarer, The wanderer, The Dream of Rood and so on. c.410 : Withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain c.450 : Anglo-Saxon and Jutish invasions from North- West Germany Early sixth century Reign of King Arthur (in Wessex ; to 537) 597: Establishment of Saint Augustine’s Christian mission at Canterbury 793–95: Viking invasions (Danish and Norwegian) in Scotland, northern and eastern England 802: England united, under King Egbert of Wessex Ninth century Danish invasions; occupation of eastern England 885: Partition of England (under King Alfred the Great) 917–26: England reoccupied Danish-held territories 1013: Danish Conquest (monarchy, 1016–42) 1066: Death of English King Edward (the Confessor); election of Harold, son of Godwin, as king. Norwegian forces defeated at Stamford Bridge (near York) NORMAN CONQUEST: Harold defeated by William of Normandy at Hastings

5. Personal and Religious Voices Literature depicts the personal voices dependent on Religious and day to day trials, sufferings, solitude, and exile . Most of the works express ordinary human experience and use First person narrative with reference to the the Latin exegetical commentaries and liturgical texts . Church’s prominent role in preserving text in old English with awareness of English linguistic and cultural identity in different genres flourished and led the Anglo-Saxon language towards Early middle English in 13 th century. Anglo Saxon literature is full of images such as The Dream of Rood gives us images of suffering and redemption whereas the Seafarer about ships and seas. Caedmon’s Hymn is the first song of praise to God in old English written around 670 AD. It is an overtly religious piece of literature. It depicts the story of a lay worker on the estate of the monastery of Whitby, in Northumbria, who hears the voice of God and sings his praise. Although it is still unknown whether it is a complete hymn or not , interestingly, it was preserved by the Christian monks and nuns in Old English rather than in Latin. Similar voices of everyday people can be found in text like Deor’s Complaint, Seafarer,

6. The Wanderer, The Dream of the Rood and others. In Deor’s complaint , the speaker recounts the trials of daily life, naming several heroes of Germanic origin and their sufferings, with the repeated chorus. The speaker is a successful bard, or minstrels who sang for an important family, but now another bard has taken his place. Thus he uses the refrain that the bad time will pass to show his hope against his unemployment, solitude and suffering state. Other elegiac poems are The seafarer and The Wanderer which are preserved in The Exeter book in Exeter Cathedral library in Devon from the end of the 10 th century in manuscript form. Seafarer is the story of a sailor who rejects land and the town because his “heart is haunted by love of the Sea”. They have the theme of solitary outcast with no help or protection from a noble lord and the speaker’s thought ponder with memory of old legends of battle, wonders, and bloodshed. There is a clash between the past and present, between remembered glory and the despair of the moment. But there is always some consolation, some futuristic hope, usually ending with a hope of heaven. Two historical texts, Venerable Bede’s Latin Ecclesiastical History of the English People and The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , are devotional works for those dedicated to a

7. life of religious observance, such as 12 th century Ancrene Rewle ; philosophy by Alcuin and Saint Anselm, and so on. Translations of parts of the Christian Bible from Saxon to Old English were made such as The Book of Genesis . In its use of local language, it is a conscious attempt to strengthen Christian faith throughout the island. Another Christian work in Old English is The Dream of Rood (Rood = Cross).Among two versions , The Ruthwell Cross version at the end of 7 th century that was found in southern Scotland near Northumbria is taken as original. It depicts the theme of solitude seeking spiritual protection from cross when there is no human protection. The text is full of words, phrases and images used for the figure of Christ and his cross: a tree, a glorious gold cross, a simple bare cross, a cross which speaks of its own transformation from tree to bearer of Christ. It is more representational than referential with highly visual text, full of joy and suffering, light and darkness, earthly reality and heavenly bliss. The poems were scribed after may years of oral tradition. Besides Beowulf, most of them are short. They were written in double line with a break in the middle (Caesura) for distinctive rhythm, alliteration in Kennings. Kennings occur in compounds using borrowed or invented words like the sea is represented as hronrad (whale road), swanrod (Swan-road); human body as banhus (bone-house); God as moncynnes weard (Guardian of mankind).

8. Middle English Literature (1066-1500) Normans (“North men”) were a hardy race of sea rovers inhabiting Scandinavia. In the 10 th century they conquered a part of northern France called Normandy and adopted French language and culture. They conquered England under William, Duke of Normandy, at the battle of Hasting in 1066. They brought romantic tales of love and adventure to England, strengthened the concept of nationality, and developed new language and literature mixing French and Saxon elements. The fourteenth century is important for the growth of English national spirit during the wars with France. Geoffrey Chaucer, father of English poetry, wrote poetry in variety, interest and wonderful melody. His The Canterbury Tales consist 17000 lines narrating the stories of pilgrims from London to Canterbury in simple language with realistic characters. Other works are William Langland’s The Vision of Pier’s Plowman , Malory’s King Arthur and his Knights . Mystery plays, miracle plays, and morality play were also famous.

9. French influence and English Affirmation Two centuries after the conquest of Britain by Normans in 1066, bilingualism spread with the use of French along with Old English as a period of consolidation. After 1204, When King John’s losses of French lands , aristocracy opted England and began to develop a fuller English identity and a desire to use the English language. Subsequently more French words entered into English language in daily use and in wide use of books. London Forming as a capital city was highly influenced with the language from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and Midlands than south. English rose to prominence along with local dialects throughout the lands and in literature till next 150 years. Anglo-Latin was different from Paris Latin, and Chancery English developed away from French in many ways. French was finally rejected only in 1415, when King Henry V affirmed English domination, territorial and linguistic, over what had by then become the nation’s oldest enemy. Layman’s Brut became the first national epic containing sources and tales of Dark Ages (two centuries between Roman’s departure and first traces of the culture of the Britons). Brut contains sources from 12 th century work by Wace written in French , from Celtic

10. sources, based on the history of Geoffrey of Monmouth. The traced foundation of Britain back to Brutus, a great grand son of Aeneas – hero of The Illiad , shows a wish for historical continuity and an element of political myth-making. It also includes tales from the arrival of Saint Augustine, the first Archbishop of Canterbury, in 597, and story of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. French influence turned the subject of minstrels, singers, and poet from war to love. Until the Norman Conquest, there is hardly any love poetry in English literature except The Wife’s Lament and Wulf and Eadwacer . The new love theme emerged from Provence in the south-east of France, where poets known as troubadours gave voice to the concept of courtly love. Love was an almost religious passion, and the greatest love was unfulfilled. This is the beginning of the concept of ideal love, chaste but passionate , Which sprouted in huge amount in variety of lyric poetry over the centuries. Holy crusades around 1100 made men leave for war and women were expect to wait at home embodying patience, beauty and ideal virtue similar to Penelope, the wife of Odysseus in Homer’s The Odyssey . Romantic notion of fidelity with its feminine imagery in Le Roman de la Rose ( The

11. Romance of the Rose) establishes a code of behaviour, sets a value on chastity, and orders a subordinate role for women. The rose symbolises the lady’s love; the god of love is seen inside a walled garden, with the harsh realities of life, and the masculine world outside. The two strands of war literature and religious literature unified to foster the new theme of love. Love is thus romanticized instead of being allowed to become dangerous, anarchic, and subvert the order of things. It has its own emblems, symbols and patterns, but largely without the realistic elements of daily life. The whole romantic tradition and language from France mingled with native English and integrated after several generations of the Norman Conquest. Apart from courtly love tradition , the growth of local tradition of songs and ballads were on glorifying nature, changing of seasons such as in Spring, Summer is i-cumen in (1250). Ballad traditionally told a story based on a character (like Robinhood , Unfortunate Lord Randal, or the Wife of Usher’s Well), in memorable rhythmic verses. Despite uncertainty of date, earliest ballads are traced back to 13 th to 15 th century. However , song, story, and ballad exist in every century, it has separate, distinct and unrestrained voice of popular dissent and dissatisfaction to other ‘literary’ writings.

12. Language and Dialect Different language use ( English, French, Latin) along with English dialects can be found in the time of Middle English until 1485 . The flux of language was to prioritize French over English and Latin (language of church) the language of writing. For Instance, Robert Mannyng’s Handling Synne , a verse treatise on the Tenth Commandments and the Seven Deadly Sins, is based on French source. Similarly, John Gower’s Confessio Amantis is in English (despite Latin title) but Vox Clamntis in Latin and Mirour de l’Omme in French. Although Geoffrey Chaucer’s works are in English , inspiration and forms range from European sources, Latin and Italian. The University of Oxford and Cambridge, founded in 13 th century, focused and supported the language of London to establish predominance and a means of artistic expression. Although the poets lived in London, their works like William Langland’s Piers Plowman is believed to be originated from the west of England and got influenced to bring together English traditions and French romance. Many English dialects beside language of London are found in the literature of the time. The texts are usually anonymous but some can be identified as probably by the

13. same writer based on linguistic and stylistic affinities. For instance, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Patience, Pearl and Cleanness are found together in a manuscript dating from 1400 with same linguistic and stylistic affinities. Alliterative Revival , the growth and flourishing of a distinctively English poetic voice and verse imitating the Anglo Saxon use of alliteration from about 1350 to early fifteenth century, has text originated from north and west between the wash and the Severn estuary to the area of the country that differs in terms of distance, culture and values of London. E.g. Winner and Waster, Pearl, and Patience. Layamon’s Brut is the first voice of middle English by linking older historical traditions with modern Englishness. Writers developed a more colloquial and familiar style using idioms and proverbs to bring closeness to the reader . Although Latin (the language of religion) and French ( the language of the conquerors) dominated the nation and culture for almost two centuries, they became a propellers of national linguistic identity along with diversity of dialects in use. Richness in English language along with lexicons and content were supported by Latin and French. Much synonymous words with different patterns of use can be seen in this

14. period. E.g. words in Old English Fr e n c h Latin ask question interrogate kingly royal regal holy sacred consecrated fire flame conflagration clothes attire house mansion domicile sheep mutton calf veal Old English words are more frequent, colloquial, central and core to the language , and Latin terms are more formal, learned and bookish in use, and French are considered more literary in function and more elevated in style with use in domestic and culinary domains. French words were also used in law, administration, court, heraldry, arts, fashion , hunting and even school instruction (till 12 th century). They were taken as of higher social and cultural level and had no equivalent in English, but Scandinavian derived and English words were more homely and part of ‘ground level’ daily life.

15. Individualism Many text in this period were written under ‘anonymous ’ in fear of religion, society and state but they represent distinctive voice, style of that time . Poems like The owl and Nightingale (1225) decipher the theme of nature, differing attitude, values in comic way using English countryside setting . The debate of serious ( the owl) and the light-hearted (Nightingale) reflects the torn psyche of people between religious issues and the new thought of love. Similarly, Winner and Waster (1360) shows the contrast between a wealth seeking man and frugal one in the society which shows the importance of money as well as a strong element of social criticism . It’s the first allusion in literature depicting the Pope and his greedy priest against the noble lords and their followers. The growing sense of readership longed not only for text in dialects but also for wide range of cultural referent text in Latin , French and Europeans were circulated in form of lent and borrowing among lay people over all the nation. King Horn (1225) , earliest surviving verse romance in English, depicts not a tale of love, betrayal and adventure but also the English adaptation of French courtly stories to a local setting. Poems widely expanded on the subject of religion, secular, moral and

16. political themes in this time. Story telling is the fundamental part of Middle English literature. Genesis, and Exodus retells the stories from Bible. Similarly, Patience (14 th C) retells the biblical story of Jonah and the Whale in both comic and instructive way to show man’s smallness in relation to God. Pearl introduces dream vision form which was imitated by Chaucer and Langland in their work . Pearl narrates the comparison of heaven with the Earthly world through the death of infant daughter who is narrated as possessing a kind of perfect knowledge than her father due to her heavenly experience now. In a sense, Pearl pioneers not only utopian writing about a perfect world but also examines the human limitation and knowledge which recurs in Doctor Faustus and Paradise Lost later. It shows personal and direct consciousness of writer as well as reader’s sense of involvement in the narrator’s loss and incomprehension. The reader identifies personal feelings and emotions expressed by the writer in the text.

17. Women’s Voice Marie de France, Hrotsvitha , Christine de Pisan , and Margery Kempe are some prominent pioneers of female voice of this age. Marie’s Lias is a twelve series of short romances based on unwritten Breton songs which was written in late 12 th century. Hrotsvitha , a 10 th century abbess of Saxony, is seen as the first woman writer of Europe whose Ancrene Wisse / Acrene Rewle (1225) , a book of advice on how to live a nun’s life , had a wider readership of women. Christine de Pisan , the first full time ‘professional’ woman writer from France, questioned the authority of men’s writing in her work Book of the City of Ladies where all the male writers concluded that the behaviour of women is inclined to and full of very vice. Her Moral proverbs of Christine became the first printed book of female writer by Caxton in 1478 and addressed as ‘authoress’ in English. Julian of Norwich experienced similar vision as illustrated in Marie’s Lais at the age of 30 on her deathbed but after her miraculous recovery, she became a nun and writer about faith, sin and the motherhood of God in her work.

18. Although Margery Kempe couldn’t read or write, she dictated her work The Book of Margery Kempe to two men. Her book dictates her loud and clear female voice on psychological state of mind through her dramas of childbirth and intense sexual deskes towards her maturity and life of contemplation. She address herself as ‘this creature’ in spite of her name used as title of the book.

19. Key Authors of the Age Sir John Mandeville’s Travels (1356-67) wrote a highly entertaining guide for pilgrim to the Holy land along with Tartary, Persia, India and Egypt. His book aroused Western European reader’s appetite for the travel book illustrating myths like ‘the fountain of youth’, gold dust lying like ant hills, Eldorado in Golden Road to Samarkand of distant land. This boosted the idea of ‘Orientalism’ later which had real illustration like the Ganges, the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates to make readers believe it. Geoffrey Chaucer, Father of English poetry, used a wide range of cultural references from throughout Europe in his writings in English. His works encompass many earlier traditions, genres and subject of literature in context of a new ,highly active and developing society of Britain. His first work The Book of the Duchess is a dream poem with consolation on the death of 1368 of Blance , Duchess of Lancaster, the wife of John of Gaunt ( third son of King Edward III). The simplicity and directness of the emotion, and the handling of dialogue shows C haucer’s capacity to bring language, situation and emotion together effectively.

20. His The House of Fame (1374-85) , a dream poem, echoes Dante’s The Divine Comedy (1310-20) where he visits Ovid’s ‘house of fame’ to learn about love and its aspects. Trolius and Criseyde and The Legend of Good Women , inspired by Boccaccio, uses subject of love through the story of Trojan War. Besides The Canterbury Tales, Trolius and Criseyde is taken as outstanding work of Chaucer because of the descriptive capacity of characters and scene. The Legend of Good Women addresses the women who sacrificed themselves for love using heroic couplet. His master piece The Canterbury Tales remained incomplete at his death in 1400. It was originally planned with 120 tales with each of thirty pilgrims from Southwark to Canterbury telling two tales on the way there and two on their way back. This poem uses characters from different social level like The knight, the miller, the wife of Bath, the priortess , the cleric and others and real places to represent it similar to the journey to Jerusalem. Chaucer narrates it with liberty to the readers to interpret the characters and their ironic gap of representing themselves.

21. William Langland ’s Pier’s Plowman is a satire and alliterative poem in three versions that recounts a series of dreams with waking interludes to connect them. Long Will, the dreamer, is the unifying character and main speaker. Piers enters the narrative now and then a kind of alter ego of Will; by the end he becomes semi-divine. The dreams tell how England might be reformed, and of truth in justice and behaviour. The church should exemplify salvation but is shown as corrupt. The poem is realistic and transcendent where his worldview expects the church and man to be one but the individual is imperfect and society always lacking. The Scottish Chaucerian The scottish Chaucerians was the group of writers between Chaucer’s death in 1400 to beginning of the Renaissance around 100 years in England. King James I of Scotland reigned from 1394-1437 and wrote a love poem Kingis Quair (The king’s Book) in ‘rhyme royal’ although it was used by Chaucer. English ( Inglis as it was spelled and pronounced) became the language of Scots living South of the Highlands but in the north Celts spoke Gaelic.

22. The story of Robert Bruce in The Bruce (1375-76) became the first text to celebrate nationalism which is attributed to John Barbour and written in octosyllabic couplets to keep Bruce’s exploits and memory alive. Around 100 yrs later, Robert Henryson and William Dunbar took medieval tradition to new height. Robert Henryson’s Testament of Cresseid treats Chauceran heroine most unromantically and violently for her promiscuous life from leprosy, beggary and death as punishment illustrated by John Calvin (1509-64), a Swiss protestant reformer. His The Moral Fables of Aesop the Phrygian questions morality of human and sympathy for animals to be judged by readers. William Dunbar’s Lament for the Makers is the first great work to present death as ‘ the great leveller’ which brings ‘all estate’ to the same end. It shows great poets like Chaucer, Gower, and Henryson who die as all. This shows the development of literature from Anglo- Saxonic heroic valour to new world of Renaissance where Protestant and Humanistic values will dominate.

23. Malory and Skelton Two literary figures bridge gap between the medieval age and the Renaissance: Sir Thomas Malory and John Skelton, the first ‘Poet Laureate ’. Malory’s Le Morte D’Arthur (1470) unites eight romances of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table under one title. It merged myth with history with an emphasis on chivalry as a kind of moral code of honour. The supernatural and fantastic aspects are more political emphasizing for firm government and virtue. John Skelton, a court poet, wrote about low life and drinking. He was an outspoken satirst and wrote ‘Philip Sparrow’ the most unusual elegies in English to a pet bird which is comic in its grief. His morality play Magnificence from 1520s is author known late medieval drama. His unique style, inventiveness and range specializes him out of any category, group of part of any particular movement or trend. His unique Helter-skelter verse form close to rhythms of speech and spirit of ordinary people’s lives is called Skeltonics .