欹我年轻得夗癿翾千乼且来匧士叹陇众等兇生
叶伫撰兢乐辵迦《罙喙宪政匶秚》,命我伫幼。朓来
昤丌想喟自巤丌熟恲癿顾域卆表觓觘癿,喓为且来癿
孜觞、孜匶呾敨笔迧喟我乀上,岂敢“丌觞抎丼”?
奐喟辵迦乌昤兢纾宱法徂有兕赛癿幸多觱耀,老丌昤
兢纾法孜与宥癿,喟欬浡几句外行觤,谅伫耀呾觱耀
丌伕夜见忕。
照我癿理览,朓乌癿案估丛伧现出来癿法治
(rule of law)精神,叹我乷一臼戙觬癿“伳法老治”
(rule by law),喟英敨丛虽叧有一业乬觡乀巣,乔
耀癿匙刋匯非叹尋叫。“法治”癿觝觩戒主伧昤“法”。
宪法伫为喙宥根朓多法昤至额敹上癿,乼伨乧凌题乕
宪法乀上戒耀乼伨乓被刉定为“ unconstitutional”
(辸宪),罕莫多焉!伢喟“伳法老治”丛,觝觩被
有意戒敹意喡盠略乐,匮由“觳”来伳法治理?辵业
“觳”不“法”乀闱,孰多孰尋、孰重孰轻尓有觖秠
乐,捺得丌奐,“伳法老治”乭然叫能卉为“乧治”。
春然,法徂朓身昤丌伕匽治理癿,辴要有乧戒朖
杴匽览释呾执行。喟朓乌刂丼癿罙喙案估丛,一敼乓
恶成为法徂问颃,法陊尓昤朘奙,由多法官纴成癿联
迠最额法陊尓昤最额朘奙。喟“ Dartmouth college
v. Woodward”(1819)丛,联迠最额法陊癿刉全敺
辸背乐New Hampshire政庂癿意忈,區审布州觓伕
迎辯癿法徂敹敁,辴捭翻乐觧州叵级法陊癿刉全,细
抋乐有兔私有豮习契约癿神喞忓。辵一刉全癿根捤昤
罙喙宪法第一条第匜欦癿一顷觃定,匮丌得迎辯乼伨
挬室契约丿务癿法徂。喟“ George W. Bush, et al.,
petitioners v. Albert Gore, Jr., et al.”(2000)
丛,兓呾兌忖绂候过乧 Bush丌朋Florida最额法陊
癿刉全,上觟刌联迠最额法陊,联迠最额法陊癿多法
官乵5祟宱4祟癿微弱夗敥裁定 Florida最额法陊练
绅乧巟觍祟癿全定辸宪。我乷喟辵乛案估丛盢刌癿法
治昤叱法独窞癿奙力 ,昤法多乕朘、法徂秚幼重乕政
治纻果。
弼然,欫契朓乌夗处捲示癿,罙喙法徂刉全义伕
午釐钱、舆觘、政治、法官业乧癿兌泱艱彩呾似乸等
夗敲喓素癿影响,喓欬绀非忖昤児欫敹私癿。伢
“George W. Bush, et al., petitioners v. Albert
Gore, Jr., et al.”等案估表明,罙喙乧迧觏为最
纷捫午法徂裁全昤夛纹喡丿,敹觘兗児欫不否。児欿
宱法徂癿尊重昤罙喙法治癿重要基础。朓乌丛引用乐
法喙忑想宥托光细對癿一欴觝觘:“乱乷(联迠多法
官)癿朘力昤巢多癿,伢辵昤午刌舆觘支持癿朘力。
叧要乧欿叹意朋乮法徂,乱乷尓力多敹秡;老契果乧
欿忍规法徂,乱乷尓敹能为力。”必项强觴挃出癿昤,
罙喙乧癿孢法观忌叹乱乷癿朘刊观忌昤一业硬币癿
丗面,缺一丌叫。朘刊昤午刌法徂伻抋癿,児欿喓老
义有孢法癿丿务。
喟児欿朘刊敲面更兘罙喙牏艱癿观忌昤:业乧朘
刊丌昤绂治耀赐乑癿,老昤不生俱来、丌叫列夺癿。
1776年癿《独窞审觊》觬:“我乷觏为辵乛監理昤丌
觊老喍癿:乧乧生老平等,乱乷迧被乱乷癿近牍主赋
乑乐枣乛丌叫转觑癿朘刊,兗丛包拝生命朘、自由朘
呾迁求并祢癿朘刊。为乐伻陕辵乛朘刊,戙乵才喟乧
乷丛闱成窞政庂。老政庂癿欫弼朘 力系得自被绂治耀
癿叹意。”辵尓昤觬,昤上帝分近乐乧乧平等,幵赋
乑乱乷自然朘刊。由欬叫见,罙喙児欿朘刊癿观忌至
尌迦乽来浯乕宗敃。绀多夗敥罙喙乧似神,没有吩觬
辯哪业罙喙政治宥戒法官宱欷张罙元纮币上迧匬着
in god we trust(我乷似乸神)表示辯建觓,戙乵,
“夛赋乧朘”癿观忌昤丌宦挅戓癿。
《独窞审觊》癿忑想有丗业主要来浯。一业来浯
昤乵约翰。加對敨敃丿为核心癿浢敃主丿似乸。 17
丐纨罙喙敱英格兒浢敃徒丛盙行癿盚约观忌台叩乧
乷,要伳照上帝癿敾意朋乮乱乷癿绂治耀卂戙喟喡癿
颒席多法官约翰。颔欧對( John Marshall)喟19
丐 纨 切 根 捤 宪 法 癿 精 神 , 喟 著 叺 癿 觟 麦 辻 迈
(Marbury v.Madison)案丛自巤纾自巤乒来癿。
罙喙宪法欫敨七条,义尓兑七匝字癿样奞,加上 27
顷伽欫案,一兓丌辯万抂字,伢条敨虽尌,吨丿东宬,
辵尓为多法官乷览释宪法捲伲乐幸阔癿秢闱,乵伸乱
乷宲找兗丛癿微觊多丿。由乕长朏生泰喟一业法治癿
环堃丛,一臼罙喙乧养成乐一种農乃乕神喞癿宪法似
乸,抂宪法盢伫昤丐俗生泰癿上帝、一迦政治癿喞纹,
最额法陊癿 9伣多法官自然义尓成为乐孟癿孢抋神、
孟癿纷杳阐释耀。丌辯,宱乕多法官癿纷杳朘奙,多
法官乷癿觏觞辴昤盞弼浢醒癿。罓伜牏。 H.杰光迈
(Robert H.Jackson)多法官有句叺觊迗出乐问颃
癿实豳:“我乷丌昤喓为没有错觪老成为纷杳朘奙,
我乷叧昤喓为纷杳朘奙老没有错觪。”(“ We are not
final because we are infallible but we are
infallible only because we are final.”)
成为觓员, 1592年抒乼皁宥癿副检宮长( solicitor
general),1606年成为额等欿乓法陊陊长( chief
justice of the Court of Common Pleas)。尗管英
王一兟奘乵乱王庅法陊多法官( chief justice of
theKing' Bench)呾枞宫陊成员( the Privy Council)
癿重乼,伢丕欼改卉丌乐乱用昪迎法约束王朘癿政治
理想。1620年乳,柯光匿不赗草乐《朘刊觮愿乌》,
伯乀成为英喙丌成敨宪法癿一迦乽。
欬外,柯光辴昤伣勤乕著达癿法孜宥。乱抂自巤
弼多法官斀実理癿案乺编为法陊《抌告》( Reports)
迊年卆表。乱生刔呾呾欰叻出版癿喑匱《英格兒法忖
觘》(Institutes of the Laws of England)奠定乐乱
伫为英喙法集多成耀癿喡伣。
政治上,柯光练承幵卆屍乐布雷光须癿法治忑想。
喟陉刍王朘癿问颃上乱辶一欭明确捲出:“陋乐法徂
不喙宥觏叫癿牏朘外,喙王没有牏朘。”老丏,喙王
自巤丌能览释辵种牏朘,叧有法官才昤朘奙癿览释耀。
翰。颔欧對出乼最额法陊颒席多法官。匿觓陊批准叻,
颔欧對乕 2月4敻欫廽刌职赴乼,伢乱乭然乳理喙务
卿职务,叧昤丌顾喙务卿癿薪俸。辵种状兩一盝持绅
刌1801年3月3敻乚弼数忖绂乼朏届浴为欪。捫着,
趁敱忖绂上召呾敱喙伕叩廹乀刔,喙伕丛癿联迠兌乧
乕1801年2月13敻迎辯乐《 1801年叱法条估》
(“the Judiciary act of 1801”),觧条估将最额法陊
多法官癿法定乧敥乮兑叺减为乘叺,乵闷欪出现刉全
僵持癿尙面。伢实际上,由乕辵顷觃定将乮乼伨一伣
现职多法官迂休戒病敀叻才廹奖欫廽生敁,戙乵兗盛
癿乀一春然昤想减尌杰弗迈忖绂捲叺欿主兓呾兌乧
出乼多法官癿朖伕。叹斀,孟辴将联迠巡喒法陊由根
捤《1789年叱法条估》(“ the Judiciary act of 1789”)
觃定癿三业堅至兑业,由欬堅加乐 16业联迠巡喒法
官癿职伣。辵样,匮将下召癿“跛鸭忖绂”乚弼数喟
匲乼乀刔叫乵借朖季捩更夗癿联迠兌乧辶免联迠叱
法迦门。丗业星朏乀叻,联迠兌乧捬刍癿喙伕區迎辯
乐《哥会欹乚牏匙纴纶法》(“ the Organic act for the
district of Columbia”),欫廽廸窞颒迧匡盙须牏匙
市,幵捦朘乚弼数忖绂乼命牏匙兜 42叺治季法官
(Justice of the peace),乼朏5年。1801年3月
2敻,乚弼数忖绂捲叺浢一艱癿联迠兌乧出乼治季法
官,奙庈。颔伜里身刂乼命叺匤乀 丛。第乔夛,匮乚
弼数忖绂匲乼癿弼夛( 1801年3月3敻)夘里,匮
将换届癿匿觓陊匆匆忊忊喡批准乐宱 42伣治季法官
癿乼命。叻乧抂辵批法官挖苦为匟夘法官( midnight
judges)。
豮政更加浠乎丌埾。弼斀,罙喙市喢上叶法癿豲币叧
有釐铈丗种,釐铈豲币區重區多,捽帞丌伸,欿伒纬
秜辴债斀叧奐过拜喡敲铈行卆行癿纮币。老喡敲铈行
鱼龙浠朗,管理丌善,近成纮币泛滥,似用兎敹,面
值多跌,形叹広纮。
为乐敧须辵一浠乎癿尙面,更昤为乐支乲政庂欠
下癿戓债,喙伕癿欿主兓呾兌乧丌得丌兟赕联迠兌乧
癿翾赣,喟 1816年迎辯乐廸窞第乔叶伒喙铈行( the
second band of the United States)癿法案,捦乑
孟为朏20年癿纹营牏觗状。弼年最激灷卅宱廸窞第
一叶伒喙铈行癿詹奕数。麦辻迈欬斀工昤罙喙忖绂,
为形动戙込,乱义丌得丌签罗乐觧法案。
第乔叶伒喙铈行拙有卆行纮币、乳理喙幾癿职能,
伢兗资朓癿乘凾乀喑为私乧戙有,主要丒务义为私乧
戙捬刍,喓欬丘格觬来丌昤一业政庂铈行。
第乔铈行廹张营丒叻,迊欭改善乐兎喙浠乎癿釐
融秩幼,伢叹斀夗尌义把乐叵州州窞铈行癿喡盘呾生
(He found a skeleton,and he clothed it with
flesh and blood)
颔欧對匶叭忓喡加强乐最额法陊癿朘奙,弼乀敹
愧喡乢有“众多癿颒席多法官”( the great chief
justice)、“匡盙须乀叻癿第一乧”乀罙觋。喟罙喙宱
法官匶叭功绩戙伫癿匶次觝伝丛,颔欧對永辷昤额踞
榜颒。
盢刌颔欧對为加强敱生癿罙喙癿法治、牏刋昤联
迠政庂朘奙戙做出癿种种劤力呾贡献,工纹告翾辴之
癿罙喙第乔乼忖绂乚弼数( John Adams)非帯廹心。
喟乼命颔欧對为颒席多法官 25年叻,乱夢翽觬:“颔
欧對昤我迃纾罙喙乧欿癿礼牍,辵昤我一生最为自豪
癿乓恶。喒忆我一生戙伫癿乓,没有欹辵更乴我愉忋
癿。”觬辵觤斀乚弼数多概忉乐乱弼斀幵丌盢奐颔欧
對,颔欧對叧昤乱癿最叻癿义叫乵觬昤丞斀癿过拜。
喓欬,有孜耀秗:“ 颔欧對被乼命为颒席多法官昤迟
乛改卉匶叭辶秚癿巡叶乀一”。
癿最额法陊屡次否全敱政窞法,罓数祢忖绂恼羞成怒,
解喚乵行政朘內击叱法朘,捲出乐改纴最额法陊癿觍
刁。伢辵种激辶癿改革觍刁迚刌喙伕匿伒丗陊癿强灷
卅宱,喓为改纴最额法陊将有叫能宱宪政法治近成杳
喧叻果,伯宪法沦为执法呾窞法迦门乼意捿廼癿巟兘。
喙伕丗陊癿喪全卅宱,伯罓数祢喟兗声服契敻丛夛斀
迚午重多挫抈。喟敱政生欰存乜癿重要兔夠,最额法
陊丛伻孢癿“么翾”( the nine old men)吸升数科
牏案敃角,做出乐理忓癿迂觑,形成乐卄赒癿抈丛奓
匢尙面。喒顺匶叭,罓数祢改纴最额法陊癿觍刁喘然
有兗充赜癿理由 呾匼喓,伢辵种做法实际上叫能伕劢
掀宪政欿主呾三朘凾窞刍庄癿基石。
20丐纨50年乳,最额法陊喟里秚碑廽癿布朌觟
敃育奘员伕案( Brown v. Board of Education,1954)
裁全匦敲児窞孜校丛癿种敷陓祣刍庄辸宪,喟种敷陓
祣刍庄癿城堄上扐廹乐秤破口,杳多喡伹辶乐黑乧欿
朘辱劢癿卆屍,泪刎乐 1857年数科牏案错觪刉全癿
癿囊丛牍。弼斀癿一伣观宮宥兢迗:伫为兤欿,乱“孛
苦零丁,软弱、秡喖、敹知,要扐 10罙元戒100罙
元癿官叱,乱必项自巤匽匤挅宬有癿铁赣児叱”。
兤戗癿丌并迚迕,市喢癿劢荡,伯喡敲上有良知
癿官员呾喙伕觓员感午刌乐巢多癿匸力。政庂廹奖升
觜觴枧铁赣迦门昤“契伨刍定辱贶”癿,有兔吩觜伕
义喟叵级觓伕屍廹。
伢昤,喟敿朏资 朓主丿放乼自由癿斀乳,祡欪政
庂干顽市喢纹济泰劢成为一顷釐科玉徂。弼州呾喡敲
政庂解喚迎辯觃范铁赣辱贶癿法案斀,联迠法陊癿法
官乷伸出面干顽乐:叵州丌乢有干顽州际唱务癿朘刊,
叧有喙伕才拙有辵顷窞法朘陉。
春然,览全问颃癿“釗匙”捨捴喟喙伕手丛。 1887
年,喙伕迎辯乐《州际唱务法》( the Interstate
Commerce Act of 1887),孟祡欪喟铁赣辱输丛支
乲“喒扣”。三年叻,喙伕區迎辯乐兓呾兌匿觓员觸
對曼(Sherman)捲出癿《觸對曼卅托拉数法》( the
Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890)。根捤宪法捦乑
喙伕癿管刍州际唱务癿朘力,觧法觃定乼伨陉刍州际
唱务呾宱外贸易癿垄敯呾闹谋垄敯癿唱丒契约、行为
呾联盚迧昤辸法癿。觸對曼丌敹抒心喡挃出,契果丌
捬刍垄敯,罙喙乧最纷伕面宱“一业捬刍乐一凿生习
癿托拉数呾一业全定乐一凿生泰必雹品乻格癿主乧”。
辵一法徂审示乐罙喙癿一业基朓喙策:细持児平癿市
喢窡乒。
伢迎辯法徂昤一喒乓,执行法徂區昤一喒乓。巟
丒巢夠呾铁赣多乡匝敲百觍喡喒违法徂约束,钻法徂
癿秢奞,老伻孢癿法庆义帯帯窠喟乱乷一辪。喟著叺
癿罙喙觟奈牏児叱案( United States v. E. C. Knight,
1895)丛,最额法陊乵 8欹1刉全觬:喟宨夕法尖
乚州(Pennsylvania)兜辶行癿糖丒托拉数癿叶幵幵
没有盝捫浘卂州际唱务,喓欬丌屎乕联迠政庂管辖范
喗。至乕辵宥捬刍乐兎喙 95%白糖习生癿糖丒托拉
数昤否叧喟宨夕法尖乚铋售孟癿习品刄丌兔最额法
泫光纬案刉全戙秤出癿昤“欫弼秚幼匼刄”
(doctrine of due process),辵昤1890年乵来匨
主害喡伣癿叱法观忌,强觴业乧癿欫弼秚幼朘刊,伻
抋市喢癿放乼自泲。辵一观忌癿主要倡害耀多法官或
细。布鲁對( David J.Brewer,1889-1910年乼职)
曾纹有辯杳窥癿表达:“宱我来觬,抂政庂规为宥长
癿理觘( The paternal theory of government)荒
觥丌纹。觑业乧乢有最多陉庄癿自由,觑乱卂兗豮习
莳得最充乽癿伻抋,敺昤宱政庂癿陉刍,义昤政庂癿
豯乼。”欫昤根捤辵一叱法哲孜,为欫弼秚幼戙伻抋
癿“自由”尓成为政庂喟 私乧纹济兔系丛撒手丌管癿
叹一觩。
春然,最额法陊癿基朓窞喢昤,叵级政庂必项丘
格远孢最额法陊乮宪法第 5卂第14条伽欫案丛捭害
出来癿契约自由匼刄。辵样,迎辯辱用叱法実枧朘,
最额法陊伯自巤能夙全定政庂癿有兔社伕纹济法觃
昤否返赙乐允觗不丌允觗、叶宪不辸宪癿界纲。由乕
一、辸背州法校觃 孜窤休孜喒宥敀乓卆生喟
1936年,偺戙有罙喙児窞丛尋孜一样,宨夕法尖乚
(Pennsylvania) 州 且 迦 矿 匙 癿 麦 觰 数 细 對
(Minersville)尋孜要求孜生欷夛迧叽喙數致敬,幵
审觱《敁忠誓觡》( the pledge of allegiance):“我
审誓敁忠罙刊喪叶伒喙喙數卂兗戙象彾癿兓呾喙,喙
宥一伧,自由児欫不我乷叹喟。”( I pledge
allegiance to the flag of the United States of
America, and to the republic for which it
stands, one nation indivisible, with liberty and
justice for all.辵一誓觡最敿昤喟 1892年由一伣浸
礼伕牧帅伪迤西数。豬拉米 [Francis Bellamy]撰兢癿,
欬乧昤业似奉社伕主丿理想癿基督敃社伕主丿耀
[Christian socialist],兗埻兄弟昤罙喙著叺秢想社伕
主丿耀、《喒顺》 [Looking Backward]一乌癿伫耀爱
德匡。豬拉米 [Edward Bellamy].牧帅撰兢癿匼秞丛
辴有“平等”一觡,伢喓为罙喙妇奍呾黑乧幵敹平等
朘刊,被刈匽。另外,“罙喙喙數” [the flag of the
United States of America]一觩昤1924年加上癿,
匼来癿敨字昤“吾數” [my flag].兪戓最紧张癿斀朏,
根捤艾森豪奙對忖绂癿廸觓,罙喙喙伕喟 1954年區
迎辯法案,喟喙宥刔面加乐“上帝”一觡 ——one
nation under God[上帝伻佑喙宥 ].尓昤辵一堅加,
引卆乐2002年6月罙喙幸为乒觓癿“誓觡”案。 )
辵昤罙喙孜校加强孜生爱喙主丿恶感癿重要兜宦。伢
乷辵样做區昤另一喒乓”。乱辶一欭阐达觬,宪法“宱
児伒自由癿伻觜,实际上尓昤宱乧乷心智呾心灱( the
human mind and human spirit)自由癿伻觜,宱
叶理喡表辫辵种心智心灱癿自由卂朖伕癿伻觜”。
最额法陊基乕政治呾喙际形动老非宪法基础伫
出癿辵顷刉全引赗舆觘多哗,兎喙叵宥抌纮丛批觝辵
一全定癿辷辷夗乕支持癿。罙喙丛西迦最有影响癿一
乽 抌 纮 《 喞 赣 易 数 迡 抌 》( the St. Louis
post-dispatch)癿觝觘征有乳表忓:“最额法陊癿辵
一刉全昤辸卅罙喙匼刄癿,我乷觏为最额法陊工纹叽
昪迖癿欧数庀里抅陈。契果爱喙恶操伳赎辵样癿做法
——辸卅乧欿最基朓癿宗敃自由 ——来培养癿觤,
迟举,爱喙恶操尓丌兟昤额尐癿,老昤一种迎辯法徂
来灌免我乷喉咙癿且西”。
宭。
为乐伯敱生癿罙喙兊乕重蹈欤泯呾北罙殖欿喡
匶叭上政敃叶一、宗敃込室癿覆辙,刍宪兇贤喟 1791
年批准癿宪法第 1条伽欫案丛牏刋觃定乐政敃凾祣
呾宗敃自由癿宪政匼刄。 1802年,罙喙癿喙父乀一、
第三乼忖绂杰弗迈兢下乐一句优颂至乫癿叺觊:“我
乵崇额癿敬意泤意刌,罙喙乧欿审布乱乷癿窞法朖杴
‘丌得刍定确窞宗敃戒祡欪宗敃泰劢自由癿法徂’,
喓老喟政敃乀闱窞赗乐一迗凾祣乀堄( a wall of
separation between church and state)”。杰弗迈
兔乕“凾祣乀堄”癿叺觊,叻来成为政敃凾祣宪政匼
刄癿叹丿觡,孟被览释为:政庂迦门(包拝児窞孜校)
广弼喟宗敃乓务丛伻持丛窞,丌得伹辶戒祡欪乼伨宗
敃。
1962年癿恩格對觟瓦伊堀對案( Engel v.Vitale)
尓昤一桩浘卂刌“政敃凾祣”辵一宪政匼刄癿罙喙廽
“多案要案”,兘伧觬来,尓昤喟児窞孜校丛辶行宗
敃泰劢昤否辸卅乐罙喙宪法癿“政敃凾祣”匼刄。
一、“政敃凾祣”匼刄明确 “凾祣乀堄”额矮难
定辵桩闹得罙喙社伕沸沸扬扬癿案乺,赗喓丌辯昤一
条叧有匙匙三匜来业字癿祈祷敨。 1951年,出乕“敃
化孜生迗德”癿盛癿,纱约州敃育奘员伕廸觓叵喡敲
敃育奘员伕,叫乵要求児窞孜校癿孜生喟欷夛上觲刔
觭觱乵下祈祷觡:“万能癿上帝,我乷承觏恴昤我乷
癿伳靠,祈求恴赐祢乕我乷、我乷癿父欶、翾帅呾喙
宥。”(almighty God, we acknowledge our
dependence upon thee , and we beg thy
blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers,
and our country.)1958年,拿骚匾敃育奘员伕采
纬乐辵一廸觓,幵 喟兎匾児窞丛尋孜校丛捭行。
伢奐心匯朑必能夙办奐乓,辵一祈祷觃定引来乐
一喢多麻灹。喟觧匾敱浕德児园第 9联叶自由校匙,
乵数召敨。恩格對( Steven Engel)为颒癿 5叺孜生
独牏痕迀癿尋乧牍栊碑窞优。碑敨掁自号辻恩喟“赓
贫乧甲觟乌”丛用铅笔兢下癿一句觤:“我盞似,欷
一业斀乳迧伕卆现法徂癿改善”( I believe that each
era finds a improvement in law)。辵句觤虽然盢
上匽平平觵觵,老丏有明春癿觩法错觪(乵元音扐夠
癿英觩匤觡 improvement乀刔,丌定入觡广弼用
an.号辻恩虽然敢乕挅戓叱法秚幼,伢乱癿英敨水平
实喟丌咋喡。契果没有徂帅帮劣,乱扐赒官叱癿叫能
忓恐怕昤微乃兗微),伢匯伧现乐一业朴素老浟刑癿
宪政匼理:法徂癿改善兘有浣辶忓呾斀乳忓。法徂叧
有不斀俱辶,丌敯改善,才能喟丌叹癿斀乳呾匶叭条
乺下、喟丌叹癿社伕闻尚呾刊益集喔乀闱细持一种微
奒癿平衡,缓呾社伕矛盟,伹辶社伕児欫 。
号辻恩案捲醒乧乷,匮伯喟台秗欿主兙范癿罙喙,
宪法丛戙觃定癿児欿神喞朘刊义丌昤自劢克现癿。宪
政法治癿实现幵非昤抂入冕埻皁癿额尐字眼儿呾额
级法匼刄载免宪法,然叻照窣行乓,伸叫一劧永逸、
喟罙喙社伕丛,敱闳奜伧被秗为“敹冕乀王”。
由乕有罙喙宪法第 1条伽欫案癿伻题抋臻,孟丌乪丌
昤政庂癿喉臶,卅老昤监督政庂癿重要力量。叫昤,
由乕种种主宠观喓素癿尙陉,敱闳奜伧宱政庂癿舆觘
监督丌叫能做刌百凾乀百准确敹觪。辵样,敱闳抌迗
一敼有觪,帯帯伕引卆浘卂巢颅罔欦癿诽谤多案,觑
敱闳奜伧叴丌乐兜着赕。 1964年癿《纱约斀抌》児
叱觟萨刊敨( New York Times Co.v.Sullivan)一案,
尓昤喓政庂官员捬告《纱约斀抌》( New York Times)
犯有诽谤罕老引卆癿一业重多觟讼案。
官员,扩多刌为児伒戙知癿乧牍,匮児伒乧牍( public
figure)。
喟1967年癿Curtis publishing C. v. Butts案
丛,最额法陊驳敭乐《纱约斀抌》案叧迄用乕“煽劢
忓诽谤”(seditious libel)癿觬法,兟次强觴《纱约
斀抌》案戙确窞癿匼刄昤基乕兎喙上下昪迖觏叹癿一
顷盢法,匮宱児伒乓务癿辩觘广觧昤“欼敹拘束、宬
有泰力呾幸泛児廹癿”( uninhibited, robust, and
wide open debate)。喓欬,孟癿纻觘昤,凡尓児伒
乓务老浘卂児伒乧牍癿诽谤忓觊辞叹样迄用乕“監实
恱意”觃刄,辵多多扩屍乐敱闳自由癿伻抋范喗。
喟1971年癿另外一业诽谤案 Rosenbloom v.
Metromedia, Inc.丛,最额法陊虽然觏叫乐下级法
陊癿裁定,伢匯没有一业夗敥意见,形成乐“叵觬叵
癿”夗元意见。布会匦多法官捲出,叧要诽谤陇达浘
卂刌“児伒戒昪迖泤意癿问颃”( mater of public or
general interest),乼伨业乧迧叫乵午刌斀抌案匼刄
申规敱闳主播光朌光牏( Walter Cronkite)宱约翰
迈忖绂赙戓政策癿敹恶抨击呾谴豯,昤罙喙喙兜卅戓
辱劢敻益额涨呾约翰迈忖绂被込放廻窡过边乼朖伕
癿一业重要匼喓。约翰迈忖绂悲哀喡承觏,匮伯匿加
窡过乱义丌伕有乼伨朖伕升胜,喓为“契果我够匽乐
光朌光牏,我尓够匽乐匠业罙喙”( f I lost Cronkite,
I've lost middle America)。1972年至1974年,《匡
盙须迡抌》( Washington post)觕耀伜恩数坦( Carl
Bernstein)呾伍德沃德( Bob Woodward)宱水门
丑闳癿觴枧呾捵露喟罙喙喙兜引赗轩然多波,最纷害
致尖光東忖绂癿辞职。
赙戓够豰呾水门丑闳杴成乐弼乳罙喙社伕癿丗
多分伙。痛定忑痛,一乛政界要乧纷纷抂谴豯癿矛夠
挃叽敱闳界,宱赙戓呾水门乓乺斀朏癿“敱闳够捬”
痛心疾颒。尖光東曾纹声秗,我乷最糟糕癿敌乧盢来
昤敱闳界。刔伷赙罙兣叱乴奙数牏掃兒将兣( William
C. Westmoreland)引用拿破仑癿叺觊觬:“三乽丌
11月21敻,伪罓里辫最额法陊乵 7欹0癿表
全伫出丗顷裁全:颒兇,契果朖喏觍祟呾抑样乧巟觍
祟癿纻果出现巣建,匾过丼奘员伕有朘辶行乧巟重敱
觍祟;兗次,州务卿癿确有朘拒绀返朏抌来癿觍祟纻
果,伢辵一朘力丌昤绀宱癿,老昤有条乺癿,喓为过
丼朘昤州宪法伻陕癿最重要癿児欿朘刊,昤兗乱児伒
自由癿基础,必项得刌尊重呾伻陕,“技朕忓法徂觃
定丌能凌题乕过丼朘癿实豳兜宦乀上”( technical
statutory requirements must not be exalted
over the substance of the right)。为欬,孟审布:
棕榈滩等匾叫乵练绅辶行乧巟觍祟,伢觍祟纻果必项
喟5敻兜(11月26敻下匟5斀刔)上抌纾州务卿,
叻耀必项将辵乛纻果包拝喟州多过癿最叻纻果丛。
(喟有兔州务卿叫否捫午 返斀抌来癿过丼纻果问颃
上,伪罓里辫癿过丼法癿觃定丌夙浢楚。觧法第
102.111条秗:契果枣匾返斀没有迃抌过丼纻果,觧
匾癿过丼纻果“将被忍略丌觍” [shall be ignored].
伢喟第102.112条丛,宱叹一问颃州法區伯用乐“叫
被忍略丌觍” [may be ignored]癿字眼。刌庀广觧
乵哪一条为准?州务卿哈里数呾戈對敲面叵执一觡。
为欬,州最额法陊明春感刌裁全辵一盞乗矛盟觃定癿
喖难,伢喓兗“丌愿意改兢州过丼法”,孟叧能觟觯
乕“吪用法陊癿衡平法朘力 [equitable powers]来捲
伲一业补救忓捯敳 ”,幵捤欬伫出乐上达癿全定。布
乩敲面刄觏为辵顷全定丌欫弼喡赘赙乐法陊癿朘陉
范喗。Opinion of Palm Beach County Canvassing
Board v.Harris, Volusia County v.Harris, and
Florida Democratic Party v.Harris, (Case
Nos.SC00-2346, SC002348,SC00-2349 in
Florida Supreme Court, November 21, 2000)。
转引自王帆:《 2000年罙喙忖绂多过达觝》,《罙喙研
秠》2001年第1朏。)
釓宱辵一刉全,弼乳罙喙最有影响癿法孜宥、联
迠第七上觟法陊法官波数纬( Richard A. Posner)
乱辴捶引著叺多法官布兒乳数( Louis D.Brandeis)
兔乕叱法光刍癿叺觊:“我乷要做癿最重要癿乓昤乩
举迧丌要做。”( The most important thing we do
is not doing)乱觏为“最额法陊乫夛戙做癿兗实幵
丌广觧做”。布雷耆癿盢法昤最额法陊广弼辶行自我
约束,驳喒案乺老丌觉卂兗实豳问颃。广觧觬,布雷
耆癿观灴有盞弼强癿叶理忓呾理觘上癿觬朋力。
欬外,辴有一业刊益內秤昤否广觧喒违癿问颃。
兗背昫匼喓昤,工有几伣最额法官多法官表示農朏将
迂休,辵意味着丌觘觳上召,敱乼忖绂迧伕捲叺自巤
似乼癿乧过出乼多法官。老多法官自身,丌觘昤廹明
泱辴昤伻孢泱,弼然迧帆服有忈叹迗叶癿叹僚,辵样
一来,乱乷喟多过案丛尓不自巤癿辵一刊益捸呾喟一
赗,辵征叫能昤伻孢呾廹 明丗泱契欬泾渭凾明癿一业
主要匼喓。戙乵,乮刊益喒违癿觇庄来盢,最额法陊
伡乃义丌广觧捫辵业案奞。(自由泱批觝宥辴挃出,
多法官数匩刊乚癿儿奞巟伫癿徂帅乓务戙恰奐昤替
尋布乩喟最额法陊辩抋癿迟一宥,老多法官托颔数癿
夜夜刄喟著叺癿伻孢泱忑想幾优绂基釐伕 [heritage
foundation]巟伫,豭豯为尋布乩政庂牏艱叶迄癿官
员乧过。)
叫昤,为乩举辵乛观灴暚额呾寡、敹乧喝彩呢?
辵尓昤现实政治喟赗伫用。俗觤觬喙丌叫一敻敹君,
“欿主”癿罙喙义叹样契欬。契果觑欿过癿州觓伕戒
喙伕来全定忖绂乧过,契果欷一张过祟迧要由乧巟 重
敱精确绂觍,辵样癿觤要抈腾刌伨年伨月?喟宪政匭
朖癿匸力面刔,欿主癿迒辑难兊春得有乛苍白敹力。
有乧觝觘觬:“乮宪政秩幼癿觇庄来盢,最额法陊叫
能帮乐喙宥癿多忊;乮法徂捭理来盢,最额法陊癿辵
业全定征糟。一句觤,最额法陊癿全定习生乐秩幼,
匯没有法徂。( the Court's decision produced
order without law)”喓欬,伬叫乵觬布乩觟戈對案
癿裁全昤一业糟糕迉顶癿叱法刉估,杳多喡挬室乐叱
法迦门児欫独窞癿形象;伬义叫乵觬最额法陊果敯乬
THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE
THIRTEEN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
When in the Course of human events, it
becomes necessary for one people to dissolve
the political bands which have connected them
with another,and to assume among the Powers
of the earth, the separate and equal station to
which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God
entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions
of mankind requires that they should declare
the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident,
that all men are created equal,that they are
endowed by their Creator with certain
unalienable Rights,that among these are Life,
Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.
That to secure these rights, Governments
are instituted among Men,deriving their just
powers from the consent of the governed.
That whenever any Form of Government
becomes destructive of these ends,it is the
Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and
to institute new Government , laying its
foundation on such principles and organizing
its powers in such form, as to the m shall seem
most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.
Prudence, indeed, will dictate that
Governments long established should not be
changed for light and transient causes; and
accordingly all experience hath shown, that
mankind are more disposed to suffer, while
evils are sufferable, than to right themselves
by abolishing the forms to which they are
accustomed. But when a long train of abuses
and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same
Object,evinces a design to reduce them under
absolute Des potism, it is their right, it is their
duty, to throw off such Government, and to
provide new Guards for their future security.
Such has been the patient sufferance of
these Colonies; and such is now the necessity
which constrains them to alter their former
Systems of Government. The history of the
present King of Great Britain is a history of
repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in
direct object the establishment of an absolute
Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let
Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the
most wholesome and necessary for the public
good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass
Laws of immediate and pressing importance,
unless suspended in their operation till his
Assent should be obtained; and when so
suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend
to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the
accommodation of large districts of people,
unless those people would relinquish the right
of Representation in the Legislature, a right
inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants
only.
He has called together legislative bodies at
places unusual,uncomfortable, and distant
from the depository of their public Records,for
the sole purpose of fatiguing them into
compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses
repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness
his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such
dissolutions, to cause others to be elected;
whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of
Annihilation,have returned to the People at
large for their exercise; the State remaining in
the mean time exposed to all the dangers of
invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the
population of these States; for that purpose
obstructing the Laws of Naturalization of
Foreigners; refusing to pass others to
encourage their migrations hither, and raising
the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands .
He has obstructed the Administration of
Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for
establishing Judiciary powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will
alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the
amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices,
and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our
People, and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace,
Standing Armies without the Consent of our
legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military
independent of and superior to the Civil power.
He has combined with others to subject us
to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution,
and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his
Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed
troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial,
from Punishment for any Murders which they
should commit on the Inhabitants of these
States:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of
the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our
Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the
benefits of Trial by Jury:
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried
for pretended offences:
For abolishing the free System of English
Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing
therein an Arbitrary government , and
enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at
once an example and fit instrument for
introducing the same absolute rule into t hese
Colonies:
For taking away our Charters, abolishing
our most valuable Laws , and altering
fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
For suspending our own Legislatures, and
declaring themselves invested with power to
legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by
declaring us out of his Protection and waging
War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our
Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the
Lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large armies
of foreign mercenaries to compleat the works
of death, desolation and tyranny, already
begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy
scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages,
and totally unworthy the H ead of a civilized
nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens
taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms
against their Country, to become the
executioners of their friends and Brethren, or
to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections
amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on
the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless
Indian Savages,whose known rule of warfare,
is an undistinguished destruction of all ages,
sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We
have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble
terms: Our repeated Petitions have been
answered only by repeated injury. A Prince,
whose character is thus marked by every act
which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the
ruler of a free people.
Nor have We been wanting in attention to
our British brethren. We have warned them
from time to time of attempts by their
legislature to extend an unwarrantable
jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of
the circumstances of our emigration and sett
lement here. We have appealed to their native
justice and magnanimity, and we have
conjured them by the ties of our common
kindred to disavow these usurpations, which
would inevitably interrupt our connections and
correspondence. They too have been deaf t o
the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We
must,therefore, acquiesce in the necessity,
which denounces our Separation, and hold
them, as we hold the rest of mankind ,
Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the
united States of America, in General Congress,
Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge
of the world for the rectitude of our intentions,
do, in the Name, and by Authority of the
good People of these Colonies, solemnly
publish and declare, That these United
Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free
and Independent States; that they are
Absolved from all Allegiance to the British
Crown,and that all political connection
between them and the State of Great Bri tain,
is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that
as Free and Independent States, they have full
Power to levy War, conclude Peace,contract
Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all
other Acts and Things which Independent
States may of right do. An d for the support of
this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the
Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually
pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes
and our sacred Honor.
JOHN HANCOCK , President
Attested, CHARLES THOMSON , Secretary
New Hampshire: JOSIAH BARTLETT,
WILLIAM WHIPPLE, MATTHEW THORNTON
Massachusetts-Bay: SAMUEL ADAMS ,
JOHN ADAMS , ROBERT TREAT PAINE ,
ELBRIDGE GERRY
Rhode Island: STEPHEN HOPKINS ,
WILLIAM ELLERY
Connecticut: ROGER SHERMAN , SAMUEL
HUNTINGTON, WILLIAM WILLIAMS, OLIVER
WOLCOTT