Methods of Data Collection_Education Psychology.pdf
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Nov 01, 2025
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About This Presentation
These slides are useable for B.Ed., M.Ed. and M.A. (Psychology) Students.
Longitudinal Method, Cross-Sectional Method, Cohort Method & Sequential Method.
Slide Content
Prof. (Dr.) Shanti Tejwani, HoD, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Education, SVVV Indore
DATA GATHERING METHODS
Educational Psychology (B.Ed., M.Ed. & M.A.)
DATA GATHERING METHODS
Educational Psychology (B.Ed., M.Ed. & M.A.)
Methods
●Longitudinal
●Cross Sectional
●Sequential
●Cohort
Prof. (Dr.) Shanti Tejwani, HoD, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Education, SVVV, Indore
●Longitudinal
●Cross Sectional
●Sequential
●Cohort
Prof. (Dr.) Shanti Tejwani, HoD, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Education, SVVV, Indore
Prof. (Dr.) Shanti Tejwani, HoD, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Education, SVVV Indore
Longitudinal Method
The longitudinal method involves studying the same group of individuals (cohort) over an extended period,
with multiple assessments conducted at different time points. Researchers collect data from the same
participants at regular intervals to observe individual developmental changes over time.
It involves repeated observations of the same variable for the same sample over long period of the time
(Many Decades). It is an observational study. It means Same participants are observed recurrently over a
period of time. Participants usually studied in the form of Cohort.
This approach is particularly useful for studying stability and change in individual as well as developmental
patterns (Trajectories).
It is a type of Non experimental developmental research design for observing age related changes in
behaviour. It is also known as Longitudinal study/Longitudinal Pathway/ Longitudinal Research/Panel Study.
Example:
A teacher/researcher observes reading growth by studying the reading skills of 40 students from
Grade 1 to Grade 5 to see how their comprehension improves each year.
Longitudinal Method
The longitudinal method involves studying the same group of individuals (cohort) over an extended period,
with multiple assessments conducted at different time points. Researchers collect data from the same
participants at regular intervals to observe individual developmental changes over time.
It involves repeated observations of the same variable for the same sample over long period of the time
(Many Decades). It is an observational study. It means Same participants are observed recurrently over a
period of time. Participants usually studied in the form of Cohort.
This approach is particularly useful for studying stability and change in individual as well as developmental
patterns (Trajectories).
It is a type of Non experimental developmental research design for observing age related changes in
behaviour. It is also known as Longitudinal study/Longitudinal Pathway/ Longitudinal Research/Panel Study.
Example:
A teacher/researcher observes reading growth by studying the reading skills of 40 students from
Grade 1 to Grade 5 to see how their comprehension improves each year.
Definition
Longitudinal Studies enables researchers to analyse duration of social phenomena, highlights similarities,
differences, and changes over time in respect one or more variables or participants (within and between
participants), identify long term effects and explain changes in terms of stable characteristics i.e. sex or
variable characteristics such as income/sell/expenditures…
Types of Longitudinal Studies
Types of
Longitudinal
Studies
Panel: Same individuals from a group is studied over
time,
Cohort:
Retrospective : Looking Past by looking at historical
informations (using Extra Data)
Prof. (Dr.) Shanti Tejwani, HoD, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Education
Longitudinal Studies enables researchers to analyse duration of social phenomena, highlights similarities,
differences, and changes over time in respect one or more variables or participants (within and between
participants), identify long term effects and explain changes in terms of stable characteristics i.e. sex or
variable characteristics such as income/sell/expenditures…
Types of Longitudinal Studies
Types of
Longitudinal
Studies
Panel: Same individuals from a group is studied over
time,
Cohort:
Retrospective : Looking Past by looking at historical
informations (using Extra Data)
Prof. (Dr.) Shanti Tejwani, HoD, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Education
WHEN TO USE LONGITUDINAL STUDY
Describing and defining developmental changes
Predicting Event Occurrence
Identifying Treatment effects
Assigning Causality
Measuring duration between events
Describing occurrence of Phenomenon over different time periods. .
Prof.(Dr.) shanti Tejwani, HoD, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Education, SVVV, Indore
Describing and defining developmental changes
Predicting Event Occurrence
Identifying Treatment effects
Assigning Causality
Measuring duration between events
Describing occurrence of Phenomenon over different time periods. .
Prof.(Dr.) shanti Tejwani, HoD, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Education, SVVV, Indore
CHARACTERISTICS
●Observational study in nature
●The same participants are observed repeatedly.
●Correlational, trend and cause and effect relationship may be described.
●Focuses on developmental changes or growth trends.
●Data are collected at different points in time.
●Contrast with cross sectional studies and involves collecting data over an extended period
●Respondent remain same during the study.
●Shows real development or change over time.
●Helps to study cause-and-effect relationships.
●Tracks individual differences in development.
●Provides in-depth insights into individual growth and minimizes cohort effects.
ADVANTAGES
●Observational study in nature
●The same participants are observed repeatedly.
●Correlational, trend and cause and effect relationship may be described.
●Focuses on developmental changes or growth trends.
●Data are collected at different points in time.
●Contrast with cross sectional studies and involves collecting data over an extended period
●Respondent remain same during the study.
●Shows real development or change over time.
●Helps to study cause-and-effect relationships.
●Tracks individual differences in development.
●Provides in-depth insights into individual growth and minimizes cohort effects.
ADVANTAGES
LIMITATIONS
●Time-consuming and expensive.
●Participant attrition (dropout) may occur over time.
●Practice effects may influence results, as participants become familiar with tests.
●Time-consuming and expensive.
●Participant attrition (dropout) may occur over time.
●Practice effects may influence results, as participants become familiar with tests.
Cross-Sectional Approach
It is a Primarily an observational study. It means that researcher record information about their subjects
without manipulating the study environment. In this method a researcher develops cohorts from the study
population, so that one can examine how people of different ages perform, behave or respond to a particular
function. In this the researcher gathers data from a pool of participants with varied characteristics and
demographics known as variables such as age, gender, income education, locations and ethnicity etc. The
design is used to capture information based on data gathered for a specific point in time.
The cross-sectional method involves collecting data from different age groups at a single point in time.
Researchers compare participants of various ages to examine age-related differences in development. This
approach is efficient and less time-consuming than longitudinal studies, making it ideal for exploring
developmental differences in a shorter duration.
It is a Primarily an observational study. It means that researcher record information about their subjects
without manipulating the study environment. In this method a researcher develops cohorts from the study
population, so that one can examine how people of different ages perform, behave or respond to a particular
function. In this the researcher gathers data from a pool of participants with varied characteristics and
demographics known as variables such as age, gender, income education, locations and ethnicity etc. The
design is used to capture information based on data gathered for a specific point in time.
The cross-sectional method involves collecting data from different age groups at a single point in time.
Researchers compare participants of various ages to examine age-related differences in development. This
approach is efficient and less time-consuming than longitudinal studies, making it ideal for exploring
developmental differences in a shorter duration.
Group A
(Grade 5)
A cross-sectional study is one that produces a snapshot of a population at a particular point in time. The study
involves looking at people who differ on one key characteristic at one specific point in time. (Ruspini, 2002)
Definition
Group B
(Grade 8)
Group C
(Grade 11)
Example:
●To study reasoning ability, a researcher compares mathematical reasoning skills of students in Grades 5, 8,
and 11 to understand age-related differences.
●To study the relationship between using social media and students’ achievement in computer science
Compare at one point in a time
(Grade 5)
A cross-sectional study is one that produces a snapshot of a population at a particular point in time. The study
involves looking at people who differ on one key characteristic at one specific point in time. (Ruspini, 2002)
Definition
Group B
(Grade 8)
Group C
(Grade 11)
Example:
●To study reasoning ability, a researcher compares mathematical reasoning skills of students in Grades 5, 8,
and 11 to understand age-related differences.
●To study the relationship between using social media and students’ achievement in computer science
Compare at one point in a time
Characteristics
●Compare the different population groups at a single point in time.
●Researcher cannot manipulate variables. Hence absence of experiment.
●Data are collected once, not repeatedly.
●Focuses on age-related differences, not on individual change.
●Provide information only; they do not anser why of any phenomenon
●Mat not provide definite information about cause-and-effect relationships.
●Just like taking a snapshot of a single moment in time, do not consider what happens
before or after the snapshot is taken.
●Findings are drawn from whatever fits into the frame.
●Compare the different population groups at a single point in time.
●Researcher cannot manipulate variables. Hence absence of experiment.
●Data are collected once, not repeatedly.
●Focuses on age-related differences, not on individual change.
●Provide information only; they do not anser why of any phenomenon
●Mat not provide definite information about cause-and-effect relationships.
●Just like taking a snapshot of a single moment in time, do not consider what happens
before or after the snapshot is taken.
●Findings are drawn from whatever fits into the frame.
●Quick and cost-effective.
●No issue of participant dropout (attrition).
●Suitable for large samples.
●It allows investigator ro comapre mant different variables at the same point in time with little or no
additional cost.
●Focus on studying and drawing inferences from existing differences between people, subjects or
phenomenon.
●Groups identified for the study are purposely selected based upon existing differences in the sample
rather than seeking random sampling.
●Contain multiple variables at the time of the data collection.
Advantages
●No issue of participant dropout (attrition).
●Suitable for large samples.
●It allows investigator ro comapre mant different variables at the same point in time with little or no
additional cost.
●Focus on studying and drawing inferences from existing differences between people, subjects or
phenomenon.
●Groups identified for the study are purposely selected based upon existing differences in the sample
rather than seeking random sampling.
●Contain multiple variables at the time of the data collection.
Advantages
Limitations
●Does not show actual individual development over time. Not provide the indication of a sequence of
events or reveal historical or temporal contexts.
●May be affected by cohort differences (social or cultural variations between age groups).
●Cannot infer cause-and-effect relationships means study cannot be utilized to establish cause-effect
relationships. or individual developmental trajectories.
●It only provides a snapshot of analysis so there is always the possiblity that a study could have
different results if another time frame had been chosen.
●Timing of the snapshot is not guaranteed to be representative.
●No follow-up findings.
●Does not show actual individual development over time. Not provide the indication of a sequence of
events or reveal historical or temporal contexts.
●May be affected by cohort differences (social or cultural variations between age groups).
●Cannot infer cause-and-effect relationships means study cannot be utilized to establish cause-effect
relationships. or individual developmental trajectories.
●It only provides a snapshot of analysis so there is always the possiblity that a study could have
different results if another time frame had been chosen.
●Timing of the snapshot is not guaranteed to be representative.
●No follow-up findings.
COHORT METHOD
Cohort Studies These are the best method for determining the incidence and natural history of a condition. A
cohort study is a type of longitudinal research design in which a group of people (cohort) who share a
common characteristic or experience within a defined period are followed over time to study how certain
factors affect outcomes. “A research method in which a specific group of individuals sharing a common
feature is observed over a period to study the occurrence of outcomes or changes.”
A cohort is a group of people who share a common defining characteristic.
Examples:
●People born in the same year (birth cohort)
●Students who joined a B.Ed. course in 2024 (education cohort)
●Workers exposed to a specific work environment (occupational cohort)
Cohort Studies These are the best method for determining the incidence and natural history of a condition. A
cohort study is a type of longitudinal research design in which a group of people (cohort) who share a
common characteristic or experience within a defined period are followed over time to study how certain
factors affect outcomes. “A research method in which a specific group of individuals sharing a common
feature is observed over a period to study the occurrence of outcomes or changes.”
A cohort is a group of people who share a common defining characteristic.
Examples:
●People born in the same year (birth cohort)
●Students who joined a B.Ed. course in 2024 (education cohort)
●Workers exposed to a specific work environment (occupational cohort)
Example
A researcher wants to study how blended learning made effect in academic achievement over time.
●Cohort: 100 B.Ed. students admitted in 2025.
●Exposure: Teaching through blended learning.
●Observation period: 2 years (2025–2027).
●Data collected: Teaching skills, academic performance, motivation.
●Outcome: Improvement in learning achievement and teaching competence.
Characteristics
●Same group followed over time – participants are tracked for months or years.
●Exposure and outcome – researchers study how exposure to a factor (teaching method, lifestyle, policy,
etc.) affects an outcome (learning, health, etc.).
●Temporal relationship – because data is collected over time, cause–effect relationships can be inferred.
●Repeated observations – data is collected at multiple points (e.g., every semester, annually, or after
certain interventions).
A researcher wants to study how blended learning made effect in academic achievement over time.
●Cohort: 100 B.Ed. students admitted in 2025.
●Exposure: Teaching through blended learning.
●Observation period: 2 years (2025–2027).
●Data collected: Teaching skills, academic performance, motivation.
●Outcome: Improvement in learning achievement and teaching competence.
Characteristics
●Same group followed over time – participants are tracked for months or years.
●Exposure and outcome – researchers study how exposure to a factor (teaching method, lifestyle, policy,
etc.) affects an outcome (learning, health, etc.).
●Temporal relationship – because data is collected over time, cause–effect relationships can be inferred.
●Repeated observations – data is collected at multiple points (e.g., every semester, annually, or after
certain interventions).
Advantages
●Can establish temporal sequence (cause before effect).
●Useful for studying multiple outcomes from a single exposure.
●Can calculate incidence rates and risk factors.
●Provides rich, real-time data about development and change.
Limitations
●Time-consuming and may take years to complete.
●Expensive due to repeated data collection and tracking.
●Attrition (participants drop out over time).
●Confounding variables (other factors) can influence results.
●Can establish temporal sequence (cause before effect).
●Useful for studying multiple outcomes from a single exposure.
●Can calculate incidence rates and risk factors.
●Provides rich, real-time data about development and change.
Limitations
●Time-consuming and may take years to complete.
●Expensive due to repeated data collection and tracking.
●Attrition (participants drop out over time).
●Confounding variables (other factors) can influence results.
Type Description Example
1. Prospective
Cohort Study
Starts in the present and follows participants into
the future. Data about exposure is collected first,
and outcomes are observed later.
A researcher starts in 2025 with 200
B.Ed. students and tracks how using
blended learning affects their teaching
competence over 2 years.
2.
Retrospective
Cohort Study
Uses past records to identify a cohort and
outcomes that have already occurred.
A researcher uses 2015–2020 academic
records to study how attendance
affected exam performance among
nursing students.
Types
1. Prospective
Cohort Study
Starts in the present and follows participants into
the future. Data about exposure is collected first,
and outcomes are observed later.
A researcher starts in 2025 with 200
B.Ed. students and tracks how using
blended learning affects their teaching
competence over 2 years.
2.
Retrospective
Cohort Study
Uses past records to identify a cohort and
outcomes that have already occurred.
A researcher uses 2015–2020 academic
records to study how attendance
affected exam performance among
nursing students.
Types
A group of people is chosen who do not have the outcome of interest (for example, myocardial
infarction). The investigator then measures a variety of variables that might be relevant to the
development of the condition. Over a period of time the people in the sample are observed to see
whether they develop the outcome of interest (that is, myocardial infarction).
In single cohort studies those people who do not develop the outcome of interest are used as internal
controls. Where two cohorts are used, one group has been exposed to or treated with the agent of
interest and the other has not, thereby acting as an external control.
Prospective Cohort Studies
infarction). The investigator then measures a variety of variables that might be relevant to the
development of the condition. Over a period of time the people in the sample are observed to see
whether they develop the outcome of interest (that is, myocardial infarction).
In single cohort studies those people who do not develop the outcome of interest are used as internal
controls. Where two cohorts are used, one group has been exposed to or treated with the agent of
interest and the other has not, thereby acting as an external control.
Prospective Cohort Studies
Retrospective Cohort
Retrospective studies are much cheaper as the data have already been collected. One advantage of such a
study design is the lack of bias because the outcome of current interest was not the original reason for the
data to be collected. However, because the cohort was originally constructed for another purpose it is
unlikely that all the relevant information will have been rigorously collected. Retrospective cohorts also
suffer the disadvantage that people with the outcome of interest are more likely to remember certain
antecedents, or exaggerate or minimize what they now consider to be risk factors (recall bias).
Retrospective Cohort Studies These use data already collected for other purposes. The methodology is the
same but the study is performed potshot. The cohort is “followed up” retrospectively. The study period may
be many years but the time to complete the study is only as long as it takes to collate and analyze the data.
Retrospective studies are much cheaper as the data have already been collected. One advantage of such a
study design is the lack of bias because the outcome of current interest was not the original reason for the
data to be collected. However, because the cohort was originally constructed for another purpose it is
unlikely that all the relevant information will have been rigorously collected. Retrospective cohorts also
suffer the disadvantage that people with the outcome of interest are more likely to remember certain
antecedents, or exaggerate or minimize what they now consider to be risk factors (recall bias).
Retrospective Cohort Studies These use data already collected for other purposes. The methodology is the
same but the study is performed potshot. The cohort is “followed up” retrospectively. The study period may
be many years but the time to complete the study is only as long as it takes to collate and analyze the data.
How to Run Cohort Method
If the data are readily available then a retrospective design is the quickest method. If high quality, reliable
data are not available a prospective study will be required. The first step is the definition of the sample
group. Each subject must have the potential to develop the outcome of interest (that is, circumcised men
should not be included in a cohort designed to study paraphimosis).
Furthermore, the sample population must be representative of the general population if the study is primarily
looking at the incidence and natural history of the condition (descriptive).
If however the aim is to analyze the relation between predictor variables and outcomes (analytical) then the
sample should contain as many patients likely to develop the outcome as possible, otherwise much time and
expense will be spent collecting information of little value
If the data are readily available then a retrospective design is the quickest method. If high quality, reliable
data are not available a prospective study will be required. The first step is the definition of the sample
group. Each subject must have the potential to develop the outcome of interest (that is, circumcised men
should not be included in a cohort designed to study paraphimosis).
Furthermore, the sample population must be representative of the general population if the study is primarily
looking at the incidence and natural history of the condition (descriptive).
If however the aim is to analyze the relation between predictor variables and outcomes (analytical) then the
sample should contain as many patients likely to develop the outcome as possible, otherwise much time and
expense will be spent collecting information of little value
Basis / तत्व Cohort Study Longitudinal Study Cross-Sectional Study
Meaning / अथर्षA group sharing a common
feature is followed over
time to study outcomes.
सम!न ओवश/षत! व!ल/ समत्ह क!
समय क/ स!थ अध्ययन iकय!
ज!त! ह0 त!iक प?रण!मI क! पत!
चल सक/।
Same group or individuals are
studied repeatedly over a long
period to observe
developmental changes.
एक ह# समत्ह क! ल2ब/ समय तक ब!र-
ब!र अध्ययन iकय! ज!त! ह0 त!iक
ओवक!स!त्मक प?रवतर्षन द/ख/ ज! सकE ।
Different groups of different
ages or levels are studied at
one point in time to compare
them.
ओवgभन्न आय? य! स्तर क/ समत्हI क!
एक समय पर अध्ययन और त?लन!
क' ज!त" ह0।
Nature / $क? ?तObservational; follows
naturally occurring
conditions.
$/क्षण!त्मक; स्व!भ!ओवक
प?र?स्थ?तयI क! अन?सरण
करत! ह0।
Observational; repeated
measures over years.
$/क्षण!त्मक; वषई तक द*हर!य! गय!
म!पन।
Observational and
comparative at a single time
point.
एक ह# समय पर त?लन!त्मक और
$/क्षण!त्मक।
Time
Dimension /
समय आय!म
Long-term (Over years).
द#घर्षक!gलक (वषई तक)।
Long-term (Multiple time
points).
द#घर्षक!gलक (कई समय ?ब2द?ओ2 पर)।
One-time (Single time point).
एक ब!र (एक ह# समय ?ब2द? पर)।
Meaning / अथर्षA group sharing a common
feature is followed over
time to study outcomes.
सम!न ओवश/षत! व!ल/ समत्ह क!
समय क/ स!थ अध्ययन iकय!
ज!त! ह0 त!iक प?रण!मI क! पत!
चल सक/।
Same group or individuals are
studied repeatedly over a long
period to observe
developmental changes.
एक ह# समत्ह क! ल2ब/ समय तक ब!र-
ब!र अध्ययन iकय! ज!त! ह0 त!iक
ओवक!स!त्मक प?रवतर्षन द/ख/ ज! सकE ।
Different groups of different
ages or levels are studied at
one point in time to compare
them.
ओवgभन्न आय? य! स्तर क/ समत्हI क!
एक समय पर अध्ययन और त?लन!
क' ज!त" ह0।
Nature / $क? ?तObservational; follows
naturally occurring
conditions.
$/क्षण!त्मक; स्व!भ!ओवक
प?र?स्थ?तयI क! अन?सरण
करत! ह0।
Observational; repeated
measures over years.
$/क्षण!त्मक; वषई तक द*हर!य! गय!
म!पन।
Observational and
comparative at a single time
point.
एक ह# समय पर त?लन!त्मक और
$/क्षण!त्मक।
Time
Dimension /
समय आय!म
Long-term (Over years).
द#घर्षक!gलक (वषई तक)।
Long-term (Multiple time
points).
द#घर्षक!gलक (कई समय ?ब2द?ओ2 पर)।
One-time (Single time point).
एक ब!र (एक ह# समय ?ब2द? पर)।
Basis / तत्व Cohort Study Longitudinal Study Cross-Sectional Study (
Participants /
$?तभ!ग"
People having a common
characteristic (same batch,
same age, etc.).
सम!न ओवश/षत! व!ल/ व्य?क्त ज0स/
एक ह# ब0च य! आय? समत्ह।
Same individuals observed
repeatedly.
वह# $?तभ!ग" ब!र-ब!र द/ख/ ज!त/ हG।
Different individuals from
various age groups.
ओवgभन्न आय? समत्हI क/ अलग-
अलग व्य?क्त।
Purpose /
उnद/श्य
To study cause–effect
relationships and outcomes
over time.
समय क/ स!थ क!रण–प?रण!म
स2ब2ध और प?रण!मI क! अध्ययन
करन!।
To observe developmental
trends and individual growth.
ओवक!स क/ ?झ!न और व्य?क्तगत
व?nlध क! अध्ययन करन!।
To identify differences among
age groups or levels.
ओवgभन्न आय? य! स्तर क/ समत्हI क/
ब"च अ2तर ज!नन!।
Data
Collection /
ड/ट! स2ह
Multiple follow-ups or
surveys over time.
समय-समय पर ड/ट! स2ह य!
सव6क्षण।
Repeated observations at
different intervals.
अलग-अलग समय!2तर!ल पर ब!र-
ब!र अवल*कन।
One-time data collection.
एक ब!र ड/ट! स2ह।
Participants /
$?तभ!ग"
People having a common
characteristic (same batch,
same age, etc.).
सम!न ओवश/षत! व!ल/ व्य?क्त ज0स/
एक ह# ब0च य! आय? समत्ह।
Same individuals observed
repeatedly.
वह# $?तभ!ग" ब!र-ब!र द/ख/ ज!त/ हG।
Different individuals from
various age groups.
ओवgभन्न आय? समत्हI क/ अलग-
अलग व्य?क्त।
Purpose /
उnद/श्य
To study cause–effect
relationships and outcomes
over time.
समय क/ स!थ क!रण–प?रण!म
स2ब2ध और प?रण!मI क! अध्ययन
करन!।
To observe developmental
trends and individual growth.
ओवक!स क/ ?झ!न और व्य?क्तगत
व?nlध क! अध्ययन करन!।
To identify differences among
age groups or levels.
ओवgभन्न आय? य! स्तर क/ समत्हI क/
ब"च अ2तर ज!नन!।
Data
Collection /
ड/ट! स2ह
Multiple follow-ups or
surveys over time.
समय-समय पर ड/ट! स2ह य!
सव6क्षण।
Repeated observations at
different intervals.
अलग-अलग समय!2तर!ल पर ब!र-
ब!र अवल*कन।
One-time data collection.
एक ब!र ड/ट! स2ह।
Basis / तत्व Cohort Study Longitudinal Study Cross-Sectional Study
Example /
उद!हरण
Studying 2025 batch students
for 5 years to see learning
outcomes.
2025 क/ ओवnय!lथर्षयI क! 5 वषई
तक अध्ययन करन!।
Studying same students from
Class 5 to 10 every year.
कक्ष! 5 स/ 10 तक वह# ओवnय!lथर्षयI
क! हर स!ल अध्ययन।
Comparing Classes 5, 8, and
10 at the same time.
एक ह# समय पर कक्ष! 5, 8 और 10
क/ ओवnय!lथर्षयI क' त?लन!।
Advantages /
ल!भ
Shows cause–effect link;
real-world follow-up data; can
measure risk or change.
क!रण–प?रण!म स2ब2ध ?दख!त! ह0;
व!स्तओवक ड/ट!; ज*hखम य!
प?रवतर्षन म!प! ज! सकत! ह0।
Shows actual development;
tracks individual differences.
व!स्तओवक ओवक!स और व्य?क्तगत
अ2तर ?दख!त! ह0।
Quick, inexpensive, and
suitable for large samples.
त्व?रत, सस्त! और बड़/ नमत्न/ क/
gलए उपय?क्त।
Limitations /
स"म!ए1
Time-consuming, costly, and
subject to dropout (attrition).
समय-स!ध्य, मह2ग!, और
$?तभ!lगयI क/ छत्टन/ क' स2भ!वन!।
Time-consuming; practice or
testing effects may occur.
समय-स!ध्य; अभ्य!स $भ!व य!
पर#क्षण क' प?नर!व?ओ? स2भव।
Does not show real change;
affected by cohort differences.
व!स्तओवक प?रवतर्षन नह#2 ?दख!त!;
समत्ह gभन्नत!ओ2 स/ $भ!ओवत।
Causality /
क!रण-प?रण!म
Can infer cause–effect due to
time sequence. समय म क/
क!रण क!रण–प?रण!म ?नष्कषर्ष
स2भव।
Can suggest developmental
causes or trends. ओवक!स!त्मक
क!रण य! ?झ!न स?झ! सकत! ह0।
Cannot infer cause–effect
relationship. क!रण–प?रण!म
स2ब2ध् नह# बत!य! ज! सकत!
Example /
उद!हरण
Studying 2025 batch students
for 5 years to see learning
outcomes.
2025 क/ ओवnय!lथर्षयI क! 5 वषई
तक अध्ययन करन!।
Studying same students from
Class 5 to 10 every year.
कक्ष! 5 स/ 10 तक वह# ओवnय!lथर्षयI
क! हर स!ल अध्ययन।
Comparing Classes 5, 8, and
10 at the same time.
एक ह# समय पर कक्ष! 5, 8 और 10
क/ ओवnय!lथर्षयI क' त?लन!।
Advantages /
ल!भ
Shows cause–effect link;
real-world follow-up data; can
measure risk or change.
क!रण–प?रण!म स2ब2ध ?दख!त! ह0;
व!स्तओवक ड/ट!; ज*hखम य!
प?रवतर्षन म!प! ज! सकत! ह0।
Shows actual development;
tracks individual differences.
व!स्तओवक ओवक!स और व्य?क्तगत
अ2तर ?दख!त! ह0।
Quick, inexpensive, and
suitable for large samples.
त्व?रत, सस्त! और बड़/ नमत्न/ क/
gलए उपय?क्त।
Limitations /
स"म!ए1
Time-consuming, costly, and
subject to dropout (attrition).
समय-स!ध्य, मह2ग!, और
$?तभ!lगयI क/ छत्टन/ क' स2भ!वन!।
Time-consuming; practice or
testing effects may occur.
समय-स!ध्य; अभ्य!स $भ!व य!
पर#क्षण क' प?नर!व?ओ? स2भव।
Does not show real change;
affected by cohort differences.
व!स्तओवक प?रवतर्षन नह#2 ?दख!त!;
समत्ह gभन्नत!ओ2 स/ $भ!ओवत।
Causality /
क!रण-प?रण!म
Can infer cause–effect due to
time sequence. समय म क/
क!रण क!रण–प?रण!म ?नष्कषर्ष
स2भव।
Can suggest developmental
causes or trends. ओवक!स!त्मक
क!रण य! ?झ!न स?झ! सकत! ह0।
Cannot infer cause–effect
relationship. क!रण–प?रण!म
स2ब2ध् नह# बत!य! ज! सकत!
Sequential Method
Sequential method refers to combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal methods involving repeated
study of different cohorts over time.
Longitudinal
Method
Cross-Sectional
Method
Sequential
Method
Sequential method refers to combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal methods involving repeated
study of different cohorts over time.
Longitudinal
Method
Cross-Sectional
Method
Sequential
Method
It features participants who are followed over time (Longitudinal) and it also
includes participants of different ages. It is that which is carried out in a deliberate
stage, will be completed followed by another, then another and so on, with the aim
that each stage build upon the previous one until enough data is gathered over an
interval of time to test the hypothesis.
It is the powerful method because it allow for both Longitudinal and
Cross-sectional comparison-changes and or stability with age overtime can be
measured and compared with different age and cohort groups.
Sequential Method
includes participants of different ages. It is that which is carried out in a deliberate
stage, will be completed followed by another, then another and so on, with the aim
that each stage build upon the previous one until enough data is gathered over an
interval of time to test the hypothesis.
It is the powerful method because it allow for both Longitudinal and
Cross-sectional comparison-changes and or stability with age overtime can be
measured and compared with different age and cohort groups.
Sequential Method
ADVANTAGES
Examine changes within individuals over time.
Examine changes between participants of different ages at the same time.
Can be used to examine cohort effects.
Can be used to examine time in history effects.
The sample size is not predetermined.
Using quantitative framework, sequential study generally utilizes sampling techniques to gather data and applying
statistical method to analyse the data.
Using qualitative framework, sequential studies generally utilizes samples of individual (cohort) and use qualitative
methods such as interviews, observations, to gather information from sample.
Examine changes within individuals over time.
Examine changes between participants of different ages at the same time.
Can be used to examine cohort effects.
Can be used to examine time in history effects.
The sample size is not predetermined.
Using quantitative framework, sequential study generally utilizes sampling techniques to gather data and applying
statistical method to analyse the data.
Using qualitative framework, sequential studies generally utilizes samples of individual (cohort) and use qualitative
methods such as interviews, observations, to gather information from sample.
DISADVANTAGES
The sampling method is not representative of the entire population. The only possibility of approaching
representativeness is when the researcher chooses to use a very large sample size significant enough to represent a
significant portion of the entire population. In this moving case, moving on to study a second or more sample can be
difficult.
Because the sampling technique is not randomized, the design cannot be used to create conclusions and
interpretations that pertain to entire population. Generalizability from findings is difficult.
May be expensive
May be time taking
Possibility of practice effects.
Some participants attrition.
Difficult to account for and interpret variation from one sample to another over time, particularly when using qualitative
methods of data collection.
The sampling method is not representative of the entire population. The only possibility of approaching
representativeness is when the researcher chooses to use a very large sample size significant enough to represent a
significant portion of the entire population. In this moving case, moving on to study a second or more sample can be
difficult.
Because the sampling technique is not randomized, the design cannot be used to create conclusions and
interpretations that pertain to entire population. Generalizability from findings is difficult.
May be expensive
May be time taking
Possibility of practice effects.
Some participants attrition.
Difficult to account for and interpret variation from one sample to another over time, particularly when using qualitative
methods of data collection.
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