01 LD & DD Dyslexia.pdf. Learning difficulties in dyslexia

Learning difficulties in dyslexia

1. 1
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2. FIRST PART. Learning Difficulties
2
t.ly/FqFx
[email protected]

3. 3
SUPPLEMENTARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
In addition to this presentation
and its links, and the translated
notes in UADRIVE, you can use
the following book (Ebook
version for less than 20 euros):
The Effective Teacher's Guide to
Dyslexia and other Learning
Difficulties (Learning
Disabilities)
2011
Michael Farrell

4. 4
Finally, he left the conference
room, and came in immediately
with a dog. The speaker placed the
animal, visibly frightened, on the
table. Surrounding them, dozens
of amazed expressions waited for
the dog to say something. Human
and animal gazes were
encountered. Not a single word
came out of the dog. Now the
gazes were turning to the speaker
who immediately added: ‘I taught
him, but he did not learn’...
(Santos Guerra, 2007)
At a Congress on Higher
Education, a Brazilian speaker
began his speech
communicating to the audience
an impressive achievement: ‘I
have taught my dog to talk and
he is out there. The attendants
murmured as a result of the
originality of the proposal and
the importance of the question.
They could not wait to see what
seemed impossible: 'I taught
him to speak and he's waiting
outside', reiterated the
communicator very sure of
himself.

5. 5
Learning Difficulties
Learning difficulties, in DSM-5 (APA, 2014), fall within the
Specific Learning Disorders (SLD, Spanish acronym: TEA)
which are included within Neuro-Developmental Disorders.
Prevalence: 5 and 15% of schoolchildren affected by SLD
(including all types: mild, moderate and severe)
Activity
Frequently we will read in texts “Learning Disabilities”
Find and discuss the difference between learning difficulty
and learning disability. Any conclusion?

6. 6
Specific Learning Difficulties must be differentiated from
normal variations in the academic achievement when
difficulties are due to external factors like:
•lack of educational opportunities,
•consistently poor teaching,
•learning in a second language
(APA, 2014, p. 73, Spanish Ed).
Learning Difficulties
However, these external factors produce
(no doubt) learning difficulties that
could persist along students’ life
t.ly/lHAl

7. 7
The most common difficulties are usually those
related to reading, writing and mathematics.
We willmainly focus on the difficulties in
learning to read.

8. 8
Unit 1. Difficulties in learning reading and writing
(literacy)
School failure in Spain
Activity: high or low?
Compare to other
European countries
nowadays. How about
the evolution along the
last decade?

9. 9
How do we read?
Activity: make your own
diagram of the smallest
processes occurring
while you read.

10. 10
Dual route cascade processing of reading
(Colheart, 2005)
This is one exampleof a model
describing reading processing
Lexiconis a store of words
(words that we remember)
https://www.scienceopen.com/document?vid=7de0d
910-c436-4300-a307-cbabc52547a9
Dual route and connectionist models of reading: An overview
M Coltheart -London Review of Education, 2006
Activity: read the following article and
debate if you agree with the way reading
processing is explained
Route 1
Route 2
Route 3
(This is a model of the
Language Processing System,
LPS)

11. 11
Dual route and connectionist models of reading:
An overview
M Coltheart -London Review of Education, 2006
Dual route cascade processing of reading
(Colheart, 2005)
Brain damage studies
are consistent with the
existence of three
different lexicon
warehouses (1, 2 and
3)
1
2
3
This is the same model
indicating the role of
short-or long-term
memory (STM/LTM)
Route 1
(indirect)
Route 2
(direct)
Route 2’
(direct-
semantic)
STM
LTM
LTM
LTM

12. 12
Steps:
(i)The written wordpasses to the short-term
memory (STM) where its spelling is
analyzed
(ii)the GPC mechanism confers each word-
forming grapheme its corresponding
phoneme
(iii)the GPC generates a sequence of
phonemes that is stored as STMby the
phonetic system until
(iv)it is pronounced (spoken word).
Dual route cascade processing of reading (Colheart, 2005)
This route allows us to read all the words, independently the
meaning is known or not.
Ca-pe-ru-ci-ta
•Indirect route (phonological, sub-lexical, route 1).

13. 13
Dual route cascade processing of reading (Colheart, 2005)
•Non-semantic direct
route(lexical).
This route compares word
spelling with stored
representations and then
converts the written word into
its corresponding spoken
word, without accessing the
semantics. The GPC
mechanism does not act on
this route. Reading is fluent
but understanding is not
present.
Los ladrillosde la casa estabanmanchados…

14. 14
Dual route cascade processing of reading (Colheart, 2005)
•Semantic direct path (lexical).
It converts each entire written word into its
corresponding oral word, accessing its
meaning.

15. 15
A cognitive model of
languageprocessing
Beeson et al 2002
t.ly/1tqB
This is a model for
general language
processing

16. 16
Another Cognitive Model for reading (McKenna & Stahl, 2009).
The model considers the
important “ingredients” for
reading processing

17. 17
The Reading Rope (Scarborough, 2001).
Illustration of the reading components

18. 18
•Development corresponding to a
mental age of 6 years.
•When the child begins to read,
he/she does not have the entire
graphemic lexicon yet. As this is
essential in the direct route, it is
necessary to start reading through the
indirect route.
•In general, bad readers use the
indirect route and good readers use
the direct semantics.
•By practicing reading, the indirect
route becomes automatic and
increases the number of words in the
graphemic lexicon.
Important points on the Language Processing System (LPS)

19. 19
When something goes wrong in learning to read

20. Dyslexia: definition
20
Definition Criteria
a) Exclusion of other reasons
b) Discrepancy (Level-age)
c) Starting age
difficulties in learning written
language
Types
Acquired (after Reading,
brain damage)
Developmental (before
reading)
Indirect
Direct
Mixed
a)Inaccurate,slowandtiringwordreading:readingsinglewordsaloudincorrectly,slowly
andhesitantly,guessingwords,difficultypronouncingwords.
b)Difficultyunderstandingthemeaningofreadsentences
Activity:trytofindreferencesaboutotherproblemsassociatedtodyslexia(forexample:
https://adc.bmj.com/content/archdischild/95/6/432.full.pdf)

21. 21
•Difficulties with the indirect route(GPC)
•The childtries to read using the direct(lexical) route. But
performance is poor due to the lack of training of route 1.
•It is the most common type of dyslexia,
•Problems with:
➢Infrequent or unknown words
➢Pseudowords
➢Functional words -meaningless words
➢Abstract words
•Affects directly or indirectly the three processing routes of reading
Indirectdyslexia(=phonological, sub-lexical, route 1)

22. 22
Direct lexicaldyslexia.
•Although it is considered “direct” it is very different from the previous one.
•Malfunction of the direct (lexical) route (route 3). They can read fluentlyaloud
but they do not understand the meaning. It can be developmental but
normally it is caused by brain injury
(https://academic.oup.com/brain/article/112/3/583/293580?login=true). Not
understanding the meaning of a fluently read text can also be explained by
other reasons: lack of practice, attention, motivation)
•Indirect route is ok, so they can read pseudowords or new words.
Direct orthographic or surfacedyslexia.
•Malfunction of route 2. There is therefore a problem with identifying the “drawing”
of whole words or syllables.People with this problem will try to read with GFC (route
1) only. Therefore, they will read fine but slowly pseudowords or unknown words
(unless their pronunciation is not transparent). Frequently associated with
phonological dyslexia.
•Semantic knowledge is preserved

23. 23
Deepdyslexia(mixed)
•Problems in both routes, indirect and
direct.
•Substituting one word for another that is
semantically or associatively related, for
example: ‘Feliz’for ‘cumpleaños’

24. 24
Dual route and connectionist models of reading:
An overview
M Coltheart -London Review of Education, 2006
Types of dyslexia according to the route affected
1
2
3
Route 1
(indirect)
Route 2
(direct)
Route 2’
(direct-
semantic)
STM
LTM
LTM
LTM
Indirect or
phonological
(remember that
the other routes
will be indirectly
affected)

25. 25
Dual route and connectionist models of reading:
An overview
M Coltheart -London Review of Education, 2006
Types of dyslexia according to the route affected
1
2
3
Route 1
(indirect)
Route 2
(direct)
Route 2’
(direct-
semantic)
STM
LTM
LTM
LTM
Direct or
surface
dyslexia

26. 26
Dual route and connectionist models of reading:
An overview
M Coltheart -London Review of Education, 2006
Types of dyslexia according to the route affected
1
2
3
Route 1
(indirect)
Route 2
(direct)
Route 2’
(direct-
semantic)
STM
LTM
LTM
LTM
Deep
dyslexia

27. 27
https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=F50wgXPiOW4

28. Remember that the most frequent dyslexia is the
phonological (indirect)
C K
A A
S S
A A
C-A-S-A
28
Activity: how would a child with indirect dyslexia would read? And with direct dyslexia?
Example of direct dyslexia: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F50wgXPiOW4

29. 29
Causes of dyslexia
Not clear
Several theories
•Traditional
•Neurobiological
•Psycholinguistic.
•(Secondary dyslexia to the
methodology used)

30. 30
Traditional. Visual deficit hypothesis.
Until the 70s of the last century, dyslexia was
accepted to be caused by deficits in perception
(visual-special and/or visual-motor)
This interpretation does not really stand:
-Many bad readers do not have any visual-spatial
or visual-motor problems
-Many good readers have these types of problems.

31. 31
The dyslexic subject does not seem to have the
problem seeing the written word but namingit.

32. 32
It seems that the control of eye movements by dyslexic children is defective,
however, this may be a consequence of dyslexia and not its cause.
Moreover, bad readers with no dyslexia have the same erratic eye movements,
therefore these movements do not cause, at least specifically, dyslexia
Traditional. Visual deficit hypothesis.

33. 33
Neurobiological. General deficit hypothesis.
•Dyslexia is highly hereditary(40-80%;
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2597981/)
•Although this fact does not exclude inheritance due to cultural reasons, it is
suggestive of genetic causes.
•There is not a single gene responsible for dyslexia and the inheritance
pattern seems to be complex (https://www.nature.com/articles/tp2016240)

34. https://www.brainfacts.org/archi
ves/2011/dyslexia-and-the-
brain-today
34
Neurobiological.
General deficit
hypothesis.

35. 35
The temporal lobe seems to begreater in the left hemisphere than in the right in
non-dyslexic children, being the same in both hemispheres in dyslexic children.
This suggests less lateral differentiation in dyslexic children. Galaburdaet al 1985
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4037763/
Neurobiological. General deficit hypothesis.

36. 36
Deficit in the transfer of sensory information from the eyes to the primary
visual processing areas in the cortexdue to deficits in the magnocellular
system, which is one of the neural pathways of vision.
Neurobiological. General deficit hypothesis.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/abs/pii/S002839
3218301155
In the dyslexic brain,
phonological and
visual circuits of the
left hemisphere are
disorganized.

37. 37
Damage to the cerebellum from birth could
cause dyslexia. The cerebellum is involved in
the automation of skills and one of them is
reading.
Neurobiological. General deficit hypothesis.
https://neurosciencenews.co
m/cerebellum-dyslexia-
reading-15109/

38. 38
Unlike the general population in which
lateralizationis left for language and right for
spatial functions, in dyslexic subjects the left
hemisphere is the responsible for controlling
both spatial and verbal tasks, which seems to
be less effective.
Neurobiological. General deficit hypothesis.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC4061874/

39. 39
•One of the possible causes of dyslexia is an apparent greater capacity of the
dyslexic subject to capture symmetries: the dyslexic child perceives the
symmetry, but has more difficulties to detect differences.
•Occipital, parietal, and inferior frontal cortices (and their interconnections) of
the left hemisphere are altered in people with dyslexia. These findings have
been found in research conducted with subjects with different mother tongues,
English, French, German, and Italian, showing that dyslexia occurs in a similar
manner in all of these languages
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6870307/
•Abnormal activation of the brain regions (dyslexic) responsible for phonological
decoding, phonological representations and attention: left occipito-temporal
cortex, left inferior frontal gyrus and inferior parietal lobe respectively.
Neurobiological. General deficit hypothesis.

40. 40
A RESULT FOR CONTROVERSY (Carreiraset al. (2009)
Some of the regions known to be involved in dyslexia are also altered when
learning to read. Therefore, the authors conclude that learning to read is the cause
of these alterations.
Neurobiological. General deficit hypothesis.
https://www.nature.com/a
rticles/nature08461

41. 41
Psycholinguistics.
Two theories:
FIRST
Theory of phonological deficit: the cause of dyslexia is a deficit mainly inphonological
awareness, but also in verbal memory, and speed of access to phonological information.
Also important:
accent, intonation and rhythm
(this are call the prosodic
language)

42. 42
SECOND:
Deficit in automation of reading processes
This deficit makes it difficult to read quickly
and fluently
Psycholinguistics.

43. 43
Phonological awareness: perceptionthat words are made up of sounds and that these
can be combined to form words
It starts ataround three years of age, but it is mature at around six.
To start learning to read it is essential that children have developed phonological
awareness
Psycholinguistics.
Phonological awareness
https://speechisbeautiful.com/2016/12/phonological-awareness-phonemic-awareness-and-phonics/
https://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading-basics/phonemic

44. 44
By the age of seven or eight, children already have enough
knowledge of graphemes, syllables, and words to become
good readers, and they begin to recognize words by their
visual configuration (without GPC, route 1).
Psycholinguistics.
Phonological awareness

45. 45
Dyslexia secondary to the
methodology used
Not really dyslexia but…
Lack of child's maturational
process during reading teaching

46. 46
•To be mature enough to be willing to learn.
•Maintain attention on the task.
•Good “phonemic awareness”.
•Normal visuo-perceptive and visuospatial
skills
•Access the symbolic function; that is, to be
able to assign the right symbol value to the
sounds and the letters of the language.
•Normal level of auditory-oral language
development (including articulation)
•Normal learning and memory skills
(Benedet2013)
Conditions that a child must meet to startthe
learning of literacy (over 6 years of mental age):

47. 47
Teaching to read
Global methods vs. phonetic.
Theglobal methodbegins by teaching
the student a few tens of complete
words until they are recognized
directly without the need of the
grapheme-phoneme conversion
mechanism. It is a visual vocabulary
used by the child to read and make
sentences.
Assumptionsof the global method
-That the expert reader does not use the GPC
-That GPC slows down access to meaning, and
· That the reader does not need to read all the words in the text

48. 48
Criticisms to the global methods
-If the learner does not use the alphabetic code, he/she will slowly
recognize wordsand it will be more difficult for him/her to
understand texts.
-It takes much longer to automate reading than with phonetic
methods
-They involve double work: a) the child must memorize the words
(visual memory) without understanding its internal structure, and
then move on to the elements of words.
Teaching to read
Global methods vs. phonetic.

49. 49
https://www.phonicshero.com
/synthetic-phonics/
Teaching to read
Global methods vs. phonetic.
Phonetic methods start with GPC as a way towards automatic reading

50. 50
Criticisms to the phonetic methods
-They are not very stimulating for the student
-They ignore the intuitive knowledge
· They are not effective in opaque languages
Teaching to read
Global methods vs. phonetic.

51. 51
There are many studies showing that teaching GPC is the best predictor of
success in learning to read any language. Among them, we highlight
-In Spanish: Bravo Villalón and Orellana (2000),
-In French: Sprenger-Charolles, Siegel and Bonnet (1998),
-In Dutch: De Jong and Van der Leij(1999),
-In English: Compton (2000),
-In Portuguese: Cardoso-Martins (2001)
Teaching to read
Global methods vs. phonetic.

52. 52
In relation to the prevalence of dyslexia, it
should be noted that phonological dyslexia is
more common in countries with opaque
languages than in those with transparent
languages.
Teaching to read
Global methods vs. phonetic.

53. 53
The teacher is usually the first to detect dyslexia.
Role of the teacher: to be alertto any dyslexic
symptoms and then refer the case to school
counseling services.
Signsusually appear already in pre-school.
-Confusion between some opposite words like
today / yesterday / tomorrow, right / left,
forward / backward, before / after, up / down,
(at 6 years there should be no confusion),
-Difficulty in identifying colors(at 6 years old the
child must recognize and name at least 9 colors)
-Difficulty in learningletter names
-Visual-motor difficulties; for instance, in
imitatingsimple drawing strokes
Dyslexia detection

54. 54
-Lack of manual control, like inability to tie shoelaces
-Phonologicalimmaturity, for example, inability to
rhyme at 4 years
-Problems in body scheme recognition, at 7 years
the child must recognize details such as eyelids or
wrists
-Difficulties in phonological awareness games
-Poor visualmemory and visual perception(figure-
background),
-Poor auditoryperception and auditory memory,
-Poor buccolingual, finger-manual, eye-movements
(from 6 years of age there should not be any)
-Delayed speech.
Dyslexia detection

55. 55
Dyslexia detection
Signs after starting primary school:
-They read very slowly (struggling recognizing letters and words=
-Problems remembering what they read (because they read slowly)
-They try to guess unfamiliar words based on initial sounds and / or context and / or
visual similarity
•Substitutions, read one letter by another:‘patox peto’, ‘focax boca’
•Rotations, change one letter for another in a similar way: ‘habax hada’
•Investments, alter the order of placement of the letters: ‘seta x esta’, ‘sacox
asco’, ‘caminox camión’, ‘calamar x camelar’
•Omissions, reading ‘eating’ some sounds: ‘fundamentax fundamental’, ‘Luisa
cantóx Luisa no cantó’,
•Additions, read by adding some sounds: ‘palatox plato’, ‘patitox patio’.
-Additionally: hesitation, syllabification, repetition and / or global or partial
rectification.

56. 56
Tests to evaluate reading problems in Spanish
PROLEC-R (6-12 years)
PROLEC-SE (10-16 years)

57. 57
Processes evaluated by PROLEC battery and
tasks.
Process Task
1st) letter identification-identifying letters
-identifying equal-different words (casa-cara; pato-pato)
2nd) lexical process - reading words
- reading pseudowords
3rd) syntactic process -grammatical structures (drawing / sentence pairing tasks)
-punctuation marks (reading a text with these signs)
4th) semantic process -understanding the meaning of the text (sentence and texts)
-understanding orally presented texts

58. 58
https://www.changedyslexia.org/
Actividad: hacer el test de dytective y deducir
qué aspectos de la lectura valoran cada una de
las secciones teniedo en cuenta los diferentes
procesos estudiados (modelo de Colheart)

59. 59

60. 60
When is it not dyslexia?
-Dyslalia: the child does not know how to pronounce some phonemes
and therefore show difficulties reding some words,
-A motor problem
-A hearing / visual problem: hearing loss / myopia,
-Lack of vocabulary
-Problems with attention, memory, auditory language processing,
hyperactivity, ADHD, environment, etc.

61. 61

62. Writingdificulties
62
Activity:think abouthowyouwriteand designa cognitivemodel
withthe processesinvolved

63. Modelforwriting
(Colheart)
Route1
(indirect)
Route2
(direct)
Route 2’
(direct-
semantic)
Spokenword
Phoneme-grapheme
conversionrules
Writtenword
63
Phonological
lexicon
Orthographic
lexicon
(Notethe differenceswith
theReadingmodel)Phoneme
identification

64. Modelforwriting
(Colheart)
Route1
(indirect)
Route2
(direct)
Route 2’
(direct-
semantic)
Spokenword
Phoneme-grapheme
conversionrules
Phonological
Orthographic
Writtenword
64
lexicon
Phoneme
identification
STM
lexiconLTM
STMLTM
LTM
WithRoute1only,errorslike:
b/v, c/z, Káceres/Cáceres,
bervo/verbo

65. Learningdifficultiesin
writing(LDW)
•Dysorthographia: serious difficulties with spelling.
•Dysgraphia: affects the form and legibility of writing
65
Dysorthographia Dysgraphia

66. It is uncommon for dysorthographiato occur
without dysgraphia, and vice versa, and even
more unusual for either notto be preceded
by dyslexia.
Dysgraphia/dysorthographiais considered
primary(developmental) when no other
neurological causes explain it, and secondary
when it results from neurological conditions.
Learningdifficultiesin
writing(LDW)
66

67. In the DSM-5, LDW are included
under Specific Learning
Disorders, and the symptoms
must persist for at least six
months despite the
implementation of appropriate
interventions. As in the case of
dyslexia, dysgraphia must begin
during the school years, even if
it does not become apparent
until later.
Learningdifficultiesin
writing(LDW)
67

68. LDWcanhaveawidevarietyof causesincludingdisordersin
perceptual-motorfunctions,psychomotordeficits,lateralization
problems, orallanguageproblems(dyslalias,dysarthria)andteacher
malpractice.
CausesofLDW
68
The directcause ofdysgraphiais
poorhand / arm coordination,
whichpreventsthechildfrom using
thepencilcorrectly.This maybe
accompaniedby defective visual
perception and / or disorientationin
spaceand time.

69. Dohla y Helm 2018
Read this paper and comment in class
Developmentaldysgraphycognitiveimpariments
from a recent research (Dohla et al 2018)
69

70. 70
DetectionofLDW
Numeroustests onthemarketcanhelpusto
detectproblemsinwriting,
However,the simplestwayistohavethechild
perform three tasks: copying, dictation and
spontaneous writing, and observe the
difficulties

71. 71
1)Problemswithalphabeticsymbols:
•Confusionwithallographs,whicharegraphemesthat
arewrittendifferently:'A-a-a'
•Additionofletters:‘carlax cara’/‘palatox plato’/
‘amotoxmoto’
•Omission ofletters/syllables:‘estelax estrella
•Rotation:'pxb'/'bxq'/ 'w xm'
•Inversion of syllables: ‘esta x seta’ / ‘polmo x plomo’ /
‘lexel’
•Substitution:‘mabox nabo’
•Fragmentation:‘desembocax desemboca’
•Repetitionofletters,syllablesorwords
•Mixingupperand lowercaseletters
•Mixingdifferenttypesofwriting
•Mixingnormal letterswithitalics
DetectionofLDW

72. 72
2)Motorproblems:
•Irregularsizeoftheletters(verysmallor
verylarge)
•Badlydrawnletters,disproportionate...
3)Generalorganizationproblems:
•Pilesofwords
•Largeorsmalllines
•Irregularmargins
•Confusion betweenhorizontalandvertical
lines
4)Confusing directionin writing
5)Distortionwhencopyingsimpleshapes
DetectionofLDW

73. 73
Types ofLDW
a)Language-based LDW. Phonemes must be
converted into a graphemes when writing. It is
thesame process(inverted)thatoccursin
reading,so this disorderisverydifficultto
separatefromdyslexia(ifitmustbe
separated).
b)MotorLDW.Theproblemsareduetomotor
malfunction,notdirectlyrelatedtothereading
mechanisms.
c)VisuospatialLDW.Visualproblemsthat
produceserrorssuchas:wordunions/breaks,
letter/syllableomissions.