1 - Introduction (2).pptx dfthftututujfgtwtu6

urban ecology

1. Bule Hora University BHU Academic Year-2022/2023 Course No. – ARCH 3351 Course Title – Urban Ecology Cr. Hr. 2 Course Delivery- lectures by instructors, class room discussions, and group work and discussion by students

2. Ecological Knowledge The basic understanding of env’tal planning processes on all levels of decision making Global Country Regional City Site(Open Space) Building……etc the science of planning & the art of design Introduction Definitions and basic concepts

3. Study of an organism & its env’t Study of how organisms interact with one another and their physical env’ts Ecology - the study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment.

4. science of ecosystems Autotrophes Food Hetrotrophes Photosynthesis CO 2 H 2 O, Minerals Decomposition Decomposition Photosynthesis Shelter Pollination & dispersal

5. Study of interactions between Non-living components in the env’t: Water Wind Nutrients in soil Solar energy Atmosphere, etc. and Living organisms Plants Animals Microorganisms. As a scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environments, it is used to make decisions about env’tl issues Basic concepts … Con’d

6. Concerned with humans, plants & animals As physics is to engineering , ecology is to env’tal studies - the principle of Ecology to alter the env’t Humans Plants Animals Env’t

7. What is Environment? ( 1) the circumstances and conditions that surround an organism or a group of organisms (2) the social and cultural conditions that affect an individual or a community. Since humans inhabit the natural world as well as the "built" or social and cultural world , all constitute important parts of our environment.

8. Environment, therefore, includes Ecosystems and their constituent parts - communities/living organisms including people; All natural and physical resources - land, water and air; The social, economic, cultural conditions which affect the matters stated in the above 2 points The interacting natural and social systems .

9. WHY SHOULD WE PROTECT THE ENVIRONMENT? Conscious of the ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values of the biological diversity & other NR, For maintaining life support systems of the biosphere: - It provides us raw materials or resources that constitutes inputs into the production or service rendering process.

10. Humans inhabit two worlds. The natural world: plants, animals, soils, air, and water. The world of human society : technology, social institutions and artifacts that we create for ourselves using science, technology, and political organization. Both are essential to our lives

11. Structure and functions of the environment Structure of the environment - A multidimensional system that consists of four interacting spheres: The Atmosphere Lithosphere Hydrosphere, and Biosphere - The env’tal system is the set of interactions between these elements

12. Atmosphere A way for the spatial diffusion of pollutants and their accumulation . a mixture of 78% … … Nitrogen; 21% … … Oxygen & 1% … Traces (Carbon dioxide, Argon, Water vapor and other components) Structure .. … cont’d

13. Hydrosphere the accumulation of water in all its physical states and the elements dissolved in it (Na, Mg, Ca, Cl - and SO4 -2 ). covers around 71% of the earth's surface 97% ------oceans, 2% --------ice (north and south poles) and 1% --------rivers, lakes, ground water and atmospheric vapor. Structure .. … cont’d

14. Lithosphere The thin crust between the mantle and the atmosphere. Main constituents in a crystalline state O 2 …..47% Si ….. 28% Al ….. 8% Fe ….. 5% Ca ….. 4% Na ….. 3% K ….. ..3% & Mg ….. 2%. The main source of pollutants and a permanent accumulator. Some are naturally released through sources like volcanic eruptions , while others like fossil fuels are the result of artificial extraction and combustion. Structure .. … cont’d

15. Biosphere Part of Earth that supports life, including the top portion of Earth's crust, the atmosphere, and all the water on Earth's surface The set of all living organisms - animals and plants. - Biologically inhabited/ biologically active/ biotic part of the earth is not uniform-   different ecosystems such as deserts, grasslands, forests, rivers, and etc. due to env’tal variations in abiotic Structure .. … cont’d

16. Functions of the environment Function of the environment - various functions of the four interacting spheres Atmosphere Provides shelter, air, rain, temperature regulation, energy and supports many natural and socio-economic processes. The Hydrosphere provides water, habitat for much of biodiversity, regulates temperature and supports several other physical, biological and socio-economic systems.

17. Lithosphere Provides land, soil, subsurface for life, minerals, etc i.e. provides a diversity of resources to human life. Biosphere A very complex set of relationships with the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. Functions.. … cont’d

18. Environmental components Abiotic and Biotic - species must be able to cope with both biotic and abiotic - critical factors for spp. survival - each habitat has abiotic and biotic factors

19. Abiotic Factors Nonliving physical and chemical conditions of an env’t i.e. the nonliving parts of an ecosystem Affects the abundance and distribution of species E.g. abiotic factors in the env’t are sunlight, water, T , soil, and wind factors of interest include          climate - the major factor affecting distribution of terrestrial organisms incorporates: Water( precipitation) , Sunlight, Temperature (range from 0 to 45 C), Soil, Wind (increases heat & water loss)                                

20. Sunlight The source of light and energy almost for all ecosystems Powers photosynthesis – the main producers for terrestrial ecosystems Water Can dissolve gases and solutes such as oxygen and salt Terrestrial organisms have adaptations allowing them to keep from drying out and losing water quickly Temperature Most life exists between 0°C and 50°C Most enzymes are denatured >50°C Some organisms have adapted to exist in extreme temperatures (over 80°C)  

21.   Soil Product of abiotic forces (water, wind, etc) and actions of organisms on the rocks and minerals of the Earth's crust Structure and chemical makeup of soil and rock affect plants , affecting the other organisms that can exist there Wind Affects distribution and activities of organisms Moves clouds and rain and stirs up bodies of water (creating currents & bringing nutrients from bottom of lakes Plants depend on wind to disperse pollen and seeds to grow

22. Biotic Factors   the living parts of an ecosystem living organisms include plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms in an environment Interact with each other in complex ways also interact with abiotic factors in the ecosystem dependent upon water, minerals, temperature, light thus Thus, affect distribution of organisms

23. biome ecosystem community population organism organ system organ tissue smallest unit of living things group of similar cells organized to work together group of different kinds of tissues working together group of organs working together one individual living thing all organisms of the same kind living in one area all interacting populations in an ecosystem all living and nonliving things interacting within a certain area large region with typical plants and animals that includes several ecosystems cell Basic concepts … Con’d Levels of organization in Ecology

24. Ecological research scale ranges from individuals to the biosphere Biosphere the global ecosystem/Surface of the earth i.e. - Sum of all Earth's ecosystems - Composed of many ecosystems Largest and broadest area of study for ecologists e.g. Research on global climate change & its effect on living things as an ecology at the biosphere scale. Can be pictured as an "envelope" of air, land, and water supporting all living things on Earth. It consists of both the atmosphere of several km high to oceans to a depth of several km Basic concepts … Con’d

25. Basic concepts … Con’d Population - groups of individuals that belong to the same spp. and live in the same area the study of a group of individuals of the same species. ecological experiments often examine factors of an environment affecting size and growth of a population Community – All of the organisms that inhabit a particular area i.e. a ll populations (diff. species) that live in a particular area. assemblages of the d/t populations that live together in a defined area i.e. interacting species within a particular area.

26. Species - a group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed. concerned about the way in which an individual interacts with its env’t . Landscape ecology : interactions among ecosystems Biome - a group of ecosystems that have the same climate and similar dominant communities. Basic concepts … Con’d

27. Ecosystem: is a collection of all the organisms that live together in a particular place as well as their nonliving or physical environment, i.e. it includes both the abiotic and biotic factors found in a defined spatial area. all abiotic factors plus all organisms that exist in a certain area i.e. Ecosystem ecology By definition, an ecosystem comprises all biotic and abiotic elements within a defined area Do not necessarily have clear boundaries due to biotic and abiotic changes it also includes the human aspect. Can be large or small E.g. Gambela NP vs Awash NP

28. are communities of interacting organisms and the physical environment in which they live. are the combination and interaction of the plants, animals, minerals, and people in any given area of the Earth. e.g. - a tiny patch of forest, forests covering thousands of kilometers, a major river system, a desert, etc. Types of ecosystems on which life on Earth most heavily depends: Agroecosystems - where we grow our food and other production systems Forest ecosystems Ecosystem---con’d

29. Freshwater ecosystems - the lakes, streams, and rivers we fish in, boat on, transport goods over, and rely on for drinking water. Grassland ecosystems Urban ecosystems - cities and suburbs, where a greater concentration of economic and educational opportunities are offered and where nearly half of the world's populations live. => There are various type of ecosystems such as deserts, forests, etc. Ecosystem---con’d

30. Ecosystem processes in turn generate services such as climate control; the maintenance of biodiversity; and air, soil, and water purification. Ecosystems are dynamic, have uncertain spatial boundaries, and smaller ecosystems are part of larger ones. Cities have been described as a human-dominated ecosystems relying on fossil fuels to produce energy for cars, machines, and industrial processes. The definition suggests that an ecosystem is a unit of biotic and abiotic material that constantly undergoes a complex series of processes, ultimately providing ecosystem services Ecosystem---con’d

31. Ecosystem---con’d

32. The goods and services that ecosystems provide form the foundation of a country’s economy. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing are responsible for 50% of all jobs worldwide 70% of the jobs in sub-Saharan Africa, East Asia, and the Pacific. In 25% of the world's nations, crops, timber, and fish still contribute more to the economy than do industrial goods. Ecosystems also purify air and water, help to control our climate, and produce soil-services that can't be replaced at any reasonable cost. In heavily industrialized societies, work, religious expression, and recreation often take place in urban areas . But natural ecosystems also provide places for religious expression, aesthetic enjoyment, and recreation. It is our very reliance on ecosystems that is threatening them. As our populations grow and consumption of NRs increases, the ecosystems that provide for these needs are being stressed and in some cases destroyed. Ecosystem---con’d

33. A widely used definition of an ecosystem is that adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) A dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional u nit A useful and widely cited definition, defining an ecosystem as a ‘ functional uni t’ poses significant challenges in defining boundaries as the basis of ecological functions. An alternative definition is “ all the organisms and the abiotic environment found in a defined spatial area ” From this definition, an ecosystem can be defined to be of any spatial scale, from a small pond to a region, or even the whole of planet Earth. ecosystem---con’d

34. The concept of an ecosystem provides a vision of an area as an ecological system, looking at the interactions between its living elements and their environment, as well as its properties as a living system. One of the main types of interactions of importance in an ‘ecological system’ is movement of energy and matter through the system. e.g. the ways trees in a forest capture the sun’s energy through photosynthesis and the flow of this energy through a food web of herbivores, predators and decomposers. Ecosystem---con’d

35. Reasons The earth is an ecosystem The earth is the source of our life support system - From the earth we derive energy and nutrients To the earth we give our bodies when we die - For these reasons, we want to understand ecosystem Why should WE care about ecosystem?

36. What is ecosystem management? It can be defined as working with ecosystem structure and processes to supply defined ecosystem services e.g., food , fibre , fuel, natural medicines. The functioning of ecosystems depends on the interactions between core ecosystem processes and the structure of the ecosystem. It is a way of thinking about the management of NR (e.g ., farming, forestry, supply of water resources, recreation and tourism, or biodiversity conservation, etc.). Its perspective helps to use natural resources by including understanding of how the natural environment ‘works’ or operates as an ecosystem. Understanding the natural world as an ecosystem helps to design management and planning activities that are more likely to produce intended results on a sustainable basis.

37. Definitions of ecosystem management “ Ecosystem management” has been defined in many ways A few authors have distilled some key principles from the literature. Brussard et al. (1998) Managing areas at various scales in such a way that ecosystem services and biological resources are preserved while appropriate human uses and options for livelihood are sustained. Rowe (1992) The application of the ecosystem approach in the conservation, management, and restoration of landscape ecosystems. It means that everyone attends to the conservation and sustainability of ecosystems ecosystem mang’t----con’d

38. Pirot et al. (2000) Ecosystem-based management attempts to regulate the use of ecosystems so that we can benefit from them while at the same time modifying the impacts on them so that basic ecosystem functions are preserved. Quinn (2002) Ecosystem-based management is an approach to guiding human activity using collaborative, interdisciplinary, and adaptive methods with the long-term goal of sustaining desired future conditions of ecologically bounded areas that, in turn, support healthy, sustainable communities. Coast Information Team (2004) An adaptive approach to managing human activities that seeks to ensure the co-existence of healthy, fully functioning ecosystems and human communities. The intent is to maintain those spatial and temporal characteristics of ecosystems such that component species and ecological processes can be sustained, and human well-being supported and improved.

39. Primary characteristics of ecosystem management (Quinn 2002). Characteristic Description Ecosystem Boundaries Management along ecological boundaries rather than administrative boundaries. In natural resource management, these are usually landscape-scale boundaries such as watersheds. • Co-operation among different agencies responsible for natural resource management within an ecological area is thus critical. Ecosystem Sustainability • A shift in focus from the sustained yield of some output (e.g., timber) to the long-term sustainability of the ecological system that produces those products and services. • Built on the principle that ecosystems are in constant flux, but within a natural range of variation. • Maintaining ecological integrity is a key focus of ecosystem management. Ecological integrity may be defined as “a quality or state of an ecosystem in which it is considered complete or unimpaired; including the natural diversity of species and biological communities, ecosystem processes and functions, and both the ability to absorb disturbance (resistance) and to recover from disturbance (resilience)” • Maintaining ecosystem goods and services is necessary both for human requirements and for its own sake.

40. Adaptive Management • Using science and basing decisions on good inventory data are key themes related to ecosystem management. • Recognizing the limitations of existing data is also important, and treating ecosystem management as an experimental approach from which managers can learn and adapt by monitoring outcomes is critical. • The precautionary principle may be defined as “ measures taken to reduce potential harm resulting from human activities or environmental change even if some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically. It includes analysing alternatives to potentially harmful activities ” Human Dimension • People are part of the ecosystem. • Co-operation across administrative boundaries is important: the appropriate institutional framework needs to be in place for this to occur. • It is people, not ecosystems, that require management. As Pirot (2002) states, the term “ ecosystem based management ” that the principal activity is the management of human interactions with the ecosystem rather than the ecosystem itself .

41. The goal of ecosystem management is to provide a sustainable flow of multiple ecosystem services to society today and in the future. Ecosystem management recognizes the integrated nature of social–ecological systems, their inherent complexity and dynamics at multiple temporal and spatial scales, and the importance of managing to maintain future options in the face of uncertainty i.e., many of the factors governing the resilience and vulnerability of social-ecological systems. In a society, managing ecosystems sustainably is poor because the short term use of natural resources often receives higher priority than their long-term sustainability.

42. Resilience-based ecosystem stewardship The goals of resilience-based ecosystem stewardship are to respond to and shape change in ecological systems in order to sustain the supply and opportunities for use of ecosystem services by society. Resilience -based ecosystem stewardship builds on ecosystem management by emphasizing the key role of resilience in fostering adaptation and renewal in a rapidly changing world; the dynamics of social change in altering human interactions with ecosystems; and the social–ecological role of resource managers as stewards who respond to and shape social–ecological change.

43. Ecosystem stewardship

44. Supporting services are the foundation for the other categories of ecosystem services that are directly used by society. In addition, the goods harvested by people are influenced by ecosystem processes, which include regulatory services, and, in turn, influence people’s connection to the NRs .

45. Ecosystem management also sees people as not only dependent on ecosystems but also as part of ecosystems. Humans depend on ecosystems for services such as food and freshwater and influence them as we harvest products, alter them through farming and other land uses, and emit our wastes into the natural world. This addresses the biophysical management of ecosystems. It is crucial to have skills in the social and economic aspects of how we manage and affect the natural environment,

46. Ecosystem management objectives supply defined ecosystem services such as provisioning services (e.g., food, fibre), regulating services and cultural services Ecosystem management geographical scope Ecosystem macro units such as forests, wetlands, lakes Ecosystem micro units such as farm level Ecosystem management typically is applied at a disaggregated level Typical thematic content Water cycling, Mineral cycling, Solar energy flow, Biological growth Humans as part of the biosphere, Food web, Vegetation layers, Soil coverage, Water bodies, Spatial configuration of species

47. Ecosystem Services The simplest and most widespread definition of ecosystem services is, “the benefits people obtain from ecosystems”. A similar definition is “ecosystem services are the benefits provided by ecosystems that contribute to making human life both possible and worth living.” Examples of ecosystem services include Products e.g., food, fuel, water, Regulation of floods, , Disease outbreaks, and Nonmaterial benefits such as the recreational and spiritual benefits of natural areas.

48. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment grouped ecosystem services into four broad categories: Provisioning services : products obtained from ecosystems, e.g. food, fibre , fuel, genetic resources, ornamental resources, freshwater, biochemical, natural medicines and pharmaceuticals. 2. Regulating Services: benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes e.g. Air quality regulation, Climate regulation, Water regulation, Erosion regulation, Water purification, Waste treatment, Disease regulation, Pest regulation, Pollination and etc

49. 3. Cultural Services: non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation and aesthetic experiences, including cultural diversity, spiritual and religious values, knowledge systems, educational values, inspiration, aesthetic values, social relations, sense of place, cultural heritage values, recreation and ecotourism. 4. Supporting services - necessary for sustaining the production of all other ecosystem services. e.g. - primary production (plant growth) and - nutrient cycling for soil formation and - water quality regulation.

50. Most ecosystems can supply a bundle of inter-related ecosystem services. e.g. A forest can provide both wood and non-wood products, regulate climate and water supply, purify air and drinking water, prevent soil erosion support soil fertility, and also play an important role in tourism and recreation and in some regions, may have religious value.

51. A basic understanding of the four core ecosystem processes provides the key to including ecosystem functioning in management. Ecosystem functioning core processes and structure for the supply of services is how they ‘work’ or ‘operate’ as an ecological system, can be understood in terms of four core ecosystem processes and how these interact with the structure of the ecosystem and landscape. Thinking of and seeing the natural world in this way is central to an ecosystem approach to management. The four core ecosystem processes that are part of the functioning of ecosystems at all scales are: water cycling, mineral cycling, solar energy flow, biological growth

52. 1) Water Cycling For ecosystem management we are concerned with how to influence the water cycle from the scale of plants in a farmer’s field to catchments and river basins. Management can affect the time water is available in the soil for the growth of plants and all life, and whether rainfall flows into rivers, underground aquifers or evaporates back into the air. Water is essential for life and is cycled through living organisms and ecosystems, as well as the water cycle at the landscape to continental scale of evaporation from the oceans, cloud formation, rainfall and rivers. figure illustrating the different pathways that water may flow through in a terrestrial ecosystem .

53. 2) Mineral Cycling Minerals such as carbon and nitrogen are cycled to and from the physical environment by living organisms, with the amounts and rates of cycling dependent on the composition and structure of the ecosystem, such as food web structure.

54. 3) Solar Energy Flow Almost all ecosystems are fuelled by the energy captured by plants from the Sun via photosynthesis. This solar energy then flows through food webs, from plants to herbivores and omnivores and on to carnivores and finally to decomposers, with the amount of energy decreasing at each level, as represented in the above figure. Thus, solar energy doesn't cycle, but flows through the ecosystem.

55. All provisioning ecosystem services except freshwater supply are the product of living organisms. The production (biomass) of these organisms depends directly on the amount of solar energy they can obtain.

56. 4) Biological growth The concept of biological growth as an ecosystem process describes the tendency of ecological systems to increase their biomass and complexity over time. Obviously, the longer or more constant and favorable the conditions are for biological growth then there will be greater biomass and ecological complexity. Biological growth at the scale of an ecosystem obviously depends on the growth of individual organisms and populations of species. From the perspective of ecosystem management, managers for provisioning ecosystem services will be seeking to promote the growth of valued species, whether domesticated plants and animals or wild species. Managers may also be working with the ecosystem scale of biological growth to encourage growth of soil, vegetation and animal communities for regulating and cultural ecosystem services such as flood mitigation and landscape values.

57. The four core ecosystem processes are aspects of the same system Each of the four core ecosystem processes are completely inter-linked, and so change in the functioning of any one of them automatically means change in the functioning of the others. They are just different aspects of the same system. For example, an increase in the plant (biological) growth in an area means a change in the water and mineral cycles as the plants take more water and minerals from the soil. The plant growth will mean more solar energy is captured in the ecosystem for the growth of herbivores, predators and decomposers, which in turn results in changes in the mineral cycle and the growth of plants. Ecosystem management always needs to consider the desired of functioning of all four core ecosystem processes. They can be thought of as four different windows or perspectives on the same ecosystem.

58. A. Ecosystem structure The structure is what is physically seen and can be directly altered by management, and determines the functioning of the processes. For the purposes of ecosystem management the most useful types of ecosystem structure that can be considered for management are: structure of the food web, physical structure of vegetation layers, soil coverage, water bodies, spatial configuration of species. Climate, topography and soil types are also major determinants of ecosystem structure and processes

59. B. Structure of the food web Is there sufficient plant growth to sustain the desired crop and animal species and also provide energy for the biological soil community? Are the populations and movements of herbivores sufficient for the desired functioning of the mineral cycle and to maintain the vegetation cover and structure as desired? Are the populations of predators at levels to limit population outbreaks of pest species? C. Physical structure of vegetation layers Does the desired functioning of the mineral and water cycles require ground level vegetation and/or bushes and trees, considering their root systems and water requirements, and the conditions for biological decomposition at soil level? What are the vegetation structure requirements of the desired populations of wild herbivores, predators, pollinators and seed dispersers?

60. D. Soil structure Does the desired functioning of the mineral and water cycles require the entire soil surface to be covered by vegetation? Does the soil need to be more or less porous to rainfall and air? Does the soil need to contain more organic matter for the desired plant community and soil formation? E. Water bodies Is surface water needed for the desired species and landscape ecosystem services? How does the local water cycle and the level of the water table or underground aquifer need to be for the desired ecosystem services and water bodies?

61. F. Spatial configuration of species How are trees needed in the landscape, considering the mineral and water cycles and desired cultural ecosystem services? Ecosystem structure does determine the functioning of ecosystem As the ecosystem processes change they also change the ecosystem structure. e.g. , increasing retention of water and minerals in a locality due to increased vegetation cover may result in conditions that favor the growth of trees or the expansion of a wetland area. .

62. The Cycle of Strategic and Adaptive Ecosystem Management Implementing an ecosystem approach in a place-based context necessitates that a plan-do-check process be followed. That process must be: strategic (can’t do everything), analytic (informed by ecosystem analysis), deliberative (informed by people), and adaptive (continually learning and adjusting). Such an approach is necessary because it matches the level of complexity and adaptability that is inherent in the ecosystems we need to manage. The interaction of human, natural and socio-economic systems is more and more being viewed as a complex adaptive system. A complex adaptive system is… “…made up of many individual, self-organizing elements capable of responding to others and to their environment.

63. These principles inform the steps for strategic and adaptive ecosystem management namely as: Ecosystem Assessment – Using a conceptual framework of ecosystem goods and services to understand the system – past, present and future, and to identify leverage points for intervention. Shared Visioning – Deliberating with stakeholders to identify a shared vision of the ultimate outcome of mang’t interventions Portfolio Planning – Deliberating with stakeholders and experts to identify and agree on implementation of a variety of ecosystem initiatives that have potential to achieve the ultimate outcome.

64. Ecosystem Assessment This is the first stage of strategic and adaptive ecosystem management is used to gain an understanding of the current state and trends of the ecosystem from both a socio-economic and ecologic perspective. A good guiding motto for the ecosystem manager at this stage is: respect the past, understand the present, and explore the future. Knowledge and understanding of the past will properly ground the ecosystem manager and provide a vantage point for seeing opportunities for the future. Understanding the present is the reference point for strategic management because it illuminates the issues and provides information to help prioritize the most pressing, as well as to identify issues that are resulting in cumulative effects.

65. Exploring the future trends of key issues is also important for prioritizing issues, communicating the urgency of issues, and providing the context within which actions can be tested for their robustness and adaptability. There are two tools that are helpful to the ecosystem manager integrated and forward-looking assessment; and stakeholder analysis.

66. Integrated and Forward-looking Assessment Ecosystem goods and services as a foundational tool for ecosystem management. Gaining an appreciation for the goods and services that the ecosystem provides, along with how these services affect the quality of life of people living within the ecosystem is crucial to an integrated assessment of an ecosystem . services and human wellbeing.

67. Total value / importance Ecological (Based on ecological sustainability) Indicators (e.g., - naturalness - diversity - uniqueness - sensitivity - renewability Economic (Based on efficiency & cost-effectiveness) Indicators (e.g., - productivity - employment - income Socio-cultural (Based on equity & cultural perceptions ) Indicators (e.g., - health - amenity value - cultural identity - spiritual value - existence value Valuation of ecosystem services: Total Value and types of value The Total Ecological Value of an ecosystem is based on ecological, socio-cultural and economic values Each type has its own criteria and value-units Components of the Total Value of an ecosystem.

68. Ecological Value (importance) of ecosystem services At a global scale, ecosystems and their species play location specific roles in the maintenance of essential life support processes (e.g., energy conversion, biogeochemical cycling, evolution) The magnitude of this ecological value is expressed through indicators e.g. Species diversity, Rarity, Ecosystem integrity (health), and Resilience.

69. Criteria Short description Measurement units/indicators Naturalness/Integrity (representativeness) Degree of human presence in terms of physical, chemical or biological disturbance. quality of air, water, and soil % key species present % of min. critical ecosystem size Composition, structure and function of the system Diversity Variety of life in all its forms, including ecosystems, species & genetic diversity. number of ecosystems/ geographical unit number of species/surface area Uniqueness/rarity Local, national or global rarity of ecosystems and species number of endemic species & sub-species Fragility/vulnerability (resilience/resistance) Sensitivity of ecosystems to human disturbance - energy budget (GPP/NPP 1 ) - carrying capacity Renewability/re-creatability The possibility for renewal or human aided restoration - complexity & diversity succession stage - restoration costs These values relate primarily to Supporting and Regulating Services

70. Socio-cultural Value (importance) of ecosystem services For many people, natural systems are a crucial source of non-material well-being through their influence on physical and mental health, historical, national, ethical, religious, and spiritual values. A particular mountain, forest, or watershed may have been the site of an important event in their past, the place of a moment of moral transformation, or embodiment of national ideals. These are cultural services usually described as therapeutic, amenity, heritage, spiritual or existence as shown in table below.

71. Socio-cultural Criteria Short description Measurement units/indicators Therapeutic Provision of medicines, clean air, water & soil, space for recreation outdoor sports, and general therapeutic effects of nature on peoples’ mental and physical well-being Suitability and capacity of natural systems to provide “health services” Restorative and regenerative effects on peoples’ performance. Socio-economic benefits from reduced health costs & conditions Amenity Valued for cognitive development, mental relaxation artistic inspiration, aesthetic enjoyment or recreational benefits Aesthetic quality of landscapes. Recreational features and use Artistic features and use Preference studies Heritage Valued in reference to personal or collective history and cultural identity Historic sites, features and artefacts Designated cultural landscapes Cultural traditions and knowledge Spiritual Valued in symbols and elements with sacred, religious or spiritual significance Presence of sacred sites or features Role of ecosystems and/or species in religious ceremonies & sacred texts Existence Valued for ethical reasons ( intrinsic value) or inter-generational equity (bequest value) Expressed (through, for example, donations and voluntary work) or stated preference for nature protection for ethical reasons Socio-cultural valuation criteria and indicators

72. Economic Value (importance) of ecosystem services The concept of Total Economic Value (TEV) ( Figure 3 ) has become a widely used framework for understanding utilitarian value of ecosystems. Total Economic Value Framework

73. TEV is the sum of use and non-use values . A. Use values are composed of three elements: direct use, indirect use and option values. Direct use (extractive, consumptive, structural use) value - represents goods which can be extracted, consumed or enjoyed directly. Indirect use ( non-extractive, functional ) value represents the services the environment provides. Option value refers to reserving the option to act at a later date. also consider the possibility that even though something appears unimportant now, information received later might lead us to re-evaluate it..

74. B. Non-use values are benefits the environment may provide, but do not involve using it in any way, directly or indirectly. Often, the most important such benefit is existence value - value that people derive from knowledge that something exists, even if they never plan to use it. e.g. - Many people value existence of blue whales or pandas, even if they have never seen one and probably never will. - If blue whales became extinct, those people would feel a sense of loss. Bequest is the desire to pass on values to future generations