1. theories of personality

1. Modified by
Elizabeth T Santosa, M.Psi, psi.
Theories Personality
& Assessment

2. +
Definition of Personality?
PersonalityPersonality refers to the relatively enduring
characteristics that differentiate one person
from another and that lead people to act in a
consistent and predictable manner, both in
different situations and over extended periods
of time.
Personality is defined as: the enduring or
lasting patterns of behavior and thought (across
time and situation).

3. + Personality
Four Major Perspectives on Personality
Psychoanalytic - unconscious motivations
Trait - specific dimensions of personality
Humanistic - inner capacity for growth
Social-Cognitive - influence of environment

4. +
Sigmund Freud
University of Vienna 1873
Voracious Reader
Medical School Graduate
Specialized in Nervous
Disorders : Some patientsSome patients’ disorders’ disorders
had no physical cause.had no physical cause.
(1856-1939)

5. +
Sigmund Freud
What is the structure and development of
personality, according to Sigmund Freud and his
successors (i.e.,psychoanalysts)?
According to psychoanalysts, much of behavior is behavior is
caused by parts of personality which are found in caused by parts of personality which are found in
the unconscious and of which we are unawarethe unconscious and of which we are unaware.
Freud’s 3 levels of awareness/consciousness:
the consciousconscious mind;
the preconsciouspreconscious mind; and
the unconsciousunconscious mind.

6. +Psychoanalysis: The Unconscious% )cS93-1p9-69r-&S9g19-8SlSed9'9356)rI9c-ppS1(
“the mind is like an iceberg - mostly hidden”
Conscious Awareness
small part above surface
(Preconscious)
Unconscious
below the surface
(thoughts, feelings,
wishes, memories)
Repression
Banishing unacceptable
thoughts and passions to
unconscious:
Dreams and Slips

7. + Psychoanalysis:
Freud’s Theory of Personality
Three levels of consciousness:
Conscious mindConscious mind :
things we are
focusing on.
Preconscious mindPreconscious mind :
things are are not
currently aware of
but which we could
focus on.
Unconscious mindUnconscious mind :
that which we are
unaware of.

8. + Psychoanalysis:
Freud’s Theory of Personality
Freud’s theory suggest that personality is composed of
the idthe id, the egothe ego, and the superegothe superego.
idid: the unorganized, inborn part of personality whose
purpose is to immediately reduce tensions relating to
hunger, sex, aggression, and other primitive impulses.
egoego: restrains instinctual energy in order to maintain the
safety of the individual and to help the person to be a
member of society.
superegosuperego: the rights and wrongs of society and consists
of the conscience and the ego-ideal.

9. +Freud and Personality StructureFreud and Personality Structure
Id - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives
Pleasure Principle
Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways
Reality Principle
Super Ego
- voice of conscience
that focuses on how
we ought to behave
Ego
Super
Ego
Id

10. +
Freud’s Theory:
“the ID”
The idid uses the most primitive of thinking process.
Basic biological urges (e.g., hunger, self-protection).
The idid operates on the Pleasure PrinciplePleasure Principle.
Seeks pleasure and avoids pain:“I want what I want NOW!I want what I want NOW!”
The idid operates completely at an unconscious level.
No direct contact with reality.
TheThe id has 2 major instincts:
ErosEros: life instinct = motivates people to focus on pleasure-
seeking tendencies (e.g., sexual urges).
ThanatosThanatos: death instinct = motivates people to use aggressive
urges to destroy.
The energy for the id’s instincts comes from the libidolibido, (the
energy storehouse).

11. + Freud’s Theory:
“the Ego”
The egoego consists of a conscious faculty for
perceiving and dealing intelligently with reality.
The egoego acts as a mediator between the id and
the superego.
The ego is partly conscious.
Deals with the demands of reality.
Makes rational decisions.

12. +
Freud’s Theory:
“the Ego”
The egoego serves the ID:
The rational part of personality that maintains
contact with reality.
Governed by ‘Reality PrincipleReality Principle’’
“What consequences are there to my behavior?”
The The egoego is the Executive of the personality is the Executive of the personality
The egoego controls higher mental processes.
Reasoning, problem solving.
The egoego uses these higher mental processes to help satisfy the urges of the ID.

13. +
Freud’s Theory:
“the Superego”
SuperegoSuperego: the moral part of personality.
Internalized rules of parents and society.
SuperegoSuperego consists of two parts:
ConscienceConscience: “notions of right/wrong.”
Ego IdealEgo Ideal: “how we ideally like to be.”
Superego:Superego: constrains us from gratifying every impulse (e.g.,
murder) because they are immoral, and notnot because we might
get caught.
SuperegoSuperego: partly conscious, partly unconscious.

14. +
Freud: superego, id, and ego
According to Freud, an individual’s feelings,
thoughts, and behaviors are the result of the the
interaction of the id, the superego, and the interaction of the id, the superego, and the
ego.ego.

15. +
Freud’s Theory of Personality:
The id, the ego, and the superego are continually in
conflictconflict with one another.
This conflict generates anxietyanxiety.
If the ego did not effectively handle the resulting
anxiety, people would be so overwhelmed with
anxiety that they would not be able to carry on with
the tasks of everyday living.
The ego tries to control anxiety (i.e., to reduce
anxiety) through the use of ego defense defense
mechanismsmechanisms.

16. +
Ego Defense Mechanisms:
Defense Mechanisms
Id
Super
Ego
Ego
When the inner war
gets out of hand, the
result is Anxiety
Ego protects itself via
Defense Mechanisms
Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms reduce/redirect
anxiety by distorting reality

17. +
Ego Defense Mechanisms
DefinitionDefinition: An defense mechanism is a psychology
tendency that the ego uses to help prevent people from
becoming overwhelmed by any conflict (and resulting
anxiety) among the id, the ego, and the superego.
Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious unconscious
levellevel:
We are not aware of them during the time that we are
actually using them.
However, we may later become aware of their
previous operation and use.

18. +
Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
RepressionRepression: pushing unacceptable and anxiety-
producing thoughts into the unconscious; involves
intentional forgetting but notnot consciously done; repressed
material can be memories or unacceptable impulses.
A rape victim cannot recall the details of the attack.
RegressionRegression: acting in ways characteristic of earlier life
stages/earlier stage of personality.
A young adult, anxious on a trip to his parents/ home,
sits in the corner reading comic books, as he often did
in grade school.

19. +
Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
Reaction formationReaction formation: replacing an anxiety-producing
feeling with its exact opposite, typically going
overboard; repressed thoughts appear as mirror
opposites.
A man who is anxious about his interest in gay men
begins dating women several times a week.
RationalizationRationalization: creating false but believable excuses
to justify inappropriate behavior; real motive for
behavior is not accepted by ego.
A student cheats on an exam, explaining that cheating
is legitimate on an unfair examination.

20. +
Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
DenialDenial: claiming and believing that something which is
actually true is false.
A person disbelieves that she is age, asserting that “I
am not getting older.”
DisplacementDisplacement: redirecting emotional feelings (e.g.,
anger) to a substitute target; involves directing
unacceptable impulses onto a less threatening
object/person.
A husband, angry at the way his boss treated him,
screams at his children.
Instead of telling your professor what you really think
of her, you tailgate and harass a slow driver on your
way home from school.

21. +
Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
ProjectionProjection: attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings
or beliefs to others; perceiving the external world in
terms of one’s own personal conflicts.
An employee at a store, tempted to steal some
merchandise, suspects that other employees are
stealing.
SublimationSublimation: substitute socially acceptable behavior for
unacceptable impulses.
Playing video games instead of getting in a fight.

22. +
Freud:
Stages of Personality Development
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality
suggests that personality develops through a series personality develops through a series
of stagesof stages, each of which is associated with a major
biological function.
More specifically, Freud theorized that as people
age, they pass through several systematic stages ofstages of
psychosexual developmentpsychosexual development in their personality.

23. +Psychosexual Stages of Development
are Source of Unconscious Conflicts.
The stages of personality developmentstages of personality development involve critical
events that occur in every child’s life.
At each level, there is a conflict between pleasure and pleasure and
realityreality.
The resolution of this conflict determines personality.
At any stage, At any stage, ““a fixationa fixation”” can occur can occur:
If needs are either under-gratified or over-gratified, we
become fixated at a particular stagefixated at a particular stage.
Each stage also involves an erogenous zoneerogenous zone.
Parts of the body that involve sexual pleasure.

24. Freud and Personality Development
“personality forms during the first few years of life,
rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood”
“personality forms during the first few years of life,
rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood”
Psychosexual Stages
Oral (0-18 mos) - centered on the mouth
Anal (18-36 mos) - focus on bowel/bladder elim.
Phallic (3-6 yrs) - focus on genitals/“Oedipus Complex”
(Identification & Gender Identity)
Latency (6-puberty) - sexuality is dormant
Genital (puberty on) - sexual feelings toward others
Strong conflict can fixate an individual at Stages 1,2 or 3

25. +Freud’s Stages of Personality
Development:
Oral stageOral stage: the oral state is the first period, occurring
during the first year of life.
Anal stageAnal stage: next comes the anal stage, lasting from
approximately age 1 to age 3.
Phallic stagePhallic stage: the phallic stages follows, with interest
focusing on the genitals.
Latency periodLatency period: then follows the latency period lasting
until puberty.
Genital stageGenital stage: after puberty, people move into the
genital stage, a period of mature sexuality.

26. +
(1) Oral stage of development:
Time period: Birth to 18 months:
Erogenous zone is mouthmouth.
Gratification through sucking and swallowing.
Oral fixationOral fixation has two possible outcomes.
Oral receptive personalityOral receptive personality:
Preoccupied with eating/drinking.
Reduce tension through oral activity.
eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails
Passive and needy; sensitive to rejection.
Oral aggressive personalityOral aggressive personality:
Hostile and verbally abusive to others.

27. +
(2) Anal stage of development:
Time period: 1 1/2 to 3 years of age.
Erogenous zone is the anus.
Conflict surrounds toilet training.
Anal fixation Anal fixation has two possible outcomes.
Anal retentive personalityAnal retentive personality.
Stingy, compulsive orderliness, stubborn,
perfectionistic.
Anal expulsive personalityAnal expulsive personality.
Lack of self control, messy, careless.

28. +
(3) Phallic stage of development:
Time period: 3 to 6 years.
Erogenous zone is the genitals: self-stimulation of the
genitals produces pleasure.
At age 5 or 6, near the end of the phallic stage, children
experience the Oedipal conflict (boys)/the Electra conflict
(girls)--a process through which they learn to identify with
the same gender parent by acting as much like that parent
as possible.
Oedipus complex (boys) Oedipus complex (boys) vsvs Electra complex (girls) Electra complex (girls)
Child is sexually attracted to the other sex parent and
wishes to replace the same sex parent.

29. +
(3) Phallic stage of development:
Oedipus complex (little boys):Oedipus complex (little boys):
Castration anxiety:Castration anxiety:
Son believes father knows about his desire for mom.
Fears dad will castrate him.
Represses his desire and defensively identifiesidentifies with
dad.

30. +
(3) Phallic stage (continued):
Electra complex (little girls):Electra complex (little girls):
Penis envy:Penis envy:
Daughter is initially attached to mom.
Shift of attachment occurs when she realizes she lacks a
penis.
She desires dad whom she sees as a means to obtain a a
penispenis substitute (a child)substitute (a child).
Represses her desire for dad.
incorporates the values of her mother
accepts her inherent “inferiority” in society

31. +
(4) Latency Period:
During the latency period, little girls and little boys try
to socialize only with members of their own gender.
Freud posits that children do this so as to help
minimize the awareness of “sexuality.”
Thus, they continue the process of sexual repression
that began in the previous stage (for those who
successfully made it through the Oedipal
Complex/Electra Complex).

32. +
(5) Genital Stage:
When adolescence begin puberty, they enter the 5th stage of
psychosexual development.
They develop secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., pubic
hair).
The onset of the physical sexual characteristics “re-awakens”
people sexual urges, and thus they are no longer able to
successfully repress their sexual desires, impulses, and
urges.
They begin searching for a marital mate, with whom they can
share sex and intimacy.

33. +
Summary of Freud (on personality):
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has provoked a number of
criticisms.
•a lack of supportive scientific data;
•the theory’s inadequacy in making predictions; and
•its limitations owing to the restricted population on which
it is based.
Still, the theory remains popular.
•For instance, the neo-Freudian psychoanalytic theorists
built upon Freud’s work, although they placed greater
emphasis on the role of the ego and paid greater
attention to social factors in determining behavior.

34. +
Psychoanalysis:
Freud and Personality
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic
Perspective
Were Freud’s theories
the “best of his time”
or were they simply
incorrect?
Current research
contradicts
many of Freud’s
specific ideas
Development does not
stop in childhood
Dreams may not be
unconscious
drives and wishes
Slips of the tongue are
likely competing
“nodes” in memory network

35. + Summary:
Freud and Personality
Freud’s Ideas as Scientific Theory
Theories must explain observations
and offer testable hypotheses
Few Objective ObservationsFew Objective Observations Few HypothesesFew Hypotheses
(Freud’s theories based on his recollections &(Freud’s theories based on his recollections &
interpretations of patients’ free associations,interpretations of patients’ free associations,
dreams & slips o’ the tongue)dreams & slips o’ the tongue)
Does Not Does Not PREDICTPREDICT Behavior or Traits Behavior or Traits

36. +
4 Types of Personality Theories:
(1). Psychodynamic(1). Psychodynamic approaches
to personality.
(2). Humanistic(2). Humanistic approaches
to personality.
(3). Trait(3). Trait approaches to personality.
(4). Social Cognitive(4). Social Cognitive approaches
to personality.

37. +(1) Psychodynamic Personality
Theories:
Source of information about personalitySource of information about personality:
•Obtained from expert analyst from people in therapy.
Cause of behavior, thoughts, and feelingsCause of behavior, thoughts, and feelings:
•unconscious internal conflict associated with childhood
experiences.
•Also, unconscious conflicts between pleasure-seeking
impulses and social restraints.
Outlook on humansOutlook on humans:
•negative.
Comprehensiveness of theoryComprehensiveness of theory:
•very comprehensive.

38. +Psychodynamic (Psychoanalytic)
Theories:
Many are called Neo-FreudiansNeo-Freudians. All place lessless emphasis on sex.
Carl JungCarl Jung:
Personal vs. Collective UnconsciousCollective Unconscious.
Balance between introversionintroversion and extroversionextroversion.
Alfred AdlerAlfred Adler:
Striving for superiorityStriving for superiority = motivation to master
environment.
Notion of an Inferiority ComplexInferiority Complex.
Karen HorneyKaren Horney:
Personality is Cultural rather than biologicalCultural rather than biological.

39. +
(2) Humanistic Personality
Theories:
Source of information about personalitySource of information about personality:
•obtained from self-reports from the general
population and people in therapy.
Cause of behavior, thoughts, and feelingsCause of behavior, thoughts, and feelings:
•self concepts,
•self-actualizing tendencies.
•conscious feelings about oneself (based on one’s
previous experiences).
Outlook on humansOutlook on humans:
•positive.
Comprehensiveness of theoryComprehensiveness of theory:
•fairly comprehensive.

40. The Humanistic Perspective
Maslow’sMaslow’s
Self-ActualizingSelf-Actualizing
PersonPerson
Roger’sRoger’s
Person-CenteredPerson-Centered
PerspectivePerspective
“Healthy” rather than “Sick”
Individual as greater than the sum of test scores

41. + Humanistic Personality Theories:
Maslow and Rogers
Humanistic approach (Third Force):
Rejected Freud’s pessimistic view of personality.
Rejected Behaviorist’s mechanistic view.
More optimistic/positive about human nature.
Humans are free and basically good.
Humans are inner-directed.
Everyone has the potential for healthy growth.
Health growth involves Self actualization:
“Be all you can be.”
Given the right environmental conditions,
we can reach our full potential.

42. Roger’s Person-Centered Perspective
People are basically good
with actualizing tendencies.
Given the right environmental
conditions, we will develop
to our full potentials
Genuineness, Acceptance, Empathy
Self ConceptSelf Concept: central feature
of personality (+ or -)

43. +
Humanistic Personality Theories:
Carl Rogers
Self-conceptSelf-concept: our image or perception of ourselves
(Real Self (Real Self versus Ideal Self) Ideal Self).
We have a need for positive regardpositive regard/approvalapproval from others.
Conditions of worth or conditional positive regard.
The conditions under which other people will approve of
us.
We change our behavior to obtain approval.
What we need is: Unconditional positive regardUnconditional positive regard.
Anxiety signifies that we are not being true to our ideal self.
Well-adjusted persons: self-concept & experience.
Poorly adjusted person: self-concept & experience.

44. +
Maslow’s Hierarchy of human motives:
one must satisfy lower needs before one
satisfies higher needs.

45. +
Humanistic Personality Theories:
Abraham Maslow
Self-actualizationSelf-actualization is the culmination of a lifetime of inner-
directed growth and improvement:
•Challenging ourselves to the fullest.
•Can you identify a self-actualized individual?
•Characteristics of the self-actualized personthe self-actualized person:
Creative and open to new experiences.
Committed to a cause or a higher goal.
Trusting and caring of others, yet not dependent.
Have the courage to act on their convictions.

46. +(3) Trait Personality Theories:
Source of information about personalitySource of information about personality:
•obtained from observation of behavior and questionnaire
responses from the general population as well as from
people in therapy.
Cause of behavior, thoughts, and feelingsCause of behavior, thoughts, and feelings:
•stable internal characteristics;
•some emphasize genetic basis.
Outlook on humansOutlook on humans:
•neutral - neither positive nor negative.
Comprehensiveness of theoryComprehensiveness of theory:
•not very comprehensive.

47. +(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Trait approachesTrait approaches have tried to identify the most basic have tried to identify the most basic
and relatively enduring dimensions along which people and relatively enduring dimensions along which people
differ from one another--dimensions known as differ from one another--dimensions known as traitstraits..
How many trait dimensions are there?How many trait dimensions are there?
How can we measure these trait dimensions?How can we measure these trait dimensions?
Where do these trait dimensions originate?Where do these trait dimensions originate?

48. +
(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Allport
AllportAllport: Most important personality traits are those that
reflect our values.
AllportAllport suggested that there are 3 kinds of traits:
•cardinalcardinal: a single personality trait that directs most of a
person’s activities (e.g., greed, lust, kindness).
•centralcentral: a set of major characteristics that make up the
core of a person’s personality.
•secondarysecondary: less important personality traits that do not
affect behavior as much as central and cardinal traits
do.

49. (3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Eysenck
Hans Eysenck:Hans Eysenck:
found two (2) major
trait dimensions:
•introversionintroversion
versusversus
extroversionextroversion
(quiet versus
sociable).
•NeuroticismNeuroticism
versusversus
emotional stabilityemotional stability
(moody versus calm).

50. +(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Cattell’s Theory of Personality:
CattellCattell’’ss Trait Theory:
Distinguished 3 types of traits:
Dynamic.Dynamic.
Ability.Ability.
Temperament.Temperament.
Also:
Surface Traits: Less important to personality.
Source Traits: More important basic underlying
traits.
CattellCattell identified 16 basic traits.
•He developed the 16PF to measure these traits.

51. +(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Recently personality theorists have begun to converge on the
view that there are 5 basic personality dimensions:
1: emotional stability versus neuroticism:emotional stability versus neuroticism:
calm, secure, self-satisfied VS anxious, insecure, self-pitying.
2: extraversion versus introversion:extraversion versus introversion:
sociable, fun-loving, affectionate VS retiring, sober, reserved.
3: openness versus close-mindedness:openness versus close-mindedness:
imaginative, independent VS practical, conforming.
4: agreeableness versus disagreeableness:agreeableness versus disagreeableness:
kind, trusting, helpful VS ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative.
5: conscientiousness versus undependable:conscientiousness versus undependable:
organized, careful, disciplined VS disorganized, careless,
impulsive.

52. +
Five Factor Model of Traits

53. +
Five Factor Model of Traits
The Big Five
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
• Calm/Anxious
• Secure/Insecure
• Sociable/Retiring
• Fun Loving/Sober
• Imaginative/Practical
• Independent/Conforming
• Soft-Hearted/Ruthless
• Trusting/Suspicious
• Organized/Disorganized
• Careful/Careless

54. +
Trait Theories of Personality:
Summary
TraitsTraits:
Characteristics or typical ways of acting:
Consistency:
across situations, over time.
Distinctiveness:
each personality is unique.
Explain why individuals behave in certain ways.
How many traits are there, and what are they?
Not easy to answer; little consensus.

55. +Assessing Personality Traits
How can we assess traits?
(aim to simplify a person’s behavior patterns)
Personality InventoriesPersonality Inventories
MMPI:MMPI:
• most widely used personality inventory.
• assess psychological disorders
(not normal traits).
• empirically derived - test items selected based
upon how well they discriminate between
groups of traits.

56. +
Do traits exist?
The Trait-Situation Debate
Walter MischelWalter Mischel (1968) argued that:
Behavior is not consistent across time or situation.
If no consistency, not much point in arguing for “personality.”
Thus, “personality” is an illusion.
Situationism:Situationism:
Mischel believed that behavior is influenced more by the situationsituation than
any internal “trait.”
Person x situation interactionism:Person x situation interactionism:
BothBoth (a) internal traits and (b) the situation we are in are important
determinants of behavior.

57. +
(4) Social-Cognitive (Learning)
Approaches to
Personality Theories:
Source of information about personalitySource of information about personality:
Obtained from experiments, observations of behavior,
and questionnaire responses from the general
population.
Cause of behavior, thoughts, and feelingsCause of behavior, thoughts, and feelings:
•reciprocal influence between people (cognitions and
behavior) and their environmental situations, colored by
their perceptions of control.
Outlook on humansOutlook on humans:
•neutral: neither positive nor negative.
Comprehensiveness of theoryComprehensiveness of theory:
•not very comprehensive.

58. +
Social-Cognitive-Learning
Perspective
Behavior learned through
conditioning and observation
What we think about our situation
affects our behavior
Interaction of
Environment and Intellect

59. +Social-Cognitive Personality
Theories:
Social Learning Theory
BanduraBandura: Theoretical origins in behaviorism.
Emphasizes the role of learning in personality.
Classical Conditioning.
Operant Conditioning .
Modeling.
Instead of studying what’s going on inside the person (traits),
study what is going on outside the person (environment).
How does the environment shape personality?

60. +Social-Cognitive Personality
Theories:
Social Learning Theory
BanduraBandura also emphasized the importance of cognition in
personality development.
People develop a sense of self-efficacyself-efficacy:
Our beliefs about our ability to achieve goals.
Individuals with higherhigher self-efficacy:
accept greater challenges.
try harder to meet challenges.
Bandura also discusses the notion of Reciprocal Reciprocal
DeterminismDeterminism:
The individual and the environment continually
influence one another.

61. +Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:
Reciprocal Determination
Personal/Personal/
CognitiveCognitive
FactorsFactors
BehaviorBehavior
EnvironmentEnvironment
FactorsFactorsigS13g5E)d93Eo)l)t S13g5E)d93Eo)!)"I
Internal World + External World = Us

62. +Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:
Reciprocal Determination

63. +Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:
Personal Control
Internal Locus of Control:Internal Locus of Control:
You pretty much control your own destiny
External Locus of Control:External Locus of Control:
Luck, fate and/or powerful others control your destiny.
Methods of Study:Methods of Study:
• Correlate feelings of control with behavior.Correlate feelings of control with behavior.
• Experiment by raising/lowering peopleExperiment by raising/lowering people’s sense of ’s sense of
control and noting the consequences and effects. control and noting the consequences and effects.

64. +Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:
Outcomes of Personal Control
Learned Helplessness:Learned Helplessness:
Uncontrollable
bad events
Perceived
lack of control
Generalized
helpless behavior
Important Issues:Important Issues:
• Nursing Homes
• Prisons
•Colleges

65. +
Comparison of Personality
Theories

66. +
Personality Assessment
Personality assessmentPersonality assessment involves the techniques for
systematically gathering information about a person in
order to understand and predict behavior.
Goal of personality assessmentGoal of personality assessment: to obtain reliable,
valid measures of individual differences that will
permit the accurate prediction of behavior.

67. +
How do we measure “Personality”?
(1) Interview(1) Interview:
Ask the person about themselves.
Obtain information that reveals personality.
(2) Behavioral Observation(2) Behavioral Observation:
Watch the individual’s behavior in an actual or simulated
situation.
Personality TestsPersonality Tests:
(3) Objective(3) Objective tests (questionnaire tests).
(4) Projective(4) Projective tests.

68. +
How do we measure personality?
(2) Behavioral assessment
Behavioral assessmentBehavioral assessment is based on the principles of
learning theory.
Behavioral assessmentBehavioral assessment employs direct measurement
of behavior to determine the characteristics related to
personality.

69. +
How do we measure personality?
(3) Objective Test Assessment
Objective personality testsObjective personality tests (self-report
questionnaires) present the test taker with a number
of specific items to which she is asked to respond,
either on paper or on a computer screen.
Self-report measuresSelf-report measures ask people about a sample
range of their behaviors.
These reports are used to infer the presence of
particular personality characteristics.

70. +
How do we measure personality?
(3) Objective Test Assessment
Examples of objective personality measures:Examples of objective personality measures:
the MMPI (the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory).
the 16 PF (the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire).
the NEO-PI (the NEO Personality Inventory).
The most commonly used self-report measure is the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-
2)2), designed to differentiate people with specific
sorts of psychological difficulties from normal
individuals.

71. +
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI-2)
Most widely used personality instrument.
Used in clinical and employment settings.
MMPI-2 Has several different scales (multiphasic).(multiphasic).
MMPI sample items:
‘I usually feel that life is worthwhile and interesting
(FALSE) = Depression.
‘I seem to hear things that other people can’t hear’
(TRUE) = Schizophrenia.
Measures aspects of personality that, if extreme, suggest
a problem:
Extreme suspiciousness may indicate paranoia.

72. +
How do we measure personality?
(4) Projective Test Assessment

A projective personality testprojective personality test is one in which the subject
is given an ambiguous stimulus and asked to respond
spontaneously.
pictures or inkblots.
No clear answer.
The ambiguous stimulus allows test takers to project
their own needs, dreams, feelings into their response.
The observer’s responses to the stimulus are then used
to infer information about the observer’s personality.

73. +
How do we measure personality?
(4) Projective Test Assessment (continued)
All projective testsprojective tests are based on the projective hypothesis
which states that the individual's response to an
ambiguous stimulus represents a projection of his or her
own inner, often unconscious, feelings and needs.
Indirect method of personality assessment:
Based on psychoanalytic assumptionspsychoanalytic assumptions:
Personality is mostly unconscious.
People are unaware of contents of unconscious.

74. +
How do we measure personality?
(4) Projective Test Assessment (continued):
The 2 most frequently used projective tests are:
•the RorschachRorschach: reactions to inkblots are employed to
classify personality types.
•the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): stories about
ambiguous pictures are used to draw inferences about
the storyteller’s personality.

75. +
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Most popular projective technique.
Respond to inkblot: ““What could this be?What could this be?””

76. +
THE END