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1. ASIAN INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL AND CLINICAL SCIENCES Practical work Done by:Azimboyeva Mashhura

2. THEME: Viruses and Bacteria Gr: Degree of Adjectives

3. Viruses are amazing molecular machines that are much tinier than even the smallest cells. We often think of viruses like the flu, chickenpox, or herpes as “external” invaders, but viruses are more inherently associated with human life than we often realize. Even after recovering from an infection there will always be a piece of that virus encoded within your DNA (depending on the type of virus). Approximately 8% of the human genome is made up of  endogenous retroviruses  (ERVs) , which are viral gene sequences that have become a permanent part of the human lineage after they infected our ancient ancestors. And these endogenous retroviruses don’t just sit silently in the genome — their expression has been  implicated in diseases like autoimmune disorders and breast cancer .

4. But endogenous retroviruses don’t only harm our health; they can also be extremely useful for human survival. For example, they play a very important role as an  interface between a pregnant mother and her fetus  by regulating placental development and function. It has been suggested that viruses are not only necessary for the existence of placental mammals, but also for the existence of life in general. Professor Luis P. Villarreal, the Founding Director of the  Center for Virus Research  at UC Irvine,  says it like this :  “So powerful and ancient are viruses, that I would summarize their role in life as ‘Ex Virus Omnia’ (from virus everything).”

5. Viruses are powerful, ancient, and vital to our existence, but they are extremely simple constructions. They tend to be nothing more than a few pieces: a protein  capsid , which is a simplistic and protective shell; a protein called a  polymerase , which carries out most of the functions related to replicating the viral genome; and a sequence of nucleotides — either RNA or DNA — that encode for the previously mentioned viral proteins. The image below shows one of the ways that these viral components can be assembled into a unified whole.

6. Unlike a human genome, a viral genome can be thought of as a self-contained model of the entire viral form. Within its RNA or DNA, a virus contains all the instructions necessary to create an entirely new body for itself and to replicate those same instructions. The simplicity and self-contained nature of viruses makes them phenomenal tools for biological engineering and medicine.

7. Viruses are so simple that they don’t always need their own body to survive; they have  circadian  rhythms like all living things. We experience these rhythms through cycles of sleep and wakefulness, whereas viral rhythms occur as periods of dormancy between rounds of infection. Viruses don’t technically have a body during their dormant phase — they are nothing more than a string of letters in the book of the genome. 

8. But, as soon as something disturbs their sleep (like a mutation or a new virus invading the host) viruses can awaken and rebuild their physical bodies from a purely genetic form. When the wrong (or right, depending on your perspective) protein manages to leak out of a dormant viral gene, it is like the virus is suddenly awake again. A new physical body means that it has all the tools necessary to replicate.

9. Bacteria are the smallest and most numerous organisms. The Prevalence of Bacteria Bacteria are the oldest, structurally simplest, and the most abundant forms of life on earth. They are also the only organisms with prokaryotic cellular organization. Represented in the oldest rocks from which fossils have been obtained, 3.5 to 3.8 billion years old, bacteria were abundant for over 2 billion years before eukaryotes appeared in the world. Early photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria) altered the earth’s atmosphere with the production of oxygen which lead to extreme bacterial and eukaryotic diversity.

10. Bacteria play a vital role both in productivity and in cycling the substances essential to all other life-forms. Bacteria are the only organisms capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. About 5000 different kinds of bacteria are currently recognized, but there are doubtless many thousands more awaiting proper identification. Every place microbiologists look, new species are being discovered, in some cases altering the way we think about bacteria. 

11. Bacterial Form Bacteria are mostly simple in form and exhibit one of three basic structures: bacillus (plural, bacilli) straight and rodshaped , coccus (plural, cocci) spherical-shaped, and spirillus (plural, spirilla ) long and helical-shaped, also called spirochetes. Spirilla bacteria generally do not form associations with other cells and swim singly through their environments. They have a complex structure within their cell membranes that allow them to spin their corkscrew-shaped bodies which propels them along. Some rod-shaped and spherical bacteria form colonies, adhering end-to-end after they have divided, forming chains. 

12. Gr:DEGREE OF ADJECTIVES

13. What is the Degree of Adjectives? An adjective can draw a comparison between two or more things when describing, modifying, or quantifying nouns or pronouns in a sentence. Hence, the more the number of compared subjects, the higher the degree of comparison in a sentence. An adjective is a describing word that modifies or evaluates the purpose of a noun or pronoun by adding specific attributes to it. Degree refers to the intensity, comparison, or superlative quality of an adjective. It enables us to compare and contrast various entities or describe something in relation to others.

14. Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree Big Bigger Biggest Fast Faster Fastest Tall Taller Tallest Brave Braver Bravest Happy Happier Happiest

15. What are the Three Degrees of Adjectives? Adjectives, being known for their character of comparison of one thing to another, has three primary degrees of comparison that are namely: positive degree, comparative degree, and superlative degree, which are used to compare two or more things. There are three main degrees of comparison when it comes to adjectives. They are defined in great detail as the following:

16. 1. Positive degree Positive Degree of Comparison or the ‘positive degree’ is utilized when only one subject or object is being described in a sentence. When an adjective defines or describes only one thing without drawing any comparison between it and another thing, it is known as a positive degree Example : She is a talented singer . 2. Comparative degree In the Comparative Degree of Comparison, the adjective juxtaposes two or more subjects against each other in a sentence. The qualities of these subjects- noun or pronoun, defined by the adjective in the sentence create a collation between those subjects in the sentence. In simple words, when comparing two things or people, the comparative form of an adjective is often used. Example: Nisha is taller than Shreya.

17. . Superlative degree The Superlative Degree of Comparison also finds use in comparing two or more subjects in a sentence. However, as opposed to the other two degrees, the Superlative degree expresses the highest quality or quantity of the noun or pronoun used in the sentence. Following a superlative adjective in a statement, words like ‘of’ and ‘in’ are used. When modifying a specific word, the article ‘the’ ought to be utilized before a superlative degree.  Example: Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world.