7. Sensation and Perception presentation

7. Sensation and Perception presentation

1. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sensation and Perception
Chapter 3

2. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sensation vs. Perception
Sensation
The experience of sensory stimulation
Perception
The process of creating meaningful patterns
from raw sensory information

3. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Nature of Sensation

4. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Basic Process
Receptor cells
Specialized cells that respond to a particular
type of energy
Doctrine of specific nerve energies
One-to-one relationship between stimulation
of a specific nerve and the resulting sensory
experience
For example, applying pressure with your
finger to your eye results in a visual
experience

5. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sensory Thresholds
 Absolute threshold
The minimum amount of energy that can be
detected 50% of the time

6. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Absolute Thresholds
Taste: 1 gram (.0356 ounce) of table salt in 500
liters (529 quarts) of water
Smell: 1 drop of perfume diffused throughout a
three-room apartment
Touch: the wing of a bee falling on your cheek
from a height of 1cm (.39 inch)
Hearing: the tick of a watch from 6 meters (20
feet) in very quiet conditions
Vision: a candle flame seen from 50km (30
miles) on a clear, dark night

7. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sensory Thresholds
Sensory adaptation
An adjustment of the senses to the level of
stimulation they are receiving
 Difference threshold
The smallest change in stimulation that can
be detected 50% of the time
Also called the just noticeable difference

8. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sensory Thresholds
Weber’s Law
States that the difference threshold is a
constant proportion of the specific stimulus
Senses vary in their sensitivity to changes in
stimulation

9. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Subliminal Perception
The notion that we may respond to stimuli
that are below our level of awareness
Research shows that the effect only
occurs in controlled laboratory studies
Research outside the laboratory shows no
significant effect of subliminal information

10. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Extrasensory Perception
Refers to extraordinary perception such as
Clairvoyance – awareness of an unknown
object or event
Telepathy – knowledge of someone else’s
thoughts or feelings
Precognition – foreknowledge of future events
Research has been unable to conclusively
demonstrate the existence of ESP

11. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Vision

12. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Visual System
Cornea
Transparent protective
coating over the front
of the eye
Pupil
Small opening in the
iris through which light
enters the eye
Iris
Colored part of the eye

13. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Visual System
Lens
Focuses light onto the
retina
Retina
Lining of the eye
containing receptor
cells that are sensitive
to light
Fovea
Center of the visual field

14. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Receptor Cells
Cells in the retina that are sensitive to light
Visual receptors are called rods and cones

15. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Receptor Cells
Rods
About 120 million rods
Respond to light and
dark
Very sensitive to light
Provide our night
vision
Cones
About 8 million cones
Respond to color as
well as light and dark
Work best in bright
light
Found mainly in the
fovea

16. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Receptor Cells
Bipolar cells
Receive input from
receptor cells
Ganglion cells
Receive input from
bipolar cells
Blind spot
Area where axons of
ganglion cells leave
the eye

17. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

18. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Adaptation
Dark adaptation
Increased sensitivity of rods and cones in
darkness
Light adaptation
Decreased sensitivity of rods and cones in
bright light
Afterimage
Sense experience that occurs after a visual
stimulus has been removed

19. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
From Eye to Brain
Optic nerve
Made up of axons of
ganglion cells
carries neural
messages from each
eye to brain
Optic chiasm
Point where part of
each optic nerve
crosses to the other
side of the brain

20. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Color Vision
Properties of color
Hue – refers to colors such as red and green
Saturation – refers to the vividness of a hue
Brightness – the nearness of a color to white

21. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Theories of Color Vision
Additive color mixing
Mixing of lights of different hues
Lights, T.V., computer monitors (RGB)
Subtractive color mixing
Mixing pigments, e.g., paints

22. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Theories of Color Vision
Trichromatic theory
Three different types of cones
Red
Green
Blue-violet
Experience of color is the result of mixing of
the signals from these receptors
Can account for some types of colorblindness

23. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Forms of Colorblindness
Approximately 10% of
men and 1% of women
have some form of
colorblindness
Dichromats
People who are blind to
either red-green or blue-
yellow
Monochromats
People who see no color at
all, only shades of light and
dark

24. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Theories of Color Vision
Trichromatic theory cannot explain all
aspects of color vision
People with normal vision cannot see
“reddish-green” or “yellowish-blue”
Color afterimages

25. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Theories of Color Vision
Trichromatic theory
Also called the Young – Helmholtz theory
and emphasizes the color
Red
Green
Blue
Explains the color blindness

28. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Theories of Color Vision
Opponent-process theory
Three pairs of color receptors
Yellow-blue
Red-green
Black-white
Members of each pair work in opposition
Can explain color afterimages
Both theories of color vision are valid

29. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
12. Theories of Color
Trichromatic Theory
Three types of cones
Sensitive to red,
green, or blue
Opponent-Process
Theory
Three types of color
receptors
Red-green, blue-
yellow, and light-
dark

30. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Color Vision in Other Species
Other species see colors differently than
humans
Most other mammals are dichromats
Rodents tend to be monochromats, as are
owls who have only rods
Bees can see ultraviolet light

31. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Common Eye Deviations
Myopia or Nearsightedness – caused by
abnormal long eyeball so that the image is
focused in front of the retina.
Myopic cannot see objects at a far distance
Use eyeglasses with concave lenses

32. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Hyperopia or Farsightedness – happens
when the eyeball is short so that the image
is focused behind the retina.
Cannot see effectively near objects
Use eyeglasses with convex lenses to correct
the condition

33. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

34. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

35. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

36. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Presbyopia – farsightedness of old age
which is caused by the slow hardening of
the lens.
Astigmatism – caused by uneven
curvature of the cornea. Generally
congenital caused by inflammation and
injury.

37. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Cross – eye – congenital farsightedness or
defect in the eye muscles.

38. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

39. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

40. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

41. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

42. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Hearing

43. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sound
Sound waves
Changes in pressure
caused by molecules
of air moving
Frequency
Number of cycles per
second in a wave,
measured in Hertz (Hz)
Frequency determines
pitch

44. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sound
They vary in
wavelength which
determines the
frequency of the
sound wave or the
number of cycles that
pass through a point
in a given time.

45. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sound
Pitch
Perceptual
interpretation of the
frequency of sound.
Amplitude
Measured in decibels
(dB)

46. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sound
Amplitude
Measured in decibels
(dB)
The amount of
pressure produced by
a sound wave relative
to a standard.
Zero dB would be the
softest noise
detectable by humans.

47. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sound
Amplitude
Magnitude (height) of
sound wave
Determines loudness,
measured in decibels (dB)
Overtones
Multiples of the basic tone
Timbre
Quality of texture of sound

48. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

49. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall 49
The Human Ear

50. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Ear
Eardrum
Middle ear
Contains three small
bones; the hammer,
anvil, and stirrup
These bones relay and
amplify the incoming
sound waves

51. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Ear
Inner Ear
Oval window
Membrane between
middle ear and inner
ear
Cochlea
Part of inner ear
containing fluid that
vibrates
This causes the basilar
membrane to vibrate

52. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Ear

53. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Ear
Basilar membrane
Membrane in the
cochlea which
contains receptor
cells, called hair cells
Auditory nerve
Connection from ear to
brain
Provides information
to both sides of brain

54. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Theories of Hearing
Place theory – George Von Bḗkḗsy
Pitch is determined by location of vibration
along the basilar membrane
Each frequency produces vibrations at a
particular spot n the basilar membrane.
Explains high – frequency sounds but fares
poorly with low – frequency sounds

55. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Theories of Hearing
Frequency theory
Pitch is determined by frequency hair cells
produce action potentials
how often the auditory nerve fires.
High – frequency sounds cause the auditory
nerve to fire more often than do lower –
frequency sounds.
Volley Principle
Pattern of sequential firing determines pitch

56. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Localizing Sounds
We use both monaural
and binaural cues
Loudness
Louder sounds are
perceived as being closer
Time of arrival
Sounds will arrive at one
ear sooner than the other
This helps determine
direction of the sound

57. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Hearing Disorders
About 28 million people have some form of
hearing damage in the U.S.
Can be caused by
Injury
Infections
Explosions
Long-term exposure to loud noises

58. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Hearing Defects
Conductive deafness – disturbance in
the conduction of air waves from the outer
ear to the inner ear.
Defects of the small bones (the oval window
and the basilar membrane)
Remedied by use of hearing aid

59. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Nerve Deafness – loss of sensitivity of the
receptors.
Injury or infection to the nerve cells or auditory
nerves may lead to partial or total deafness.
Cannot be helped by a hearing aid.

60. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Smell
Detecting common odors
Odorant binding protein is
released and attached to
incoming molecules
These molecules then
activate receptors in the
olfactory epithelium
Axons from those
receptors project directly to
the olfactory bulb

61. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

62. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classifications
Flowery scent – from blooming flowers
Ethereal – smell refer to perfume or cologne
Fruity smell – fruits like orange, mango and
pineapple
Spicy – emits from garlic, pepper, onions
and mustards
Resinous – turpentine, paint, varnish,
lacquer

63. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classifications
Smoky or scorched – comes from burn
paper, feather, leaves
Putrid stink – results from salted fish like
bagoong, buro, patis, decaying fish and
meat.

64. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Smell
Women have a better sense of smell than
men
Anosmia
Complete loss of the ability to smell

65. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Smell
Pheromones
Used by animals as a form of communication
Provides information about identity
Also provides information about sexual receptivity
Pheromones stimulate the vomeronasal organ
(VNO)
Information from the VNO is sent to a special
part of the olfactory bulb used for pheromonal
communication

66. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Taste
Four basic tastes
Sweet
Salty
Sour
Bitter
Recent discovery of fifth taste
Umami

67. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Taste
Receptor cells are
located in taste buds
Taste buds are
located in papillae on
the tongue
Chemicals dissolve in
saliva and activate
receptors

68. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

69. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Other Senses

70. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Kinesthetic Senses
Kinesthetic senses provide information
about speed and direction of movement
Stretch receptors sense muscle stretch and
contraction
Golgi tendon organs sense movement of
tendons
Movement , posture, and orientation

71. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Vestibular Senses
Vestibular senses provide information
about equilibrium and body position
Fluid moves in two vestibular sacs
Vestibular organs are also responsible for
motion sickness
Motion sickness may be caused by
discrepancies between visual information
and vestibular sensation

72. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Skin Senses
Skin is the largest sense organ
There are receptors for pressure,
temperature, and pain
Touch appears to be important not just as
a source of information, but as a way to
bond with others

73. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Pain
Serves as a warning about injury or other
problem
Large individual differences in pain
perception
Gate control theory
Neurological “gate” in spinal cord which
controls transmission of pain to brain

74. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Pain
Biopsychosocial theory
Holds that pain involves not just physical stimulus, but
psychological and social factors as well
Placebo effect
Shows that when a person believes a medication
reduces pain, their pain is often reduced even though
no medication was given
Pain relief is likely the result of endorphin release

75. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Pain
Alternative approaches
Hypnosis
Self-hypnosis
Accupuncture

76. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Perception

77. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Perception
The principles of perception include those
involving;
Shape perception
Depth perception
Motion perception
Perceptual constancy

78. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Perception
A. Shape perception
Shape is perceived because of the marked off
contour.
A location at which a sudden change of brightness
occurs.
Gestalt Psychologists
Figure – ground relationship
Closure
Proximity
Similarity

79. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Perceptual Organization
1. Figure-ground
We perceive a
foreground object
(figure) against a
background (ground)
Animals may look like
the background they
inhabit as a way of
destroying figure-
ground distinction

80. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Perceptual Organization
Figure – ground
Phenomena
Individuals organize
the perceptual field
into stimuli that stand
out or better known
as the figure and
those that are left
over as the ground

81. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Perceptual Organization
Other principles of
organization
Proximity
Similarity
Closure
Continuity

82. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Gestalt Rules for Perceptual Organization

83. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
2. Proximity
When individuals see
objects that are near
each other they tend to
be seen as unit.

84. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
3. Similarity
When
individuals see
objects that are
similar to each
other, they tend to
be seen as a unit.
Vertical columns of
circles and squares

85. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
3. Similarity
Horizontal rows
of circles and
squares

86. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
4. Closure
When
individuals see
disconnected or
incomplete
figures, they fill
the spaces and
see them as
complete figures

87. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
5. Continuity

88. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

89. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
B. DEPTH
PERCEPTION
Ability to perceive
objects three -
dimensionally

90. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Perception of Distance and Depth
Binocular cues – those that require both
eyes
Retinal disparity
Convergence

91. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Perception of Distance and
Depth
Monocular cues –
those that require
only one eye
Aerial perspective
Texture gradient
Linear perspective
Motion parallax
Superposition

92. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Depth Perception
1.Binocular Cues
1.disparity
2.Monocular cues
a.Aerial perspective
b.Familiar size
c.Height of the field of view
d.Linear perspective
e.Overlap
f.Shading
g.Size in the field of view
h.Texture gradient

93. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Aerial perspective
Distant objects tend
to appear hazy due to
pollution and water
vapor in the air that
scatter light waves

94. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Familiar size
Individuals tend to
know how large
bananas tend to be,
so they can tell
something how far
away a banana is
likely to be by the size
of its image on the
retina.

95. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Height of the Field of View
Objects that are
higher in a picture are
seen as farther away

96. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Linear Perspective
Is when the cue is
based on the fact that
objects farther away
take up less space on
the retina.
As an object recedes
into the distance,
parallel lines in the
scene appear
converge

97. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Overlap
An object that partially
conceals or overlaps
another object is
perceived as closer

98. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Shading
This cue involves
changes in the
perception sue to the
position of the light
and the position of the
viewer.

99. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Size of the Field of view
All other things being
equal, objects that are
smaller are seen to
be farther away

100. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Texture Gradient
Texture becomes
denser and finer, the
farther away it is from
the viewer

101. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Perception of Movement
Apparent movement
Illusion that still objects are moving
Autokinetic illusion
Perceived motion of a single object
Stroboscopic motion
Created by a rapid series of still pictures
Phi phenomenon
Apparent motion created by lights flashing in
sequence

102. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Perceptual Organization
Perceptual Constancy
Our tendency to
perceive objects as
stable and unchanging
despite changing
sensory information
Size constancy
Shape constancy
Brightness constancy
Color constancy

103. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Visual Illusions
Occur because of
misleading cues in
the stimulus
Gives rise to false
perceptions

104. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
7. Visual Illusions
Hering-Hemlholtz Illusion
Perceive drawing as three-dimensional
Müller-Lyer Illusion
Interpret length of lines based on experience

105. Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Individual Differences and
Culture in Perception
Motivation
Our desires or needs shape our current
perceptions
Values
Expectations
Cognitive Style
Experience and Culture
Personality