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A Grammar of Kharia

Brill's Studies in South and
Southwest Asian Languages
Series Editors
John Peterson, University of Leipzig
Anju Saxena, Uppsala University (editor of this volume)
Editorial Board
Anvita Abbi, Jawaharlal Nehru University
Balthasar Bickel, University of Leipzig
George Cardona, University of Pennsylvania
Carol Genetti, University of California, Santa Barbara
Geoffrey Haig, University of Bamberg
Gilbert Lazard, CNRS & Ecole pratique des Hautes Etudes
Harold Schiffman, University of Pennsylvania
Udaya Narayana Singh, Visva-Bharati, Shantiniketan, India
VOLUME 1

A Grammar of Kharia
A South Munda Language
By
John Peterson
BRILL
LEIDEN • BOSTON
2011

On the cover
Front: This photograph shows the hill (Kharia biru) which gave the village of Biru
located at the foot
of this hill in southwestern Jharkhand, near the city of Simdega,
its name. This village
is said to have been the traditional home of the Kharia
"kings"
(koleTJ). The present-day "king's" family hails from Orissa and is not Kharia.
Back: This photograph shows
the stone
formation referred to locally as the "throne",
located on this same hill (not visible on the front cover) and is undoubtedly the reason
that this small village was chosen
by earlier rulers as their capitol.
This book is printed
on acid-free paper.
Library
of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Peterson, John M. (John Michael)
A grammar of Kharia a South Munda language I by John Peterson.
p. em.-(Brill's studies in South and Southwest Asian languages)
Text
in English and Kharia.
Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-18720-7 (acid-free paper) 1. Kharia language-Grammar.
I. Title. II. Series.
PL4579.P48 2011
495.9'5-dc22
ISSN 1877-4083
ISBN 978 90 04 18720 7
Copyright 2011 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden., The Netherlands.
Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing,
IDC Publishers, Martinus NijhoffPublishers and VSP.
2010043092
All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated,
stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission
from the publisher.
Authorization
to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted
by Koninklijke Brill
NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to
The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910,
Danvers, MA 01923, USA.
Fees are subject to change.

In memory of
Mr. Stanislas Kullu,
previous head
of the All-India Kharia Society, an active supporter of
Kharia, a highly respected and active member of his community, and a
very dear friend.

for Marco

CONTENTS
List of Maps xv
Acknowledgements xvn
Abbreviations and Symbols
xxt
Abbreviations of Sources
xxm
Chapter One Introduction: The Kharia Language 1
1.1 General Introduction 1
1.2 Genetic Affiliations 7
1.3 Previous Studies on the Kharia and What this
Study Adds 8
1.3.1 Previous works 8
1.3.2 The present study
11
1.3.3 Methodology 13
1.4 Some Terminological Issues 16
1.4.1
"Contentive morphemes and semantic bases" vs.
"roots and stems" 17
1.4.2 "Case-and TAMIPERsoN-syntagmas" vs. "nouns,
verbs and adjectives" 18
1.4.3 "Marker of qualitative predication" vs. "copula" 19
1.5 Kharia Orthography and the System of Transliteration
Used here 19
1.5.1 The script 20
1.5.2 The written word in Kharia 24
1.6 The Structure
of this Study 24
Chapter Two Phonology 27
2.1
Vowel Inventory 27
2. 1. 1 Monophthongs 27
2. 1. 2 Diphthongs 28
2.2 Consonants
2. 2. 1 Gemination
2. 2. 2 Pre-glottalized stops
2.3 Syllable Structure
2.4 Morphophonology
2.5 The Phonological Word
2.6 Sentence Prosody
29
31
31
32
33
35
46

X CONTENTS
Chapter Tbree Syntactic Atoms 51
3.1 Clitics as "Phrasal Affixes" 51
3.1.1 The pragmatic markers 53
3.1.2 Case and number marking 55
3.1.3 Markers for inalienable possession 57
3.1.4 Markers for TAM and person I number I
honorific status 58
3.1.5 The perfect marker =si?(cf.) and the infinitive
marker
=na
60
3.2 Clitics in Kharia-An Overview of their Characterisics 61
3.2.1 Position with respect to host 61
3.2.2 Segmental properties of clitics and their respective
degree
of cohesion 62
3.2.2.1 Segmental properties 62
3.2.2.2 Degree of cohesion with host 63
3.2.3 Clitics as
"reduced" phonological words 65
3.2.4 The relative ordering of clitics 65
3.2.5 The varying mobility of clitics 67
3.2.6 Lexicalization 68
3.3 Affixes 68
Chapter Four Parts of Speech and the Lexicon 71
4.1 Introduction and Methodology 71
4.2 The "Precategoriality" of Simple Contentive Morphemes 75
4.3 Derived Forms 92
4.3.1 Bisyllabicity in Kharia 93
4.3.2 Reduplication-The masdar 94
4.3.3 The -NV-infix 101
4.3.4 -NV-+ Reduplication 104
4.3.5 Derivation and parts of speech-A summary 106
4.4 "NPs" as Verbs? Syntactic Categories, not Lexical
Categories 106
4.4.1 The question of acceptability 112
4.5 Parts of Speech in Kharia: A Summary 116
4.6 "Compounds" and "Noun Incorporation" 118
4.6.1 Lexical juxtapositions as "compounds" 118
4.6.2 Genuine compounds 121
4.6.2.1 (Semi-)Productive compounding 123
4.6.3 Pseudo-compounds and "noun incorporation" 124
4.6.4 Semi-productive incorporation 128
4.7 "Echo-words" 129

CONTENTS Xl
Chapter Five The Case-syntagma ("NPs") 135
5.1 General Introduction 135
5.1.1 Gender I size and animacy as grammatical
categories 139
5.1.2 Definiteness and indefiniteness as grammatical
categories 142
5.2 Case 143
5.3 Adpositions 149
5.4 Number 158
5.5 Inalienable Possession 162
5.6 Proforms 168
5.7 Interrogatives, Indefinites and Negative Indefinites 178
5.8 Demonstratives 182
5.9 Quantifiers and Classifiers 187
5.9.1 Quantifiers 187
5.9.2 Classifiers 194
5.10 Modification
200
5.1 0.1 Morphologically simple modification
("adjectives") 200
5.10.1.1 Comparatives, superlatives and
equatives
5.1
0.2 Clausal adjuncts ("adverbials")
Chapter Six The TAMIPERsoN-syntagma ("Verbs")
6.1 General Introduction
202
205
209
209
6.2 Person I Number I Honorific Marking 212
6.3 Types of semantic bases in the TAMIPER.sON-syntagma 214
6.3.1 Single contentive morpheme as the semantic
base 214
6.3.2 TAMIPERsoN-syntagmas with multiple semantic
sub-bases 215
6.3 .3
Other types of semantic bases 219
6.3.4 Experiential predicates I "psyche verbs" 226
6.3.4.1 Experiencer as subject 226
6.3.4.2 Oblique-case experiencers 227
6.3.4.3 Overview
of experiential predicates 228
6.3.5 Causative and reciprocal marking
230
6.4 TAM I Basic Voice Marking 239
6.4.1 The basic TAM categories 239
6.4.1.1 Past and "Past If' 240
6.4.1.2 Present general imperfective 243

xu CONTENTS
6.4.1.3 Present progressive 245
6.4.1.4 Irrealis 247
6.4.1.5 Perfect 249
6.4.1.6 Optative 257
6.4.2 Active and Middle: Their Functions and
Distribution 258
6.4.2.1 General remarks 258
6.4.2.2 Differential functions 260
6.4.2.3 Inherent functions 276
6.4.2.4 A semantic map
of the middle voice
in Kharia 288
6.5
"V2s"-Markers of the Passive I Reflexive and
Aktionsart 293
6.5.1 Passive I Reflexive cf.om 293
6.5.2 "Durativity"-continuative kan, semel-iterative
lo'l and iterative khor 298
6.5.3 Anticipatory telic cf.o
2cf. and culminatory telic
golcf. 302
6.5.4 Totality may 304
6.5.5 Ambulative san 'while going' 306
6.5.6 Suddenness bha'l, hamba'l and dhalb 306
6.5.7 Departive tu 307
6.5.8 Conative dakha I lakha 308
6.5.9 Excessive bay 308
6.5.10 Autopoesis jom 309
6.5.11 Benefactive kay 309
6.5.12 Seldomly encountered V2s 310
6.5.12.1 col 'go' 310
6.5.12.2 olj 'take out' 310
6.5.12.3 ol 'take' 311
6.5.12.4 pal 'finish' 311
6.5.12.5 saphay 'clean' 312
6.6 Partially Finite and Non-finite Forms 313
6.6.1 Partially finite forms 313
6.6.2 Non-finite forms 317
6.6.2.1 The masdar 317
6.6.2.2 Infinitives 322
6.6.2.3 Sequential converbs ("conjunctive
participles") 324
6.6.2.4 Imperfective converbs ("present
participles") 330
6.6.2.5 Participles 333

CONTENTS
6.7 Negation
6. 7. 1 The general negator um
6.7.2 Modal negation with abu
6.7.3 Emphatic negation with umbo'l
6. 7.4 Negation with na
6.8 Periphrastic TAMIPERsoN-syntagmas ("Verbs")
6. 8.1 "Aspectual" auxiliaries
6.8.1.1 la'l'imperfectivity'
6.8.1.2 mlicelmare, suru 'begin'
6.8.1.3
melay 'stop'
6.8.1.4
col'go'
6.8.2 Modality
6.8.2.1
lam 'look for; want'
X111
334
335
338
339
341
341
342
342
345
346
346
346
346
6.8.2.2
ter 'give; allow' 347
6.8.2.3
pal 'can, be able' 348
6. 8.2.4 The qualitative predicative marker:
Obligation and necessity 348
6.9 Inference 349
Chapter Seven Syntax
351
7.1 Grammatical Relations 351
7.1.1 Case-syntagmas and their status within the clause 352
7.1.2 Subject 359
7.1.3 Object types 367
7.2 Interrogatives 368
7.2.1
Polar questions 369
7.2.2 Constituent ("wh-") questions 370
7.2.2.1 Multiple constituent questions 371
7.2.3 Alternative questions 373
7.3 Qualitative Predication-"Nominal" and "Copular"
Sentences 374
7.3.1 General introduction 374
7.3.2 Does Kharia have a copula?
7.3.3 Stative qualitative
predication-the forms
7.3.4 Dynamic qualitative predication
7.3.5
"Zero copulas"?
7.4 Clause Coordination
7.5 Subordination
7.5.1 "Adverbial" clauses
7.5.1.1 Purpose clauses
7.5.1.2 Causal
I instrumental clauses
375
377
381
382
388
389
389
389
390

XlV CONTENTS
7.5.1.3 Temporal clauses
7.5.1.4 Conditionals and counterfactuals
7.5.1.5 Concessives
7.5.1.6 Depictives
7.5.2 Complement clauses
7.5.2.1 In subject function
7.5.2.2 In object function
7.6 "Relative Clauses"-Propositional Attribution
7.6.1 Correlatives
7.6.2 Prenominal constructions
7.6.3 Circumnominal clauses
7.6.4 Postnominals
390
393
395
396
403
403
404
406
408
410
419
421
7.6.5 The scale of relativization 422
7.7 Information Structure-Topic, Focus and Constituent
Order 426
7.7.1 Predicate focus or Topic-Comment 427
7.7.2 Argument focus 432
7.7.3 Sentence focus 432
7.7.4 The pragmatic markers
=ga,
=leo and =jo 433
Appendix Text: The Nine Totems
Bibliography
General Index
Index
of Authors
439
453
461
473

LIST OF MAPS
Map 1
: The States
of Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Orissa in
eastern central India
Map
2: The districts where Kharia is spoken
2
3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present study is a thoroughly revised version of the first volume of
my Habilitationsschrift or "professorial dissertation" Volume I of that
study was primarily a reference grammar
of Kharia and was itself a
greatly expanded version
of a shorter grammar which appeared in a multi
contributor work,
The Munda Languages, edited by Gregory D. S. Ander
son (Routledge,
2008, ISBN 978-0415-32890-6). I gratefully acknowledge
here my gratitude to Routledge for granting permission to re-publish this
earlier, shorter grammar in this revised and greatly expanded form.
The remaining two volumes
of that study included a collection of Kha
ria texts (Volume II), segmented, glossed, annotated and translated into
English, which is now freely accessible.
1 Volume III of that study was a
Kharia-English lexicon which has since been published online as Peterson
(2009).
2
As with any work of this type, many people have greatly aided me in
my work, and without their help this volume would never have been pos
sible. I would like to take this opportunity to thank these individuals, and
I apologize in advance
if I have inadvertantly overlooked anyone here.
First
of all, my work on Kharia was greatly assisted by two generous
grants from the German Research Foundation
(Deutsche Forschungsge
meinschaft,
DFG) (PE
87211-1, 2), which I gratefully acknowledge here.
I would also like to thank the many individuals in Jharkhand who made
my research trips there both pleasant and productive. First
of all, thanks
are due to those who taught me Kharia, who bore with me while I was
still stuttering and searching for words, and who spent hours upon hours
discussing the intricacies
of their native language with me: Mr. Basil Baa,
Ms. Rayem
Olem Baa (formerly Dungdung), Ms. Rose Dungdung, Ms.
Saroj Kerketta, Mr. Silvester Kerketta, Mr. Anugrah Kullu, Ms. Tarke
leng Kullu,
Ms. Anita Soreng, Mr. Dilip Soreng, Mr. Marcus Soreng,
Mr. Pratap Soreng, and Mr. Marianus Tete. It has been a great pleasure
for me to get to know you all and to be able to work with you!
1 http://www .southasiabibliography .de/Bibliography/ Austroasiatic/M unda/Kharia/
Kharia_A_Sou1h_Munda_Language/kharia_a_south_nnmda_language.h1ml
2 http:/ lwww.linguisti.es.ucs b.edu/HimalayanLinguisti.cs/gramrnars/HLA05 .h1ml

XVlll ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks also to the "Kharia Boys" of St. Alois Minor Seminary in
Ranchi: Sanjay Dung Dung, Edwin
R. Dung Dung, Ajit Kerketta, Alexz
endar Kerketta, Pavan Prakash Kerketta, Ravi Kujur, Ranjit Kullu, Samir
Kullu, Vinay Kullu, Alok Soreng, Anil Soreng, Shilanan Tete, and
of
course our
"Kurukh supporter" Pascal Toppo, for taking the time in the
evening after a long and busy day to answer
my questions and for seeing
to it that the Seminary's watchdog Tommy
didn't bite me again!
My sincerest thanks also go to Mr. Anil Birendra Kullu, the first Kharia
speaker I met and worked with, and to his father, the late
Mr. Stanislas
Kullu, who welcomed
me into his home and made me feel a part of his
family, and who accompanied me to Birmitrapur and introduced
me there
to
Mr. Marcus Soreng. Thanks also to the wonderful people of Saldega
(salcf.a?), who made me feel welcome in their community and who greatly
assisted
me with my work. I am also grateful to Father Soreng of the
Simdega Development Centre
(simcf.ega vikas kendr) for all the pleas
ant conversations, the hospitality
he and his fellow brethren showed me,
despite their busy schedules, and for providing
me with a place to stay in
Simdega
on one occasion when I had nowhere else to turn.
Thanks also go to the wonderful students and faculty
of the Depart
ment
of Tribal and Regional Languages at Ranchi University for all their
hospitality, especially Ms. Mary Soreng for her kindness, her insights into
Kharia grammar, and for introducing
me to the many Kharia scholars of
Ranchi; to Ms. Rose Kerketta, who has probably published more in (and
on) Kharia than anyone else, for her hospitality and for sharing her
vast
knowledge of Kharia with me; and finally to Louni Kandulna, for all her
kindness and help.
I am also grateful to Fathers Joachim Dungdung and Nicholas Tete,
two renowned scholars
of the Kharia and their language, both of whom
took
an immediate interest in my work, for discussing my work with me,
for showing
me their own work on Kharia, for their many valuable sug
gestions, and
of course for all the wonderful conversations.
Thanks also to
Dr. Ram Dayal Munda, previous head of the Depart
ment
of Tribal and Regional Languages and now an important political
figure in Jharkhand, for supporting
me wherever he could with my work,
despite his extremely tight schedule, often taking time between his inter
views with reporters to talk with me.
And finally, very special thanks go to Dr. Ganesh Murmu. Although he
himself is not a Kharia speaker, he has aided me in my work perhaps more
than anyone else.
It was he who first welcomed me to Ranchi, although
we had never even met, who found me a place to stay, showed me around

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS X1X
the Department, introduced me to speakers of Kharia, and helped pave
the way for my work. There are few people who know Jharkhand as well
as he does, and I cannot imagine that my work in Jharkhand would ever
have been successful were it not for him.
Outside
of Jharkhand. there are also many people who have contributed
to this work in some way, and I apologize in advance
if I have forgot
ten anyone. First
of all, the present study has benefitted greatly from my
discussions with participants at a number
of workshops, conferences and
talks at the following universities, and I am grateful for all the construc
tive feedback and suggestions that I have received from everyone there:
Leipzig (Max Planck Institute, University
of Leipzig), the universities
of Bochum,
Osnabriick, Lund. Uppsala, Konstanz, Gottingen and Ham
burg, Delhi University and Jawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi.
Further thanks go to Anvita Abbi,
K.
V Subbarao, Tatiana Oranskaia,
Dorte Borchers, OlafMuller-Reichau and Anju Saxena for inviting me to
speak at their departments and for all the stimulating discussions which
followed. Anju Saxena was also solely responsible for processing the
present volume, making sure that it was subjected to the same stringent
scrutiny as any other manuscript in this series (including getting the man
uscript double-blind reviewed).
Thanks also go to Gregory D.S. Anderson. Walter Bisang, Anne Dala
dier, Matthew Dryer, Christoph Gabriel, Arlo
Gi:fliths, Graham Katz,
Ulrich Mehlem, Toshiki Osada, Christoph Schroeder, David Stampe, and
two annonymous reviewers for comments and suggestions on the many,
many, many previous versions
of this work and other related articles
which helped pave the way for the present study.
And finally, special thanks go to
Utz Maas for holding down the fort at
the department in Osnabrock while I spent several months in India gather
ing data and for his constant suggestions and constructive criticism
of my
work, forcing me at every step to re-consider my argumentation.
Needless to say, I alone am
of course responsible for any and all over
sights and errors which the present study may contain.
ampe
sou"'bte barucf.a? gamti]ll iku
1cf.jughay dheinbad!

ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
SYMBOLS
< > infix marker; also used to mark a written (as opposed to spoken)
word or symbol
denotes a derivational
affix or compounded element
denotes an enclitic
ABBREVIATIONS
Numbers in parentheses refer to the respective section(s) where these top
ics are discussed in more detail.
ABL-ablative (5.2)
ACT-active (6.4.2)
ADD-additive focus (7.7.4)
AMB-ambulative (6.5.5)
ANAPH-anaphoric proform (5.6)
APPROX-approximative
(3 .3)
A:1EL-anticipatory telic (6.5.3)
AUTOPOES-autopoesis (6.5.10)
BEN-benefactive (6.5.11)
CADS-causative (6.3.5)
CLASS-numeral classifier (5.9.2)
CJ\.1PL-complementizer
CNTR-contrastive focus (7.7.4)
CONAT-conative (6.5.8)
CONT-continuative (6.5.2)
CREL-correlative (7.6.1)
C:1EL-culminatory telic (6.5.3)
CVB-(imperfective) converb
(6.6.2.4)
DU-dual (5.4; 6.2)
DEM-demonstrative ( 5. 8)
DIST-distal demonstrative (5.8)
DPT-departive (6.5.7)
ECHO-echo-word ( 4. 7)
EMOT -emotive predicate marker
(6.3.4)
EXCL-exclusive (5.4; 6.2)
EXCES-excessive (6.5.9)
FOC-restrictive focus; also
used for various other focus
markers whose exact function
awaits further study
(ro1, ga'l,
etc.)) (7.7.4)
GEN-genitive (5.2)
RON-honorific (5.4; 6.2)
HUM-human (5.6)
!A-Indo-Aryan
INCL-inclusive (5.4; 6.2)
INDEF-indefinite
INF-infinitive (6.6.2.2)
INFER-inferential (6.9)
INST-instrumental (5.3)
IN1ENS-intensifier (5.10.2)
IFFY-imperfective (6.8.1.1)
IRR-irrealis (6.4.1.4)
I1ER-iterative (6.5.2)

XXll ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
ITR-intransitive
Kh.-Kharia
LOC-locative hinte (5.3)
MID-middle (6.4.2)
MOD-modal (negation) (6.7.2)
-m-hiatus-breaking glide
NHUM-non-human (5.6)
OBL-oblique (5.2)
OPT -optative (6.4.1.6)
PASS-passive (6.5.1)
PERF-perfect (6.4.1.5)
PL-plural (5.4; 6.2)
FOSS-inalienable possession
(5.5)
PRS-present tense (6.4.1.2)
FROG-progressive (6.4.1.3)
PST-past tense (6.4.1.1)
PST.II-"Past II" (6.4.1.1)
PTCP-participle (6.6.2.5)
PURP-purposive (7.5.1.1)
Q-interrogative (7.2.1)
QUAL-qualitative predication
(7.3)
RDP-reduplicated form
(= masdar, 4.3.2; 6.6.2.1).
Only
the stem is reduplicated.
REC-reciprocal (6.3.5)
REFL-reflexive (6.5.1)
REP-repetition (with converbs,
intensification, "echo-words",
plurality). Repetition of an
entire phonological word.
SEQ-sequential converb (6.6.2.3)
SG-singular (5.4; 6.2)
S:ITER-semel-itemative (6.5.2)
SUD-suddenness (6.5.6)
TE:MP-temporal ("relative
clause") (7.6)
TOTAL-totality (6.5.4)
TR-transitive
V2-Aktionsart marker or "v2"
following semantic base of
predicate and preceding TAM
markers (6.5)
VOC-vocative
-w-, -y-hiatus-breaking glides

ABBREVIATIONS OF SOURCES
BG Biligiri, H.S. 1965. Kharia: Phonology, grammar and vocabu
lary. Poona: Deccan College, Postgraduate and Research Insti
tute. (Building Centenary and Silver Jubilee Series, 3).
HJPa Pinnow, Heinz-Jiirgen. 1965a. Kharia-Texte (Prosa und Poesie).
Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz
HJPb Pinnow, Heinz-Jiirgen. 1965b. "Der Wertiger" und andere
Geschichten in
Kharia, aufgezeichnet von Junas Kullu, ubersetzt
und mitgeteilt unter Mitwirkung von Paulus
Kerketta." Indo-Ira
nian Journal 911: 32--68.
RR Roy, Sarat Chandra & Ramesh Chandra Roy. 1937. The Khiiriiis.
Ranci: Man in India.
Sources
of the type
"[AK, 1:2]" refer to examples from my own corpus.
These examples are abbreviated as follows: E.g., in [AK, 1 :2], "AK"
refers to the speaker and "1 :2" to the text and text-line in my corpus,
respectively. Thus, [AK, 1
:2] refers to the second line of the first text by
the speaker AK.
Full-length examples for which no source is given are from my own
interviews and conversations. All other examples are cited in the usual
format.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION: THE KHARIA LANGUAGE
1. 1 GENERAL INrn.ooucnoN
Kharia is a South Munda language spoken primarily in eastern central
India in the southwestern areas
of the state of Jharkhand (mainly in the
districts Simdega and Gumla) and adjoining areas
of the states of Chat
tisgarh (primarily in the districts Surguja, Jashpur and Raigarh) and
Orissa
(especially in Sundargarh District). It is also spoken by large numbers of
speakers in regions further to the east and south, as well as by smaller
numbers further afield (cf. the discussions and map in Ishtiaq, 1999:
41:ff.). The largerst number
of speakers probably reside in the Simdega
and Gumla districts
of Jharkhand. Map 1 shows the location of the states
of Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and
Orissa (shaded) within India while Map 2
shows the districts where Kharia is predominantly spoken in these states.
According to Lewis (2009),
1 there is also a considerable number of speakers
in Assam and smaller communities elsewhere, including West Bengal and
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The language described in the present
study is that spoken in Simdega and Gumla Districts, Jharkhand, as well
as in Birmitrapur, on the Orissa side of the Jharkhand-Orissa border.
Kharia is a predominantly agglutinating language, and virtually all
grammatical marking is expressed through enclitics, although there is also
a limited number
of derivational suffixes, one prefix and two infixes, one
of which appears either as a prefix or infix. The language is generally
predicate-final, although not rigidly so, and the order
of the Case-syntag
mas
("NPs") is determined primarily through their pragmatic status, with
topical elements appearing first, followed
by focal elements. There are
only two overtly expressed cases, the genitive and the oblique, the latter
being used to mark a variety
of argument-types, including (specific
and definite) direct objects,
"indirect objects", as well as adjuncts of
various types.
Perhaps the most striking characteristic
of the language is the virtually
total lack
of evidence for lexical categories such as noun, verb and adjective,
1 http: //www.ethnologu.e.com/show
_language.asp?code=khr

2 CHAPTER ONE
Map 1: The States of Jharlchand, Chatlisgarh and Orissa in eastern central India.

INTRODUCTION DIE KHARIA LANGUAGE 3
N
t
Bihar
Map
2: The districts where Kharia is predominantly spoken.

4 CHAP1ERONE
at least in the Simdega dialect, and predicates (~ Vs) and their comple
ments(~ NPs) are in fact based on syntactic structures, not lexical units.
Typologically speaking, Kharia resembles a large number
of other
South Asian languages in many respects and can probably be considered
as belonging to what is often termed the South Asian linguistic area or
Sprachbund, although a precise characterization of this area has so far
eluded researchers. For example, Kharia possesses all five
of the criteria
discussed at length in Masica (1976) as typical
of the South Asian lin
guistic area, namely head-final order, morphologically marked causatives
(and double causatives), the presence
of sequential converbs (or
"con
junctive participles"), explicator verbal auxiliaries, referred to here as
''v2s", i.e., markers of Aktionsart which derive from earlier contentive
morphemes (usually verbs in languages for which this class may be
assumed to exist), and "dative subjects", i.e., constructions in which the
experiencer appears in a case other than the nominative (or the direct
case, as it is termed here) and in which the stimulus is the grammatical
subject
of the construction.
However, as Masica himself notes, these five criteria are to a certain
extent rather arbitrary, and it could well be argued that at least most
of
them are nothing out of the ordinary for a predicate-final language. In
fact, a number of other researchers have proposed numerous possible cri
teria over the past several decades, many
of which are summarized in
Masica (1976, Appendix A), going back at least to Emeneau's (1956)
seminal study.
More recent studies are increasingly taking data on languages into
account which have only become available in the past few decades, espe
cially on languages
of the east and northeast. Some of the more recent
studies in this area include Ebert, 1993; 1998; 1999; Ebert
& Neukam,
2000; Moral, 1997; Neukam, 1999. Another innovative study in the field
of contact linguistics is Donegan & Stampe (2004 ), in which the authors
argue that much
of the common structure of the Munda and Indo-Aryan
languages can be traced back to prosodic features.
It is hoped that the
present study will, among other things, prove useful in future studies in
this field, especially since detailed descriptions
of the Munda languages
from a typological perspective are often lacking.
Kharia is often spoken in multi-lingual communities, where its speak
ers are in daily contact with speakers
of Sadri,
2 the traditional lingua
2 Or
"Sadani", as it is referred to in most western s1ndies. As the term "Sadri" is pre
ferred
in the region, and
as "Sadani" is actually a cover term for a nwnber of closely
related linguistic varieties, this particular variety will be referred to as Sadri in this study.

INTRODUCTION 1HE KHARIA LANGUAGE 5
franca of the region, and Hindi (both Indo-Aryan), Mundari (North
Munda) and Kurukh
3 (North Dravidian). In
Orissa speakers of Kharia are
also in close contact with speakers
of
Oriya (Indo-Aryan). All speakers
of Kharia whom this author has met are multilingual and speak Kharia,
Sadri and Hindi fluently. Occasionally, Kharia speakers will also have
some fluency in other languages
of the region, such as Mundari, if they
have close contact with these other groups. Conversely, speakers
of other
languages in the region occasionally have some degree
of fluency in Kha
ria
if they live in predominantly Kharia-speaking areas. Many Kharia also
have some degree
of fluency in English.
The standard name
of the language and people is
kha[iya [k~.tija],
written <Kharia> in English, but many speakers feel that the form khe[iya
[klle. ti .j a] is more correct. The etymology of this term is unclear. Konow
(Grierson, 1906 [1994]: 190) notes a suggestion which connects the term
to the Proto-Munda word for 'person' Although this is uncontroversial
in the case
of the North Munda languages and peoples, who refer to
themselves and their languages as either
Joe or ho (both of which mean
'man, person' in the respective languages), the cognate form in Kharia is
kar, and there remain a number of problems with such a derivation, espe
cially the aspiration in the name kha[iyalkhe[iya. A number of other
popular or "folk" etymologies have also been proposed (see Kullii, 2000:
3-7 for an overview), perhaps the two most interesting of which are the
following: In one suggestion, the name is claimed to derive from the
Kharia word kho[i 'village section', as the Kharia-speaking population
often lives together in individual sections
of multi-lingual villages. Another
derives the name from an
Indo-Atyan word for 'white clay, chalk', cf.
Hindi kha[iya. The etymology of this term awaits further study.
There are three groups which are generally classified together as
Kharia-the dudh Kharia ( cf. Hindi
dildh, Sadri dudh 'milk'), the Q.elki
or Q.helki Kharia, and the Hill Kharia. Of these three groups, apparently
only the Dudh and D(h)elki Kharia speak Kharia, whereas the Hill Kharia
speak Indo-Atyan languages closely related to Bengali and Oriya.
4
3 Kurukh is also often referred to as "Oraon". The language is also spoken in some areas
in southern Nepal, where it is known as "Dhangar".
4 Malhotra (1982: 1) mentions a group known as Sabbars, in Norfu Orissa, who speak
Kh.aria, al1hough she gives no further data It is possible that 1his is in fact a group of Hill
Kharia who s1ill speak Kh.aria, as 1here is some confusion with respect to the name "Sab
bar" and whe1her or not 1his is a group ofKharia (cf. e.g. Roy & Roy, 1937: 30f.). Interest
ingly, Roy
& Roy (1937: 31) note
that "The Hill Kh.aP.as [sic!), like 1he present Savara
tribe of Orissa, have at the present day no language of 1heir own but have adopted the

6 CHAP1ERONE
It is generally asswned that there are two main dialects of Kharia cor
responding to the division between the Dudh and D(h)elki Kharia, but
this has yet to be confirmed. With the exception of one speaker from
northern Orissa, all other speakers
of Kharia with whom this author has
worked are from the Gwnla and Simdega districts
of southwestern
Jharkhand, all
of whom are speakers of the
"Dudh" dialect. The present
study therefore deals only with Dudh Kharia as it is spoken in southwest
Jharkhand and northwest Orissa.
According to the
1971 census, 191,421 people spoke Kharia as their
native language at that time, out
of a total Kharia population of 321,190
(data from Abbi, 1993: 543), whereas Grimes (1988: 4
71 ), quoting another
work, gives
111,000-160,000 speakers for roughly the same period. The
present Kharia-speaking population has undoubtedly increased since then,
although it is not clear how many speakers there are. The internet
versions
of the Ethnologue
5 give a total of
278,500 speakers for 1994
(14th edition, 2000) and 292,000 in India for 1997 (15th edition, 2005).
6
The question of whether Kharia is endangered is difficult to answer. In
the short term, it cannot be considered endangered, although the long
term chances of survival are more difficult to assess. As early as Grierson
(1906 [1994]: 190) Kharia was declared to be a dying language, a view
which also found support in Pinnow (1965a: ix, 4ff.). Nevertheless, the
language
probably has more speakers now than at any other point in its
history due to the size
of the ethnic Kharia population, although it seems
that an ever-increasing percentage
of this population is choosing to rear
their children
in either Hindi or Sadri, so that many ethnic Kharia have
neither an active nor a passive command
of the language.
language of1heir neighbours-namely,
OriyQ in Mayurbha.ftj and o1her Orissa States, and
Benf!Pli in Singhbhiirn (Dhalbhiirn), Bankurii and Manbh:iim." For a more recent account
of the Savar (siivar, in Hindi), see Bhagat (2001a), who also notes (Bhagat, 2001a: 18) that
1hey may be connected in some way to 1he Hill Kharia.
Note also that Risley (1891 [1998], II: 241:ff.) writes of a tribe named "Savar, Sabar,
Saur, Sar, Sayar, Suir,
Swirl"
and considers 1hern a Dravidian tribe, noting however that
o1her authors consider 1hern "Kolarian", i.e. Munda, a view which he rejects as he consid
ers the linguistic evidence to be "meagre and inconclusive" (Risley, 1891 [1998]: 242).
The confusion in 1he literature Wldoubtedly derives from 1he fact that there are two
languages, Sora I Savara (Munda) and Savar (Dravidian), both spoken in Andhra Pradesh
(cf. Lewis, 2009, under "Sora" and "Savara", respectively), in addition to 1he presumably
Kharia Sabbar of Orissa. Further research on this topic is necessary.
5 See note 1 above.
6 Note also that 1he number of speakers given in the 151h edition of 1he Ethnologue for
all speakers in bo1h India and Nepal is only slightly higher 1han the number of speakers in
India: 293,575. The number of speakers for India is given as the same in 1he 16th edition
(Lewis, 2009), al1hough the figure for all countries is slightly higher: 293,580.

INTRODUCTION 1HE KHARIA LANGUAGE 7
There is a growing movement to promote Kharia, both through various
organizations as well
as in the schools.
On the other hand, the increas
ingly high level
of education is bringing the Kharia in their daily lives
more and more into contact with Hindi and other languages, while oppor
tunities for speaking Kharia are becoming fewer.
Only time will tell to
what extent present attempts at preserving the language are successful.
Although the language has certainly taken on a large number
of traits
from Indo-Aryan (cf. Malhotra, 1982 and Abbi, 1993; 1997), it has sur
vived up to the present and the number
of people speaking it has even
increased substantially in the past
30 years, despite all earlier forecasts.
1.2
GENETIC
AFFILIATIONS
The Munda languages together form the western branch of the Austro
Asiatic phylum, which extends from Central India to Vietnam. The phy
lum, whose genetic relationship was demonstrated beyond any doubt in
Pinnow's (1959) excellent overview
of the
family,? can be divided into
two major groups, Munda and Man-Khmer.
The Munda languages strectch from central India to eastern central
India, with a few pockets further to the northeast and elsewhere, due
mainly to migration which began in the 19th century. The Man-Khmer
languages stretch from Khasi-War in northeastern India in the northwest,
to Vietnam in the east, Malaysia in the southeast and the Nicobar Islands
in the southwest.
In the genetic scheme
of Munda given in Zide (1969), Kharia and
Juang make up the (South-) Central branch
of Munda.
8 This scheme,
which has probably been the most influential genetic model
of the Munda
languages, is illustrated in Diagram
1. 1. This model has been questioned
by a number
of authors, however. Although we will not deal here in any
detail with the genetic affiliations
of the various Munda languages, it
should be noted that in Anderson's
(2001) scheme, Proto-Juang and
Proto-Kharia(-Gutob-Remo) went separate ways at an early date, although
Anderson does note that Kharia and Juang share many common traits. As
Anderson (2001: 32) himself notes, the question of internal relationships
within South Munda is still very much an unsettled issue.
7 In addition to other studies of his on this topic, e.g. Pinnow
(1960; 1963).
8 For a brief description of Juang, see Matson (1964) and Patnaik (2008).

8 CHAP1ERONE
Proto-Munda
Proto-South Munda
Proto-Koraput Munda
~
Proto
Sora-Gorum
Proto-Gutob- Proto-
Remo-Gata1 Central Munda
1 ~I\
Proto-NorthMunda
Sora Gorum Gutob Remo Gata1 Kharia Juang
Korwa
etc.
Diagram 1.1: A genetic scheme of the Munda languages
(Zide, 1969: 412)
1.3 PREVIous Srooms ON nm KHAluA AND WHAT nns STUDY ADos
1.3 .1 Previous works
The Kharia are one of the best studied Munda groups and studies on their
language and culture date back to the 19th century. However, the first
major work dealing with the Kharia language is Pinnow (1959), a
German-language work on Kharia phonology, predominantly from a his
torical perspective. Despite the fact that it is now somewhat dated, it is
nevertheless still standard reading for anyone interested in historical
Munda and Austro-Asiatic linguistics.
A number
of other works by Pinnow should also be mentioned here,
as they are also basically compulsory reading for anyone interested in
Kharia or Munda linguistics: Pinnow (1965a) is a large collection
of texts
in Kharia, accompanied
by a word-for-word translation, a free translation
in German and detailed notes. Pinnow (1965b) is a shorter collection
of
the same type, also in German, but without the word-for-word translation.
These last two works provide a valuable resource for anyone wishing to
study almost any aspect
of Kharia, including to a certain extent language
change,
as these texts were collected ca. fifty years ago.
Unfortunately, these two works have never received the attention which
they deserve: Despite the high quality
of the texts, the translations, and
the copious notes, for those who do not read German these texts are
vir-

INTRODUCTION 1HE KHARIA LANGUAGE 9
tually inaccessible. But even for those who do know German, these texts
will be difficult to interpret
if the reader does not already know Kharia or
is not at least familiar with one other South Munda language. For exam
ple, in Pinnow (1965a) each line is accompanied by a word-for-word
German translation but unfortunately, this is not a gloss in the usual sense
of the term. Rather it is a German translation of the respective (seg
mented) word, e.g.
po'lda-'l 'des Dorfes' (English: 'of the village') and
the reader who is not familiar with Kharia grammar will often have
to guess
as to the proper analysis. Although in this particular case the
difficulties are perhaps minimal
(po'lda 'village', -'l 'GENitive'), in many
cases the non-initiated reader will face the almost insurmountable task
of
determining which part of the German translation refers to which part
of the Kharia word(s). Pinnow (1965b), on the other hand, although of
equally high quality and carefully commented, contains no word-for-word
translation
of the text but only the colloquial German translation and
notes. This will clearly hinder all who do not already know both Kharia
and German from gaining access to these texts.
Roy
& Roy (1937), an ethnological study, is a further standard work
on the Kharia.
It is based on twelve years of research among all three
Kharia groups (Dudh, Dhelki and Hill Kharia)
by S.C. Roy, often referred
to
as the
"father of Indian ethnography", and his son. This work (two
volumes) contains information on virtually all aspects
of Kharia life in
the early twentieth century, with the exception
of the language. It stands
alone in its scope in Munda ethnography and is so detailed that it has even
led one modem scholar to write
of it that
"Later ethnographic accounts
have nothing significant to add" (Pfeffer, 1993: 222). Other, more recent
ethnological studies in English include Pfeffer (1993) on Kharia totemism,
Sinha (1984) on the Hill Kharia, and Vidyarthi
& Upadhyay (1980) on
all three Kharia groups.
A relatively large number
of linguistic studies have also appeared on
Kharia, most
of which are now primarily of interest from a historical
perspective, such as Banerjee (1894 [1982]), the first attempt to describe
the language systematically, Tea Districts Labour Association (1929), a
short but remarkably precise description
of the language, and Floor et al.
(1934), also from the Tea Districts Labour Association, a compact Eng
lish-Kharia, Kharia-English dictionary. While none
of these is up-to-date,
they have played an important role in the history
of Kharia linguistics.
Two further studies on Kharia deserve special mention here: Biligiri
(1965) and Malhotra (1982). Biligiri (1965) is the first full-length study
of the language, including a Kharia-English lexicon, while Malhotra (1982),

10 CHAP1ERONE
the author's unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, is a comprehensive grammar
of Kharia, dealing extensively with all aspects of the language, except
phonology, and including a chapter on language change. These two
studies, although now also somewhat dated, represent the first detailed
descriptions
of the structure of Kharia using the methodology of modern
linguistics, and the present study owes much to their insights (see the
next section for details
of the relation of the present study to these
two studies).
There are also a number
of more recent works on Kharia in English
and German, such as Abbi (1993; 1997), dealing primarily with language
contact and change, Mahapatra (1976) on Juang and Kharia
''verbs",
Rehberg (2003), a German-language Magister-thesis on Kharia phonol
ogy, and Zide
& Stampe (1968) on the place of Kharia-Juang within
Munda. A number
of works by the present author have also recently
appeared or are now in press: Peterson
(2002a) on finiteness in Kharia;
(2005, 2007, in press, a) on parts of speech in Kharia; (2006), this
author's
Habilitation-thesis or
"professorial dissertation", consisting of
three volumes (altogether over 850 pages}--a grammatical analysis (Vol
ume
I), a Kharia-English lexicon (Volume II), and a collection ofKharia
texts (Volume III), the first volume being a thoroughly revised and
expanded version
of an earlier shorter grammar,
(2008), which appeared
in the multi-contributor work
The Munda Languages (Anderson (ed.), 2008); (2009), an online Kharia-English dictionary; (in press, b) on the
totality marker (''v2") may; (forthcoming, a), discussing Kharia's place
within the "Jharkhand Sprachbund"; (forthcoming, b), a prototypical
study
of the middle voice in Kharia from a typological perspective, and
Peterson
& Maas
(2009), dealing with reduplication in Kharia.
Finally, although not dealing primarily with Kharia, Anderson (2007)
should also be mentioned in this respect, which deals with predicating
structures throughout Munda, including Kharia, primarily from a typo
logical perspective. As such, it provides a number
of valuable insights
into the structure
of the
TAMIPERsoN-syntagma c~ ''verb") in Kharia and
Munda languages in general. As the present study is primarily descriptive
in nature and is
of course primarily restricted to Kharia, we cannot deal
with this study further in the present volume, although those interested in
Kharia and Munda from a larger typological perspective will find much
of interest to them there.
The number
of works in Hindi on the Kharia and their language is also
significant:
Ba'l (1983; 2001) deal with Kharia phonology; Bhagat (200 1 b)
is a brief, six-page overview
of the Hill Kharia;
Ow:J<t.UIJ (1986) contains

INTRODUCTION 1HE KHARIA LANGUAGE 11
a brief grammar, a large number of Kharia stories and songs, all accom
panied
by a Hindi translation, as well as a Hindi-Kharia and Kharia-Hindi
glossary;
OwJ<t.UIJ (1999), based on that author's own interviews with the
Dudh and Dhelki Kharia, contains a large amount
of information on all
aspects
ofKharia life;
Sahu (1979/80) and Kullii (1981) are concise gram
mars
of Kharia, the latter also with a glossary, and finally Kullii
(2000)
deals extensively with Kharia religion and culture. Most of these authors
who have written in Hindi are themselves Kharia, so that it is also pos
sible now to speak
of an indigenous scholarly tradition among the Kharia.
In fact, Kharia (culture, language, literature and history) can even be stud
ied at the Department
of Tribal and Regional Languages at Ranchi Uni
versity, where many
of the courses are taught by Kharia.
There is also a growing amount
of literature in Kharia, beginning with
Archer (1942), a collection
of songs and riddles in Kharia, although
unfortunately only some
of these have been translated (see the indices in
Pinnow, 1965a: 284, 286). There are also a number
of partial Bible trans
lations, song-books for the church service and other religious texts, as
well as a translation
of some of Premchand's works. Original work in
Kharia is also on the increase, ranging from poetry and short stories to
drama (e.g. Kerketta, 1990, from which many examples in this work were
taken), and most recently a novel, the first in Kharia (Kullii,
2007).
9
1.3.2 The present study
The present study is the result of research conducted by the author during
five research trips to the state
of Jharkhand over the course of nine years,
amounting to approximately eight months altogether.
10 It benefits from
being able to draw upon earlier works on Kharia, most notably Biligiri
(1965) and Malhotra (1982), as well as the extensive corpus
of texts in
Pinnow (1965a, b), which appeared too early for Biligiri's study, although
Malhotra (1982) was able to make use
of them. However, the present
study also goes beyond the treatment
of the language presented in these
two studies in a number
of respects. In addition to a number of minor
issues concerning, e.g., compounds
(cf Section 4.6), animacy as a gram
matical category (5.1), the anaphoric proform
acf.i (5.6), the ''v2s" or
9 For a more complete list, see: http://www.SouthAsiaBibliography.de/Bibliography/
Austroasiatic!M1Dlda!Kharialkharia.h1rnl
10 I wish to 1hank the Gernan Research FolDldation (Deutsche Forschungrgemeinschaft,
DFG) for two generous grants (PE 872/1-1, 2) which greatly aided me in my research.

12 CHAP1ERONE
markers of Aktionsart (6.5), finiteness (6.6), the "copula" (7.3), "relative
clauses" (7.6) and many other more-or-less minor points, the major dif
ferences between the present study and these two earlier studies are the
following:
-Parts of speech-The major difference between the present study and
these two earlier studies lies in its approach to parts
of speech. Both of
these earlier studies recognize (in addition to a number of other classes)
verbs, nouns, and pronouns, while Malhotra also assumes an adjectival
class.
On the other hand, the present study assumes that there is
one
oPEN class in the lexicon, consisting of all contentive morphemes,
which may all be used in referential, predicative and attributive func
tion (as indeed more complex units or
"phrases" may as well), and a
cLOsED class, which divides into two further sub-classes: FUNCTIONAL
MORPHEMES (case marking, TAM marking, markers for person. number
and honorific status, etc.), which may never be used in referential,
attributive or predicative function. and a small class
of
PROFORMS AND
DEICTics, which may be used referentially and predicatively but which
require the genitive to be used attributively (
cf. Chapter 4). As such,
the present study does not make use
of terminology such as
"noun",
''verb", "adjective", or "noun phrase" Also, and most importantly, the
present study differs in that it shows that virtually all grammatical
marking in Kharia is enclitic (
cf. Chapter 3 ), and not suffixal, and that
this marking attaches to complex syntactic units or "(non-endocentric)
phrases", hence what is at issue in Kharia are less
LEXICAL
CLASSES such
as "noun" and ''verb" than SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES, termed TAMfPER.SON
and Case-syntagmas in this study.
-Basic voice: the active and the
middle-The second major difference
between the present study and these two earlier studies lies in the area
of what Klaiman (1991) refers to as
"basic voice", i.e., active and mid
dle. Biligiri (1965) refers to these two classes as "set 1" and "set 2"
suffixes which take "active" and "neutral" bases, respectively, while for
Malhotra (1982) these two classes are basically "transitive" and "intran
sitive" Section 6.4.2 in the present study is an in-depth investigation
of these two categories in Kharia which goes into considerably more
detail than either
of these two previous studies. In addition, this study
benefits from recent developments in the field
of basic voice and related
topics which have appeared since Malhotra's study.

INTRODUCTION 1HE KHARIA LANGUAGE 13
Scope-Finally, without wishing to belittle the important contribution
made
by the authors of these two previous studies, the present volume
contains considerably more data on the grammar
of Kharia, especially
on morphology and syntax, than these two previous studies. Further
more, as an uncorrected, unpublished manuscript, Malhotra's study can
be quite difficult to obtain and contains a rather large number
of mis
prints and other errors, especially with respect to the presence or
absence
of the glottal stop. The present study is thus more exhaustive
in its treatment
of morphosyntax, however it does not deal with pho
notactics in quite as much detail as Biligiri (1965) nor with language
contact
I change to the extent that Malhotra (1982) does.
1.3
.3 Methodology
The data discussed in the following chapters were obtained primarily
though a) the analysis
of narratives, written short stories and songs, and
b) interviews. Data from informal conversations also occasionally find
their way into this discussion, although to a much less extent. Also,
although the author made every attempt to spend as much time in the
countryside as possible, where Kharia is spoken
by a large percentage of
the population, for reasons of personal safety,
11 this was only possible to
a very small extent, so that most data had to
be obtained working with
Kharia speakers in Ranchi, the capitol
of Jharkhand. However, as there is
a large Kharia-speaking community here, this did not greatly hamper his
work, although the data produced in such surroundings, where Hindi
clearly dominates, may
of course differ to some extent from that used in
the countryside.
11 Throughout much of 1he state of
.Jharldumd (and o1her regions of eastern and eastern
central India) there is a militant insurgency in the cowltryside, referred to by various names
(Maoists, MCC, Naxalites, etc.).
In Jharkhand, these groups are collectively referred to as
the MCC (Maoist Communist, Centre), whose official goal is 1he
installation of a Maoist
state. During this au1hor's first two 1rips to Jharkhand, the center of activities of 1hese
groups shifted from eastern Jharkhand
to western Jharkhand, where
Kharia is spoken,
gradually making
it too dangerous to conduct research in 1he
colDltryside or to be in the
cowttryside after dark, as kidnappings have become quite common. For this reason, as of
the author's 1hird visit, almost all wmk on Kharia had to be conducted in Ranchi due to
its relative safecy.

14 CHAP1ERONE
a. Narratives, written short stories and songs
Most of the data used in this study are from narratives from various
speakers
on topics ranging from the history of the Kharia to their every
day lives. Unfortunately, speakers were often reluctant
to allow their nar
ratives to
be taped without time to prepare them at least mentally (usually
one day). There seem to have been many reasons for this, first and fore
most that most
of the Kharia speakers who this author worked with were
also students ofKharia, who were interested in speaking as
"pure" Kharia
as possible. e.g., using the now virtually defunct Kharia numerals and
other words no longer in general use. Also, they often wanted to
be sure
of details on the
histoty of the Kharia, as these stories are no longer
handed down from one generation to the next, so that many students were
only familiar with them through their studies
at Ranchi University.
There are also a number
of written texts in the corpus, which with one
exception were all written especially for this author: Although none
of the
speakers had been asked to write stories, at one point a speaker approached
this author with a children's story which he had composed and which
he
thought might be of interest. When he found my reaction to be positive,
he began writing more stories, and word of this spread to other speakers
I
had been working with, with the result that I soon had a whole collec
tion
of stories to type, gloss and translate, with offers for more. With the
exception
of the stories written by the person who first presented a story
to me (Mr. Basil Baa, who plans
to publish these stories), all of these
texts were composed
by students of the Department of Tribal and
Regional Languages at Ranchi University who are studying or have
completed their studies in Kharia. With one exception, the texts which
were written especially for me are perhaps best considered
"fairy tales"
or children's stories, in which bread grows on trees and animals speak
and behave as humans. The remaining text, on the other hand, deals
with the case
of a young man with a drinking problem and his conten
tious wife, and the problems this causes.
The one written text which
had not been written especially for this
author is very different from these other texts.
It is an account of the
mythological wanderings
of the Kharia throughout the Middle East and
Rome [sic!], and finally through India to their present home in eastern
central India. The story had been handed down orally in the speaker's
family but had been
put down in writing at some time.
A number
of songs were also included in the corpus. In fact, once I had
asked for a few songs, I was virtually inundated with a large selection to
choose from, two
of which were also composed by the persons who sang

INTRODUCTION 1HE KHARIA LANGUAGE 15
them for me. The corpus contains altogether 30 songs of two types, both
the traditional and very common alorJ, in which one person sings a verse
which is then echoed by others, as well as the durarJ, which is more cer
emonial and which is sung either
by one person or by a group together.
12
Finally, a number of examples from the dramas contained in Kerketta
(1990) are included here, as these dramas deal with life
in the rural areas
of the Kharia heartland and hence provide valuable insights into a register
of Kharia which could not be obtained in narratives, interviews and
conversations.
b. Interviews
Several hundred hours of interviews were conducted during the course of
the five field trips to Jharkhand, primarily with speakers between the ages
of
20 and 35, for practical reasons, although both younger and older
speakers were also consulted whenever possible. The language consul
tants were both male and female, and most were also students or previous
students
of Kharia at the Department of Tribal and Regional Languages
at Ranchi
University. Furthermore, for the most part, speakers had come
to Ranchi only a few weeks before beginning work with this author from
either the district
of Gumla or the district of Simdega in southwestern
Jharkhand. All were
"Dudh" Kharia.
Interviews lasted for ca. 45 minutes and were generally conducted
alone with male consultants but generally in groups
of two female con
sultants, who often initially felt uneasy working alone with a foreign man.
During
my first two visits to Jharkhand in
2001 and 2002, Hindi was the
language
of consultation, except with Mr. Anil Kullu, with whom English
was used. However, beginning with the third trip to Jharkhand in
2003,
all interviews were conducted monolingually in Kharia.
As the group
of consultants who I worked with on a regular basis
became smaller over the course
of the years, and as the discussions
between myself and this group
of speakers became more routine-like,
interviews were also often conducted in groups
of up to six speakers,
especially when dealing with topics such as parts
of speech or the mean
ing
of contentive morphemes in the active and middle, topics on which
there were often considerable differences
of opinion which, as it turned
out, were generally due
to geographic factors, with speakers from
12 The entire
COl]lUS can be downloaded under: http://www.sou1hasiabibliography.de/
Bibliography/Aus1roasia1i.c/Munda!Kh.aria/kh.ariah1rnl

16 CHAP1ERONE
southern and western Simdega district in one group and those from other
regions in the other. Where such differences
of opinion were noted, the
variety
of the
"Simdega" group is discussed in this grammar in detail, and
the other variety, referred to here for ease
of reference as the
"Gumla"
variety, is mentioned in passing.
My main consultants for Simdega Kharia, and with that, for the present
grammar, were Mr. Basil Baa, Mrs. Rayern Olern Baa (formerly Dung
dung), and Mr. Anil Kullu, and the present grammar owes considerable
debt to the unfailing intuitions
of these three speakers.
Other speakers
with whom I also worked extensively include
Ms. Tarkeleng
Kullu, Mr.
Anugrah Kullu, Ms. Rose Dungdung, Ms. Saroj Kerketta, Mr. Silvester
Kerketta,
Ms. Anita Soreng, Mr. Dilip Soreng, Mr. Pratap Soreng, and
Mr. Marianus Tete. All
of these speakers were between
20 and 35 during
the eight years during which most interviews were conducted. Further
more, a number
of narratives were collected from Mr. Marcus Soreng
from Birmitrapur, Orissa, who at the time
we met was around
70 years
of age. These were then analyzed with the above-mentioned speakers.
I also had a few opportunities to work with a group of young men, aged
17-18, referred to collectively as the "Kharia Boys" of St. Alois Minor
Seminary in Ranchi: San
jay Dung Dung, Edwin R. Dung Dung, Ajit Ker
ketta, Alexzendar Kerketta, Pavan Prakash Kerketta, Ravi Kujur, Ranjit Kullu, Samir Kullu, Vinay Kullu, Alok Soreng, Anil Soreng, and Shi
lanan Tete. Through these speakers
I gained some insight into Kharia as
younger
speakers-at the time still in school-speak Kharia.
I also greatly profited from conversations on Kharia, both grammar and
lexicon, with the late Mr. Stanislas
Kullu, father of Mr. Anil Kullu, and
at that time president of the All-India Kharia Society, who also worked
with Heinz-Jiirgen Pinnow. Mr. Kullu welcomed
me into his family and
his
home in Saldega
(salcf.a?) in the vicinity of Simdega for as long as
was possible, during which time
I was in a largely Kharia-speaking envi
ronment and was able to record a number
of traditional songs and learn
a number
of facts about Kharia as it is spoken in the countryside, before
having to return to Ranchi for reasons
of safety.
1.4 SoME TERMINOLOGICAL IssuES
There are a number of terminological issues which arise in a description
of Kharia which do not arise for many other languages. Although the

INTRODUCTION 1HE KHARIA LANGUAGE 17
terms used throughout this study may seem somewhat irritating to the
reader at first sight, they are necessary for a number of reasons which will
be dealt with in the following chapters. The reader should have little
trouble in adjusting to them quickly, as they introduce few concepts with
which most linguists are not already familiar, although their use in a
grammatical description is perhaps somewhat unusual. The present chap
ter introduces these terms only very briefly, serving as a general point
of
reference for the reader. For further discussion, the reader should consult
the relevant chapters mentioned in the text below.
1.4.1
"Contentive morphemes and semantic bases" vs.
"roots and stems"
As will be shown in chapters 2 and 3, virtually all functional or gram
matical markers in Kharia are enclitic, not
a:ffixal, although there are a
few derivational affixes. These enclitic markers include markers for case,
TAM, person/number/honorific status, etc. As such, units which correspond
to
"roots" and "stems" in other languages often have a different status in
Kharia: The supposed "root" in Kharia is a syntactically relevant unit, to
which such enclitic grammatical markers may attach in the SYNTAX, hence
the term "root" does not seem appropriate, as it implies a unit at a level
below that
of the
"word" which is transformed into a word through deri
vational and inflectional processes.
Similar comments also hold for supposed "stems" in Kharia, derived
from the "roots" via any one of a number of different processes (redupli
cation, infixation, etc.): These too are syntactically relevant ''words" to
which enclitics attach in the syntax and as such are
not
"stems" in the
usual sense.
To avoid these terminological problems, the current grammar uses the
term
"(underived) contentive morphemes" to refer to these most basic,
underived units c~ "roots"), and "derived forms" to refer to contentive
morphemes which have undergone some form
of derivation (reduplica
tion, reciprocal or causative marking, etc.)
(~ "stems"). Furthermore, as
both an (underived) contentive morpheme as well as a derived form can
serve as the semantic base
of a referential, predicative or attributive
unit,
the terms "semantic base" or "semantic head" will often be used in this
study as a cover term for both contentive morphemes and derived
forms.

18 CHAP1ERONE
1.4.2 "Case-and TAMIPERSoN-syntagmas" vs. "nouns,
verbs and adjectives"
It will be argued in Chapter 4 that, while it may not be impossible to
speak
of lexical parts of speech in Kharia such as nouns, verbs and adjec
tives, the simplest description
of this language makes no reference to
these units, as all contentive
morphemes-indeed all syntactically rele
vant
"phrases"-can appear in predicative, referential or attributive func
tion. As such, the present grammar makes no use
of these categories. It
should be remembered here that-at least from the perspective of the
structuralist tradition, to which this author feels
bound-the universality
of lexical parts of speech is an EMPIRICAL QUESTION, not a self-evident fact
of life. As such, those who wish to argue that Kharia can be shown to
have nouns and verbs, e.g., with rampant conversion at the level
of syntax
or with zero verbs which are unique among all morphemes in their syn
tactic distribution. are free to do so, but the present grammar aims only
to present as simple an account as possible for the structures encountered
and to make as few theoretical assumptions as necessary in the process.
Viewed from this perspective,
if the presence of nouns, verbs, adjec
tives, etc. is not a necessity for an adequate description
of Kharia, it will
not do to speak here
of"nouns", "verbs" and "adjectives"-and certainly
not
of
"nouns used as verbs" and "verbs used as nouns"-nor of "noun
phrases", "adjective phrases", etc. In many ways this is highly unfortu
nate, as it also entails not being able to employ terms which most readers
expect to find.
However, the structure
ofKharia presents a simple alternative to these
categories. As will be argued in Chapter 4, there are two structurally
definable, clause-level units in Kharia which will
be referred to as the
"Case-syntagma", as case is its only defining structure, and the "TAM!
PERBON-syntagma", as this unit is defined solely by these categories. Oth
erwise, the semantic base of these two units has the same structural poten
tial.13 Although we cannot go into the functions of these two units at this
point in any detail, it should
be noted that this is a
PURELY STRUCTURAL
definition and nothing is implied here with respect to the functions of
these two units: Although there is a strong TENDENCY for the TAMIPERsoN-
13 These terms are motivated by the labels ''rAM syntagrn" and ''article syntagm" for
Tongan
in Broschart (1997), although there are also considerable differences between the
s1ructures
in the two
languages. I prefer the form syntagma, but will use an English-style
plural form: syntagmas.

INTRODUCTION 1HE KHARIA LANGUAGE 19
syntagma to be used in predicative function and the Case-syntagma to be
found in referential function, both units can be found in both functions,
and both are also quite common in attributive function. Hence, while the
present study does not employ notions such as "noun", "adjective" and
''verb", no problems should arise for the reader in adapting to the termi
nology
in the present study, as the two syntagmas are referred to purely
by their structure.
14
1.4.3
"Marker of qualitative predication" vs. "copula"
In Kharia, as in perhaps most other languages, there are two major types
of predication, based on the structure of the predicate: narrative and qual
itative predication, corresponding roughly to verbal and nominal predica
tion in English. This is discussed in some detail in section 6.1. While
the remainder
of Chapter 6 is then dedicated to the structure of thenar
rative predicate (or rather, the
TAMIPERsoN-syntagma), qualitative predi
cation is dealt with in detail in Section 7.3 where among other things it
is argued that there is no copula
in Kharia in the usual sense of the term
but rather, what translates as some form of the copula
("be") in English
and many other languages is best viewed as a marker
of qualitative
predication. Hence, these forms will consistently be glossed as
"QuAL" in
this study to refer to "marker of qualitative predication"
1.5 KHAluA OR.moGRAPHY AND nm SYsTEM oF TRANSLITERATION USED HERE
Kharia has traditionally only rarely been used in its written form: Although
most Dudh Kharia are literate, with some estimates running as high as
over 90%, since education is generally in English or Hindi medium and
since Hindi is spoken
by virtually all Kharia, when the need arises to put
something down in writing, this has traditionally been done in Hindi.
When Kharia is written, the Devanagari script is almost always used,
which is also used for Hindi, Sadri and a large number
of other Indo
Aryan languages. There
is also a small movement which aims at introducing
an orthography based
on the Roman alphabet. This movement, however,
is currently very limited in terms
of the number of its supporters.
14
Units may of course also be referred to in a particular context according to whether
they appear
in predi.cative, referential or
attributive function, where appropriate.

20 CHAP1ERONE
Although almost all Kharia would thus probably agree that Devanagari
is the proper medium for writing their language, there is as
yet no gener
ally accepted standard orthography, neither
1. for the representation of
certain sounds, particularly the glottal stop and the pre-glottalized conso
nants, nor
2. for the question of when to write
"words" together or sepa
rately. The following presents a brief overview
of the script and the issues
involved.
1.5.1
The script
The Devanagari writing systems in common use for Kharia differ from
one another only minimally. All have in common that each segmental
phoneme is generally represented by a single symbol, the one which
comes closest to it in the Devanagari script. There are only four regular
deviations from this phonemic practice:
1.
l<tf and lqh/, which are generally realized intervocalically as [r] and
[('], respectively, are written as <r> (~) and <rh> (~) if they are spo
ken as such.
2. lgl in the coda, which is realized as [1] and generally followed by an "echo-vowel" in slow speech, is written as a glottal stop in the fashion
that the respective writer chooses to represent this symbol (see below).
The glottal stop is also often not written at all, as
it is commonly omit
ted in normal or fast speech.
3. Plosives in the coda are frequently realized as pre-glottalized stops
(2.2.2). Here the oppositions [±voiced] and [±aspirated] are neutral
ized as well
as the opposition between dental and retroflex. There are
only three pre-glottalized stops:
<"lb> (lb 'm], <1q> P<t''~] and <1j> (lfP].
Although the pre-glottalized consonants are not phonemes but merely
allophones
of the corresponding, non-pre-glottalized plosives, writers
generally prefer to represent these symbols distinctly
by one of the
means discussed below.
4. Vowel length, which is specified in Devanagari but which is not pho
nemic in Kharia, is generally written as it is pronounced, although this
is seldomly consistently applied, and writers tend to oscillate between
long and short vowels for the same words even in shorter texts. Vowel
length is indicated in Devanagari for
lui and Iii; [~]-[A] is represented
by a "short a", whereas [a] is written as a "long a", again although

INTRODUCTION 1HE KHARIA LANGUAGE 21
this distinction is not distinctive in Kharia. Vowel length is not indi
cated in Devanagari for /o/ and /e/.
15
The various systems in current use only differ from one another in one
respect: The means
of representing the glottal stop and pre-glottalized
consonsants, for which there are no symbols in the Devanagari script.
There are four strategies that this author is aware
of for dealing with these
sounds, which while not phonemic (except for the glottal stop, which is
marginally phonemic), are nevertheless very prominent features
of the
spoken language.
1. Glottalization is not indicated at all. Although this is relatively
com
mon practice, this strategy does not seem to have not been adopted
by any organization striving for a standardized orthography.
2. The glottal stop is symbolized by writing the short vowel twice to
indicate the "echo-vowel", which often follows the glottal stop in slow
speech (e.g. <oo> (ai'tail), [o1"] 'house'). While this strategy is consis
tently used to indicate glottalized vowels, it cannot be used
to indicate the pre-glottalized consonsants. In this system,
if pre
glottalized consonants are to be indicated, they are symbolized by
writing the corresponding plosive followed by its homorganic nasal,
joined together by the
symbol" ... :: E.g., while [a1"] is written as <aa>
(arar), Ph 'm] is written as <bm.> ~). This seems to be the oldest strat
egy for representing glottalization and is generally found in literature
on or in Kharia which was printed before the year 2000. Since then, it
would seem that the following strategy has gained ground in published
materials.
3. The glottal stop is consistently realized by the anugrah (
s ), if this
symbol is available on the keyboard being used, otherwise the
visarg
(:) is used.
16 This strategy has been adopted by the All-India Kharia
15 The reasons [a]-[A] is treated as ''short d' and [a] as ''long a" lie in the Sanskrit
grammatical tradition, in which ''short a" becomes "long a" in certain grammatical opera
tions. Similarly, /o/ and /e/ in Sanskrit are treated as diphthongs, not monophthongs, and
are grammatically related to !u/-/iil and /il-tJ./, respectively. Hence <o> and <e> aie inher
ently long in Devanagari, but are used in Kharia to represent all allophones of /e/ and /o/,
regardless ofleng1h or quality.
16 Neither the anugrah nor the visarg has any phonetic value in Hindi or Sadri, except
in Sanskrit (Old Indo-Aryan) loan words. In Sanskrit, both symbols fulfill very different
fimc1ions.

22 CHAP1ERONE
Society and has recently been propagated by this organization as the
correct means
of writing the glottal stop. As
yet, however, it has not
gained general acceptance in every-day use, although it seems to be
becoming the accepted norm in printed materials (but see point 4
below). This strategy is consistently used both with glottalized vowels
and pre-glottalized stops. Thus [a?"]= <a?> (ars), Pb'm] = <"lb> (sil").
4. It has been brought to the attention of this author that a fourth system
has not only been proposed for representing glottalization but that this
has also been accepted by "the government" as the official orthograph
ical symbol for representing glottalization in Kharia, although it
has not yet been possible to confirm this.
In this system, the apostro
phe
" ' " from Roman script is used, whether to represent a glottalized
vowel or a pre-glottalized stop. Thus <o'> for [~1'] 'house', and <'b>
for (lb'm].
In the present study, Kharia is represented through a transliteration of the
written language, using the symbol
<1> for the glottal stop in the coda
(or preceding the
"echo-vowel"), e.g. <o1> for [~1'], and representing
pre-glottalized consonants with the symbol <1>, e.g. <"lb> for pb 'm].
Although strategy (4) above would have been a much simpler means for
representing the glottal stop, at least from a technical point
of view, the
vast majority
of our texts had already been collected before this recent
development had been brought to our attention. Also, following Pinnow
and other authors, we
do not differentiate between
[a]~[A] and [a], which
are transliterated here simply as <a>, nor is vowel length indicated, which
is non-phonemic.
This same system
of transliteration will also be applied here when
quoting examples from other authors and will not be commented on fur
ther. Similarly, we also occasionally take the liberty
of adapting other
authors' glossing to fit the system used in this study, again generally
without further comment.
Table
1.1 presents in three columns the various symbols of the system
of transliteration used here and its Devanagari equivalents.
17 The order
here follows that used in Peterson
(2009) and is based primarily on the
order
of the English
alphabet, with some modifications. Note that this is
not the order in which Devanagari is presented in dictionaries, which
begin with the vowels, followed by the consonants.
17 The
consonants are given here in Devanagari in their fonn with the so-called ''inher
ent
a"
or ''short a".

INTRODUCTION 1HE KHARIA LANGUAGE 23
Table 1.1: The system of transliteration used here and its Devanagari
equivalents
Row 1 Row2 Row3
Transliteration Devanagari Transliteration Devanagari Transliteration Devanagari
1 :, 5,' h l1 p
t[
a ar, 3fT i ~. f ph (= [f], [Iif]) q;
b ... j (= [J], [~]) ;;r ( ~
bh 'J jh (= [Jh], [~h] if (h c;;
c (= [c], [!f]) 'if k ifi r
' ch (=[ch],[t]) "9" kh u s fl
<l
<I 1 or
t
c:
<lh "i m l'f th 0
d q
IJ
& t q
dh !J J1
~ th 'l'
e ~ IL
"'
u <f,<l>
g tT n if w if
gh
'I![ 0 it y (= U]) If
Aspiration is represented in this system by <h>, not <h>. Where the sys
tem used here and IPA differ considerably, the corresponding IPA value
is given in parentheses in the table.
18
The Devanagari system is in fact much more complex than this simple
table suggests, as the vowels have different representations, depending on
whether or
not they are preceeded by a consonant in a written word. The
following presents a few examples to demonstrate this.
1. No preceding consonant in the written word: <a>
or <i> ~ <u> ;o
Preceding consonant in the written word: <ta> cr <ti> f<r <tu> ~
Also, a number of consonants and vowels have different forms when they
combine with certain other segments, especially <r>. For details, the
reader is referred to the discussion
of the writing system in any introduc
tory Hindi course, as the principles involved are essentially the same in
Kharia as those used in Hindi orthography.
18 I use 1he
IPA symbols to represent 1he retrofiex/postalveolars, not the Indological
system, which is found
in many grammars of
South Asian languages. Thus I write <q>,
<cth>, <t>. <tj:l>, <p, <th> and <q_> instead of <4>, <Qh>, <t>, <th>, <p, <rh> and <r.t>,
respectively. I also represent 1he velar nasal as <I]> instead of the Indological sign <il> and
the palatal nasal
as
<.J1> instead of <ft.>.

24 CHAP1ERONE
1.5.2 The written word in Kharia
There is also the issue of the written word in Kharia, i.e., when to write
two linguistic units separately or together, which to our knowledge has
not yet been standardized for Kharia. The following principles will be
adhered to here. Details on the status
of affixes, enclitics, pre-and post
positions as well as the phonological word are discussed in detail in
Chapters 2 and
3.
Phonological words are written here as separate words. Phonological
words are those units which have the typical low-high pitch pattern,
including all lexical elements and pre-and postpositions (cf. Section
2.5). Clitics will be considered here to be part
of the written word and
are adjoined to their hosts here by the
sign"="
Elements in compounds (4.6) as well as (derivational) affixes (3.3) are
adjoined to the preceding or following element by the hyphen"-"
Demonstratives and interrogatives are generally written as separate
words, e.g.
ho
o'l 'that house', i o'l 'what house?', except when they
have proclitic status, in which case they are joined to their hosts by the
sign"=", e.g., u=ghay [that=way] 'thus', i=te [what=oBL] 'where?'
1.6
THE STRUCTURE
OF TinS STUDY
The remainder of this volume is structured as follows: Chapter 2 deals
with phonological issues, beginning with vowels (2.1) and consonants
(2.2), syllable structure (2.3) and morphophonology (2.4).
2.5 then deals
in some detail with the issue
of phonological words in Kharia while
Section
2. 6 briefly deals with sentence prosody.
Chapter 3 begins with a discussion in
3.1 of the distributional charac
teristics
of the morphosyntactic enclitics, arguing that these units not only
behave phonologically as enclitics, as shown in 2.5, but also syntactically
as well. These are then classified
in 3.2 according to various criteria, while
3.3 presents a brief discussion of the few derivational
affixes of the language.
Chapter 4 deals with the lexicon, predominantly with the issue
of lexi
cal classes or parts
of speech. After a brief introduction ( 4.1 ), the
"pre
categoriality" of both simple contentive morphemes (4.2) and derived
forms (4.3) is discussed in detail. 4.4 then shows that the issue is in fact
much more complex in Kharia, as what is involved here are not lexical
roots or stems but rather syntactic structures. This information is then
briefly summarized in 4.5. 4.6 deals with what are often considered com-

INTRODUCTION 1HE KHARIA LANGUAGE 25
pounds in Kharia, where it is argued that most of the structures presumed
to be compounds in previous literature are in fact merely juxtaposed con
tentive morphemes which
do not form a tighter unit, although there are a
few genuine compounds in the language, at least from a historical per
spective. Finally, 4.7 deals with a number
of constructions which can be
subsumed under the term
"echo-words" This term, as it is generally used
in South Asian linguistics, refers to what is perhaps more commonly
known under the name
of
"melodic overwriting" in general linguistics.
However, this section will go beyond melodic overwriting in the usual
sense to include a number
of patterns of synonym and antonym repeti
tions as well
as other related patterns, hence the more general heading.
Chapters
5 is a discussion of the structure of the Case-syntagma
(~ "NP") organized for ease of reference more-or-less along the lines of
a discussion of the NP in traditional grammars, dealing with grammatical
categories such as case, number, inalienable possession, modification,
simple, interrogative and indefinite proforms, quantifiers, etc.
Chapter 6 deals with the structure
of the
TAMIPERsoN-syntagma
c~ "verb"). It presents a discussion of the possible structures of the seman
tic base
of the
TAMIPERsoN-syntagma and the basic person I number I
honorfic and TAM categories (6.1--6.4.1). This is followed by a detailed
discussion
of the active and middle in 6.4.2, two categories which per
vade almost the entire
TAM-system. 6.5 then provides an exhaustive list
ing
of the so-called v2s, i.e., grammatical markers denoting the passive
I
reflexive and a variety of Aktionsart categories, markers which often
derive from contentive morphemes. The remainder
of this chapter then
deals with partially finite and non-finite forms (6.6), negation (6.7), peri
phrastic
TAMIPERBON-syntagmas (6.8) and inference (6.9).
In Chapter 7, the major syntactic operations and categories are dis
cussed in detail, such
as grammatical relations (7.1 ), interrogatives (7. 2),
qualitative predication
("nominal" or "copular" sentences) (7.3), clause
coordination and subordination (7.4-7.5), a detailed look at the numerous
strategies for expressing propositional attribution or "relative clauses" in
Kharia (7.6) and closing with a discussion
of information structure (7. 7).
Finally, a short narrative text on Kharia mythology is presented in the
Appendix, dealing with the origin
of the nine major Kharia clans.

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yet occupied, Emmeline chose rather to take up her abode in it, than
partake of the apartment which was now to belong to Mrs. Garnet:
and she found reason to applaud herself for this determination when
she heard the exclamation Mrs. Garnet made on entering it—
'Lord! why 'tis but a shabbyish place; and here is two beds I see. But
that won't suit me I asshore you. I chuses to have a room to myself,
if it be ever so.'
'Be not in any pain on that account, Madam,' said Emmeline, who
had now collected her thoughts; 'it is my intention to remove my
bed, and I have directed a person to do it immediately.'
She then returned into the steward's room, where Maloney thus
addressed her—
'Sarvent again, pretty Miss! Pray how d'ye like our new
housekeeper? A smartish piece of goods upon my word for
Pembrokeshire; quite a London lady, eh, Miss?'
'It is impossible for me, Sir, to judge of her yet.'
'Why ay, Miss, as you justly observes, 'tis full early to know what
people be; but I hope we shall find her quite the thing; and if so be
as she's but good tempered, and agreeable, and the like, why I
warrant we shall pass this here summer as pleasant as any thing can
be. And now my dear Miss, perhaps, may'nt be so shy and distant,
as she have got another woman body to keep her company.'
This eloquent harangue was interrupted by the return of Mrs.
Garnet, full of anxiety for her tea; and in the bustle created by the
desire of the maid and Maloney to accommodate her, Emmeline
retired to her new apartment, where she was obliged to attend to
the removal of her bed and other things; and excusing herself, under
the pretence of fatigue, from returning to the steward's room, she
passed some time in melancholy recollection and more melancholy
anticipation, and then retired to rest.
Some days passed in murmurs on the part of Mrs. Garnet, and in
silence on that of Emmeline; who, as soon as she had finished her

short repasts, always went to her own room.
After a few weeks, she discovered that the lady grew every day
more reconciled to her situation; and from the pleasures she
apparently took in the gallantries of Maloney, and his constant
assiduities to her, the innocent Emmeline supposed there was really
an attachment forming between them, which would certainly deliver
her from the displeasing attentions of the steward.
Occupied almost entirely by her books, of which she every day
became more enamoured, she never willingly broke in upon a tête à
tête which she fancied was equally agreeable to all parties; and she
saw with satisfaction that they regretted not her absence.
But the motives of Maloney's attention were misunderstood.
Insensible as such a man must be supposed to the charms of the
elegant and self-cultivated mind of Emmeline, her personal beauty
had made a deep impression on his heart; and he had formed a
design of marrying her, before the death of Mrs. Carey, to whom he
had once or twice mentioned something like a hint of his wishes: but
she had received all his discourse on that topic with so much
coldness, and ever so carefully avoided any conversation that might
again lead to it, that he had been deterred from entirely explaining
himself. Now, however, he thought the time was arrived, when he
might make a more successful application; for he never doubted but
that Mrs. Garnet would obtain, over the tender and ingenuous mind
of Emmeline, an influence as great as had been possessed by Mrs.
Carey.
Nor did he apprehend that a friendless orphan, without fortune or
connections, would want much persuasion to marry a young man of
handsome figure (as he conceived himself to be,) who was
established in a profitable place, and had some dependance of his
own.
The distance which Emmeline had always obliged him to observe, he
imputed to the timidity of her nature; which he hoped would be
lessened by the free and familiar manners of her present companion,

whose conversation was very unlike what she had before been
accustomed to hear from Mrs. Carey.
Impressed with these ideas, he paid his court most assiduously to
the housekeeper, who put down all his compliments to the account
of her own attractions; and was extremely pleased with her
conquest; which she exhausted all her eloquence and all her
wardrobe to secure.
CHAPTER III
In this situation were the inhabitants of Mowbray Castle; when, in
the beginning of July, orders were received from Lord Montreville to
set workmen immediately about repairing the whole end of the
castle which was yet habitable; as his son, Mr. Delamere, intended to
come down early in the Autumn, to shoot, for some weeks, in Wales.
His Lordship added, that it was possible he might himself be there
also for a few weeks; and therefore directed several bed-chambers
to be repaired, for which he would send down furniture from
London.
No time was lost in obeying these directions. Workmen were
immediately procured, and the utmost expedition used to put the
place in a situation to receive its master: while Emmeline, who
foresaw that the arrival of Lord Montreville would probably occasion
some change in regard to herself, and who thought that every
change must be for the better, beheld these preparations with
pleasure.
All had been ready some weeks, and the time fixed for Mr.
Delamere's journey elapsed, but he had yet given no notice of his
arrival.
At length, towards the middle of September, they were one evening
alarmed by the noise of horses on the ascent to the castle.

Emmeline retired to her own room, fearful of she knew not what;
while Mrs. Garnet and Maloney flew eagerly to the door; where a
French valet, and an English groom with a led horse, presented
themselves, and were ushered into the old kitchen; the dimensions
of which, blackened as it was with the smoke of ages, and provided
with the immense utensils of ancient hospitality, failed not to amaze
them both.
The Frenchman expressed his wonder and dislike by several
grimaces; and then addressing himself to Mrs. Garnet, exclaimed
—'Peste! Milor croit'il qu'on peut subsister dans cette espece d'enfer?
Montré moi les apartements de Monsieur.'
'Oh, your name is Mounseer, is it?' answered she—'Aye, I thought so
—What would you please to have, Mounseer?'
'Diable!' cried the distressed valet; 'voici une femme aussi sauvage
que le lieu qu'elle habite. Com, com, you Jean Groom, speak littel to
dis voman pour moi.'
With the help of John, who had been some time used to his mode of
explaining himself, Mrs. Garnet understood that Mounseer desired to
be shewn the apartments destined for his master, which he
assiduously assisted in preparing; and then seeing the women
busied in following his directions, he attempted to return to his
companion; but by missing a turning which should have carried him
to the kitchen, he was bewildered among the long galleries and
obscure passages of the castle, and after several efforts, could
neither find his way back to the women, nor into the kitchen; but
continued to blunder about till the encreasing gloom, which
approaching night threw over the arched and obscure apartments,
through windows dim with painted glass, filled him with
apprehension and dismay, and he believed he should wander there
the whole night; in which fear he began to make a strange noise for
assistance; to which nobody attended, for indeed nobody for some
time heard him. His terror encreasing, he continued to traverse one
of the passages, when a door at the corner of it opened, and
Emmeline came out.

The man, whose imagination was by this time filled with ideas of
spectres, flew back at her sudden appearance, and added the
contortions of fear to his otherwise grotesque appearance, in a
travelling jacket of white cloth, laced, and his hair in papillotes.
Emmeline, immediately comprehending that it was one of Mr.
Delamere's servants, enquired what he wanted; and the man,
reassured by her voice and figure, which there was yet light enough
to discern, approached her, and endeavoured to explain that he had
lost himself; in a language, which, though Emmeline did not
understand, she knew to be French.
She walked with him therefore to the gallery which opened to the
great staircase, from whence he could hardly mistake his way;
where having pointed it to him, she turned back towards her own
room.
But Millefleur, who had now had an opportunity to contemplate the
person of his conductress, was not disposed so easily to part with
her.
By the extreme simplicity of her dress, he believed her to be only
some fair villager, or an assistant to the housekeeper; and therefore
without ceremony he began in broken English to protest his
admiration, and seized her hand with an impertinent freedom
extremely shocking to Emmeline.
She snatched it from him; and flying hastily back through those
passages which all his courage did not suffice to make him attempt
exploring again, she regained her turret, the door of which she
instantly locked and bolted; then breathless with fear and anger, she
reflected on the strange and unpleasant scene she had passed
through, and felt greatly humbled, to find that she was now likely to
be exposed to the insolent familiarity of servants, from which she
knew not whether the presence of the master would protect her.
While she suffered the anguish these thoughts brought with them,
Millefleur travelled back to the kitchen; where he began an oration in

his own language on the beauty of the young woman he had met
with.
Neither Mrs. Garnet nor Maloney understood what he was saying;
but John, who had been in France, and knew a good deal of the
language, told them that he had seen a very pretty girl, in whose
praise he was holding forth.
'Why, Lord,' exclaimed Mrs. Garnet, 'tis our Miss as Mounseer
means; I had a quite forgot the child; I'll go call her; but
howsomdever Mounseer won't be able to get a word out of her; if
she's a beauty I asshore you 'tis a dumb beauty.'
Maloney, by no means pleased with Millefleur's discovery, would
willingly have prevented the housekeeper's complaisance; but not
knowing how to do it, he was obliged to let her ascend to Emmeline,
whose door she found locked.
'Miss! Miss!' cried she, rapping loudly, 'you must come down.'
'Is my Lord or Mr. Delamere arrived?' enquired Emmeline.
'No,' replied Mrs. Garnet, 'neither of em be'nt come yet; but here's
my Lord's waley de sham, and another sarvent, and you'll come
down to tea to be sure.'
'No,' said Emmeline, 'you must excuse me, Mrs. Garnet. I am not
very well; and if I were, should decline appearing to these people,
with whom, perhaps, it may not be my Lord's design that I should
associate.'
'People!' exclaimed Mrs. Garnet; 'as to people, I do suppose that for
all one of them is a Frenchman, they be as good as other folks; and
if I am agreeable to let them drink tea in my room, sure you, Miss,
mid'nt be so squeamish. But do as you please; for my part I shan't
court beauties.'
So saying, the angry housekeeper descended to her companions, to
whom she complained of the pride and ill manners of Miss; while
Maloney rejoiced at a reserve so favourable to the hopes he
entertained.

Emmeline determined to remain as much as possible in her own
room, 'till Lord Montreville or Mr. Delamere came, and then to solicit
her removal.
She therefore continued positively to refuse to appear to the party
below; and ordered the maid servant to bring her dinner into her
own room, which she never quitted 'till towards evening, to pursue
her usual walks.
On the third afternoon subsequent to the arrival of Mr. Delamere's
avant-couriers, Emmeline went down to the sea side, and seating
herself on a fragment of rock, fixed her eyes insensibly on the
restless waves that broke at her feet. The low murmurs of the tide
retiring on the sands; the sighing of the wind among the rocks which
hung over her head, cloathed with long grass and marine plants; the
noise of the sea fowl going to their nests among the cliffs; threw her
into a profound reverie.
She forgot awhile all her apprehended misfortunes, a sort of stupor
took possession of her senses, and she no longer remembered how
the time had passed there, which already exceeded two hours;
though the moon, yet in its encrease, was arisen, and threw a long
line of radience on the water.
Thus lost in indistinct reflections, she was unconscious of the
surrounding objects, when the hasty tread of somebody on the
pebbles behind her, made her suddenly recollect herself; and though
accustomed to be so much alone, she started in some alarm in
remembering the late hour, and the solitary place where she was.
A man approached her, in whom with satisfaction she recollected a
young peasant of the village, who was frequently employed in
messages from the castle.
'Miss Emmy,' said the lad, 'you are wanted at home; for there is my
Lord his own self, and the young Lord, and more gentlefolks come;
so Madam Garnet sent me to look for you all about.'
Emmeline, hurried by this intelligence, walked hastily away with the
young villager, and soon arrived at the castle.

The wind had blown her beautiful hair about her face, and the glow
of her cheeks was heightened by exercise and apprehension. A more
lovely figure than she now appeared could hardly be imagined. She
had no time to reflect on the interview; but hastened immediately
into the parlour where Lord Montreville was sitting with his son; Mr.
Fitz-Edward, who was a young officer, his friend, distantly related to
the family; and Mr. Headly, a man celebrated for his knowledge of
rural improvements, whom Lord Montreville had brought down to
have his opinion of the possibility of rendering Mowbray Castle a
residence fit for his family for a few months in the year.
Lord Montreville was about five and forty years old. His general
character was respectable. He had acquitted himself with honor in
the senate; and in private life had shewn great regularity and good
conduct. But he had basked perpetually in the sunshine of
prosperity; and his feelings, not naturally very acute, were blunted
by having never suffered in his own person any uneasiness which
might have taught him sensibility for that of others.
To this cause it was probably owing, that he never reflected on the
impropriety of receiving his niece before strangers; and that he
ordered Emmeline to be introduced into the room where they were
all sitting together.
Having once seen Emmeline a child of five or six years old; he still
formed an idea of her as a child; and adverted not to the change
that almost nine years had made in her person and manners; it was
therefore with some degree of surprize, that instead of the child he
expected, he saw a tall, elegant young woman, whose air, though
timidity was the most conspicuous in it, had yet much of dignity and
grace, and in whose face he saw the features of his brother,
softened into feminine beauty.
The apathy which prosperity had taught him, gave way for a
moment to his surprize at the enchanting figure of his niece.
He arose, and approached her. 'Miss Mowbray! how amazingly you
are grown! I am glad to see you.' He took her hand; while

Emmeline, trembling and blushing, endeavoured to recollect herself,
and said—
'I thank you, my Lord, and I am happy in having an opportunity of
paying my respects to your Lordship.'
He led her to a seat, and again repeated his wonder to find her so
much grown.
Delamere, who had been standing at the fire conversing with Fitz-
Edward, now advanced, and desired his father to introduce him;
which ceremony being passed, he drew a chair close to that in which
Emmeline was placed; and fixing his eyes on her face with a look of
admiration and enquiry that extremely abashed her, he seemed to
be examining the beauties of that lovely and interesting countenance
which had so immediately dazzled and surprized him.
Fitz-Edward, a young soldier, related to the family of Lady
Montreville, was almost constantly the companion of Delamere, and
had expectations that the interest Lord Montreville possessed would
be exerted to advance him in his profession. His manner was very
insinuating, and his person uncommonly elegant. He affected to be a
judge as well as an admirer of beauty, and seemed to behold with
approbation the fair inhabitant of the castle; who, with heightened
blushes, and averted looks, waited in silence 'till Lord Montreville
should again address her, which he at length did.
'I was sorry, Miss Mowbray, to hear of the death of old Carey.'
The tears started into the eyes of Emmeline.
'She was an excellent servant, and served the family faithfully many
years.'
Poor Emmeline felt the tears fall on her bosom.
'But however she was old; and had been, I suppose, long infirm. I
hope the person who now fills her place has supplied it to your
satisfaction?'

'Ye—s, yes, my lord;' inarticulately sobbed Emmeline, quite
overcome by the mention of her old friend.
'I dare say she does,' resumed his Lordship; 'for Grant, of whom
Lady Montreville has a very high opinion, assured her Ladyship she
was well recommended.'
Emmeline now found her emotion very painful; she therefore rose to
go, and curtseying to Lord Montreville, tried to wish him good night.
'A good night to you, Miss Mowbray,' said he, rising. Delamere
started from his chair; and taking her hand, desired to have the
honor of conducting her to her room. But this was a gallantry his
father by no means approved. 'No, Frederic,' said he, taking himself
the hand he held, 'you will give me leave to see Miss Mowbray to the
door.' He led her thither, and then bowing, wished her again good
night.
Emmeline hurried to her room; where she endeavoured to recollect
her dissipated spirits, and to consider in what way it would be proper
for her to address Lord Montreville the next day, to urge her request
of a removal from the castle.
Mrs. Carey had a sister who resided at Swansea in Glamorganshire;
where her husband had a little place in the excise, and where she
had a small house, part of which she had been accustomed to let to
those who frequented the place for the benefit of sea-bathing.
She was old, and without any family of her own; and Emmeline, to
whom she was the more agreeable as being the sister of Mrs. Carey,
thought she might reside with her with propriety and comfort, if Lord
Montreville would allow her a small annual stipend for her cloaths
and board.
While she was considering in what manner to address herself to his
Lordship the next day, the gentlemen were talking of the perfections
of the nymph of the castle; by which name Delamere toasted her at
supper.

Lord Montreville, who did not seem particularly delighted with the
praise his son so warmly bestowed, said—
'Why surely, Frederic, you are uncommonly eloquent on behalf of
your Welch cousin.'
'Faith, my Lord,' answered Delamere, 'I like her so well that I think
it's a little unlucky I did not come alone. My Welch cousin is the very
thing for a tête à tête.'
'Yes,' said Lord Montreville, carelessly, 'she is really grown a good
fine young woman. Don't you think so, George?' addressing himself
to Fitz-Edward.
'I do indeed, my Lord,' answered he; 'and here's Mr. Headly, tho' an
old married man, absolutely petrified with admiration.'
'Upon my soul, Headly,' continued Delamere, 'I already begin to see
great capabilities about this venerable mansion. I think I shall take
to it, as my father offers it me; especially as I suppose Miss
Emmeline is to be included in the inventory.'
'Come, come, Frederic,' said Lord Montreville, gravely, 'no light
conversation on the subject of Miss Mowbray. She is under my care;
and I must have her treated with propriety.'
His Lordship immediately changed the discourse, and soon after
complaining of being fatigued, retired to his chamber.
CHAPTER IV
Lord Montreville, whose first object was his son, had observed, with
some alarm, the immediate impression he seemed to have received
from the beauty of Emmeline.
The next day, he made some farther remarks on his attention to her
when they met at dinner, which gave him still more uneasiness; and

he accused himself of great indiscretion in having thrown an object,
whose loveliness he could not help acknowledging, in the way of
Delamere, whose ardent and impetuous temper he knew so well.
This gave his behaviour to Emmeline an air of coldness, and even of
displeasure, which prevented her summoning courage to speak to
him in the morning of the day after his arrival: and the evening
afforded her no opportunity; for Lord Montreville, determined to
keep her as much as possible out of the sight of Delamere, did not
send for her down to supper, and had privately resolved to remove
her as soon as possible to some other residence.
Thus his apprehensions lest his son should form an attachment
prejudicial to his ambitious views, produced in his Lordship's mind a
resolution in regard to placing more properly his orphan niece, which
no consideration, had it related merely to herself, would probably
have effected.
At supper, Delamere enquired eagerly for his 'lovely cousin.' To
which Lord Montreville drily answered, 'that she did not, he believed,
sup below.'
But the manner of this enquiry, and the anxious looks Delamere
directed towards the door, together with his repeated questions,
increased all Lord Montreville's fears.
He went to bed out of humour rather with himself than his son; and
rising early the next morning, enquired for Miss Mowbray.
Miss Mowbray was walked out, as was her custom, very early, no
one knew whither.
He learned also that Mr. Delamere was gone out with his gun
without Fitz-Edward; who not being very fond of field sports, had
agreed to join him at a later hour.
He immediately fancied that Delamere and Emmeline might meet;
and the pain such a suspicion brought with it, was by him, who had
hardly ever felt an hour's uneasiness, considered as so great an evil,
that he determined to put an end to it as soon as possible.

After an hasty breakfast in his own room, he summoned Maloney to
attend him, and went over the accounts of the estates entrusted to
him, with the state of which his Lordship declared himself well
contented. And not knowing to whom else he could apply, to enquire
for a situation for Emmeline, he told Maloney, that as Miss Mowbray
was now of an age to require some alteration in her mode of life, he
was desirous of finding for her a reputable house in some town in
Wales, where she might lodge and board.
Maloney, encouraged by being thus consulted by his Lord, ventured,
with many bows, blushes, and stammering apologies, to disclose to
Lord Montreville his partiality to Miss Mowbray.
And this communication he so contrived to word, that his Lordship
had no doubt of Emmeline's having allowed him to make it.
Lord Montreville listened therefore in silence, and without any marks
of disapprobation, to the account Maloney proceeded to give of his
prospects and property.
While he was doing so, family pride made a faint struggle in his
Lordship's breast on behalf of his deserted ward. He felt some pain
in determining, that a creature boasting a portion of the Mowbray
blood, should sink into the wife of a man of such inferior birth as
Maloney.
But when the advantages of so easily providing for her were
recollected; when he considered that Maloney would be happy to
take her with a few hundred pounds, and that all apprehensions in
regard to his son would by that means for ever be at an end; avarice
and ambition, two passions which too much influenced Lord
Montreville, joined to persuade him of the propriety of the match;
and became infinitely too powerful to let him listen to his regard to
the memory of his brother or his pity for his deserted ward.
He thought, that as the existence of Emmeline was hardly known
beyond the walls of the castle, he should incur no censure from the
world if he consigned her to that obscurity to which the
disadvantages of her birth seemed originally to have condemned her.

These reflections arose while Maloney, charmed to find himself
listened to, was proceeding in his discourse.
Lord Montreville, tho' too much used to the manners of politicians to
be able to give a direct answer, at length put an end to it, by telling
him he would consider of what he had said, and talk to him farther
in a few days.
In the mean time his Lordship desired that no part of their
conversation might transpire.
Maloney, transported at a reception which seemed to prognosticate
the completion of his wishes, retired elated with his prospects; and
Lord Montreville summoning Mr. Headly to attend him, mounted his
horse to survey the ground on which he meditated improvements
round the castle.
The cold and almost stern civility of Lord Montreville, for the little
time Emmeline had seen him, had created despondence and
uneasiness in her bosom.
She fancied he disliked her, unoffending as she was, and would take
the first opportunity of shaking her off: an idea which, together with
the awe she could not help feeling in his presence, made her
determine as much as possible to avoid it, 'till he should give her a
proper opportunity to speak to him, or 'till she could acquire courage
to seek it.
At seven in the morning, she arose, after an uneasy night, and
having taken an early breakfast, betook herself to her usual walk,
carrying with her a book.
The sun was hot, and she went to a wood which partly cloathed an
high hill near the boundary of the estate, where, intent only on her
own sorrows, she could not beguile them by attending to the
fictitious and improbable calamities of the heroine of a novel, which
Mrs. Garnet (probably forgetting to restore it to the library of some
former mistress,) had brought down among her cloaths, and which
had been seized by Emmeline as something new, at least to her.

But her mind, overwhelmed with its own anxiety, refused its
attention: and tired with her walk, she sat down on a tree that had
been felled, reflecting on what had passed since Lord Montreville's
arrival, and considering how she might most effectually interest him
in her behalf.
Delamere, attended by a servant, had gone upon the hills in pursuit
of his game; and having had great success for some hours, he came
down about eleven o'clock into the woods, to avoid the excessive
heat, which was uncommon for the season.
The noise he made in brushing through the underwood with his gun,
and rustling among the fading leaves, alarmed her.
He stepped over the timber, and seating himself by her, seized her
hands.
'Oh! my charming cousin,' cried he, 'I think myself one of the most
fortunate fellows on earth, thus to meet you.'
Emmeline would have risen.
'Oh! no,' continued he, 'indeed you do not go, 'till we have had a
little conversation.'
'I cannot stay, indeed Sir,' said Emmeline—. 'I must immediately go
home.'
'By no means; I cannot part with you.—Come, come, sit down and
hear what I have to say.'
It was to no purpose to resist. The impetuous vehemence of
Delamere was too much for the timid civility of Emmeline; and not
believing that any thing more than common conversation or a few
unmeaning compliments would pass, she sat down with as much
composure as she could command.
But Delamere, who was really captivated at the first, and who now
thought her more beautiful than he had done in their former
interviews, hesitated not to pour forth the most extravagant
professions of admiration, in a style so unequivocal, that Emmeline,

believing he meant to insult her, burst into a passion of tears, and
besought him, in a tremulous and broken voice, not to be so cruel as
to affront her, but to suffer her to return home.
Delamere could not see her terror without being affected. He
protested, that so far from meaning to give her pain, he should think
himself too happy if she would allow him to dedicate his whole life to
her service.
Poor Emmeline, however, continued to weep, and to beseech him to
let her go; to which, as her distress arose almost to agony, he at
length consented: and taking her arm within his, he said he would
walk home with her himself.
To this Emmeline in vain objected. To escape was impossible. To
prevail on him to leave her equally so. She was therefore compelled
to follow him. Which she did with reluctance; while he still continued
to profess to her the most violent and serious attachment. They
proceeded in this manner along the nearest path to the castle, which
lay principally among copses that fringed the banks of the river. They
had just passed through the last, and entered the meadows which
lay immediately under the castle walls, when Lord Montreville and
Headly, on horseback, appeared from a woody lane just before
them.
At the noise of horses so near them, Emmeline looked up, and
seeing Lord Montreville, again struggled, but without success, to
disengage her hand.
Delamere continued to walk on, and his Lordship soon came up to
them. He checked his horse, and said, somewhat sternly, 'So, Sir,
where have you been?'
Delamere, without the least hesitation, answered—'Shooting, my
Lord, the early part of the morning; and since that, making love to
my cousin, who was so good as to sit and wait for me under a tree.'
'For mercy's sake, Mr. Delamere,' cried Emmeline, 'consider what you
say.'

'Waiting for you under a tree!' cried Lord Montreville, in amazement.
'Do Miss Mowbray be so good as to return home.—And you,
Frederic, will, I suppose, be back by dinner time.'
'Yes,' answered Delamere, 'when I have conducted my cousin home,
I shall go out again, perhaps, for an hour before dinner.'
He was then walking on, without noticing the stern and displeased
looks of his father, or the terror of poor Emmeline, who saw too
evidently that Lord Montreville was extremely angry.
His Lordship, after a moment's pause, dismounted, gave his horse to
a servant, and joined them, telling Delamere he had some business
with Miss Mowbray, and would therefore walk with her towards the
castle himself.
Delamere kissed her hand gayly, and assuring his father that for the
first time in his life he felt an inclination to take his business off his
hands, he beckoned to his servant to follow with his dogs, and then
leaping over the hedge that separated the meadow from the hollow
lane, he disappeared.
Emmeline, trembling with apprehension, walked with faultering steps
by the side of Lord Montreville, who for some time was silent. He at
length said—'Your having been brought up in retirement, Miss
Mowbray, has, perhaps, prevented your being acquainted with the
decorums of the world, and the reserve which a young woman
should ever strictly maintain. You have done a very improper thing in
meeting my son; and I must desire that while you are at the castle,
no such appointments may take place in future.'
Tho' she saw, from the first moment of his meeting them, that he
had conceived this idea, and was confirmed in it by Delamere's
speech; yet she was so much shocked and hurt by the address, that
as she attempted to answer, her voice failed her.
The tears however, which streamed from her eyes, having a little
relieved her, she endeavoured to assure his Lordship, that till she
met Mr. Delamere in the wood that morning, she did not know even
of his having left the castle.

'And how happened you to be where he found you, Miss Mowbray?'
'I went thither, my Lord, with a book which I was eager to finish.'
'Oh! I remember that Maloney told me you was a great reader; and
from some other discourse he held relative to you, I own I was the
more surprised at your indiscretion in regard to my son.'
They were by this time arrived at the castle, and Lord Montreville
desired Emmeline to follow him into the parlour, where they both sat
down.
His Lordship renewed the discourse.
'This morning Maloney has been talking to me about you; and from
what he said, I concluded you had formed with him engagements
which should have prevented you from listening to the boyish and
improper conversation of Mr. Delamere.'
'Engagements with Mr. Maloney, my Lord? Surely he could never
assert that I have ever formed engagements with him?'
'Why not absolutely so.—I think he did not say that. But I
understood that you was by no means averse to his informing me of
his attachment, and was willing, if my consent was obtained, to
become his wife. Perhaps he has no very great advantages; yet
considering your situation, which is, you know, entirely dependent, I
really think you do perfectly right in designing to accept of the
establishment he offers you.'
'To become the wife of Maloney!—to accept of the establishment he
offers me! I am humbled, I am lost indeed! No, my Lord! unhappy
as I am, I can claim nothing, it is true; but if the support of an
unfortunate orphan, thrown by Providence into your care, is too
troublesome, suffer me to be myself a servant; and believe I have a
mind, which tho' it will not recoil from any situation where I can earn
my bread by honest labour, is infinitely superior to any advantages
such a man as Maloney can offer me!'
She wept too much to be able to proceed; and sat, overwhelmed
with grief and mortification, while Lord Montreville continued to

speak.
'Why distress yourself in this manner, Miss Mowbray? I cannot see
any thing which ought to offend you, if Maloney has misrepresented
the matter, and if he has not, your extraordinary emotion must look
like a consciousness of having altered your mind.
'Your motive for doing so cannot be mistaken; but let me speak to
you explicitly.—To Mr. Delamere, my son, the heir to a title and
estate which makes him a desirable match for the daughters of the
first houses in the kingdom, you can have no pretensions; therefore
never do yourself so much prejudice as to let your mind glance that
way.
'Maloney tells me he has some property, and still better
expectations. He is established here in an excellent place; and
should he marry you, it shall be still more advantageous. You are (I
am sorry to be obliged to repeat it) without any dependance, but on
my favour. You will therefore do wisely to embrace a situation in
which that favour may be most effectually exerted on your behalf.
'As you have undoubtedly encouraged Maloney, the aversion you
now pretend towards him, is artifice or coquetry. Consider before
you decide, consider thoroughly what is your situation and what
your expectations; and recollect, that as my son now means to be
very frequently at Mowbray Castle, you cannot remain with propriety
but as the wife of Maloney.'
'Neither as the wife of Maloney, nor as Emmeline Mowbray, will I
stay, my Lord, another day!' answered she, assuming more spirit
than she had yet shewn. 'I wished for an interview to entreat your
Lordship would allow me to go to some place less improper for my
abode than Mowbray Castle has long been.'
'And whither would you go, Miss Mowbray?'
'On that, my Lord, I wished to consult you. But since it is perhaps a
matter unworthy your attention; since it seems to signify little what
becomes of me; I must determine to hazard going to Mrs. Watkins's,
who will probably give me an asylum at least 'till I can find some one

who will receive me, or some means of providing for myself the
necessaries of life.'
'You then positively reject the overtures of Maloney?'
'Positively, my Lord—and for ever! I beg it may not be mentioned to
me again!'
'And who is Mrs. Watkins?'
'The sister of Mrs. Carey, my Lord.'
'Where does she live?'
'At Swansea in Glamorganshire; where she is accustomed to take in
boarders. She would, I believe, receive me.'
After a moment's consideration, Lord Montreville said, 'that perhaps
may do, since you absolutely refuse the other plan; I would have
you therefore prepare to go thither; but I must insist on no more
morning interviews with Mr. Delamere, and that whither you are
going may be kept unknown to him. But tell me,' continued he,
'what I am to say to poor Maloney?'
'That you are astonished at his insolence in daring to lift his eyes to
a person bearing the name of Mowbray; and shocked at his
falsehood in presuming to assert that I ever encouraged his
impertinent pretensions!'
This effort of spirit exhausted all the courage Emmeline had been
able to raise. She arose, and attempted to reach the door; but
overcome by the violence of her agitation, was obliged to sit down in
a chair near it.
She could no longer restrain the tears which were extorted from her
by the mortifying scene she had passed through: and her deep
sighs, which seemed ready to burst her heart, excited the
compassion of Lord Montreville; who, where his ambition was not in
question, was not void of humanity. The violent and artless sorrow
of a beautiful young woman, whose fate seemed to be in his power,
affected him.

He took her hand with kindness, and told her 'he was sorry to have
said any thing that appeared harsh.'
His Lordship added, 'that he would have her write to Mrs. Watkins;
that a servant should be sent with the letter; and that on condition
of her concealing her abode from Delamere, she should be supplied
with an annual income equal to all her wants.'
Then hearing Delamere's gun, which he always discharged before he
entered the house, he hastened Emmeline away, desiring she would
remain in her own apartment; where every thing necessary should
be sent to her.
CHAPTER V
Delamere and Fitz-Edward soon after entered the parlour where
Lord Montreville remained. He received his son with a coldness to
which, tho' little accustomed to it, Delamere paid no attention.
Despotic as this beloved son had always been in the family, he felt
not the least apprehension that he had really offended his father; or
feeling it, knew that his displeasure would be so short liv'd that it
was not worth any concern.
'Here, Fitz-Edward,' said he—'here is my father angry with me for
making love to my cousin Emmy. Faith, Sir,' (turning to Lord
Montreville,) 'I think I have the most reason to be angry at being
brought into such dangerous company; tho' your Lordship well
knows how devilishly susceptible I am, and that ever since I was ten
years old I have been dying for some nymph or other.'
'I know that you are a strange inconsiderate boy,' answered Lord
Montreville, very gravely;—'but I must beg, Frederic, to hear no
more idle raillery on the subject of Miss Mowbray.'

To this, Delamere gave some slight answer; and the discourse was
led by his Lordship to some other topic.
Fitz-Edward, who was about five years older than Delamere,
concealed, under the appearance of candour and non-chalance, the
libertinism of his character. He had entered very young into the
army; the younger son of an Irish peer; and had contracted his loose
morals by being thrown too early into the world; for his heart was
not originally bad.
With a very handsome person, he had the most insinuating
manners, and an address so truly that of a man of fashion, as
immediately prejudiced in his favour those by whom he wished to be
thought well of. Where he desired to please, he seldom failed of
pleasing extremely; and his conversation was, in the general
commerce of the world, elegant and attractive.
Delamere was very fond of his company; and Lord Montreville
encouraged the intimacy: for of whatever fashionable vices Fitz-
Edward was guilty, he contrived, by a sort of sentimental hypocrisy,
to prevent their being known to, or at least offensive to those,
whose good opinion it was his interest to cultivate.
Delamere was of a character very opposite. Accustomed from his
infancy to the most boundless indulgences, he never formed a wish,
the gratification of which he expected to be denied: and if such a
disappointment happened, he gave way to an impetuosity of
disposition that he had never been taught to restrain, and which
gave an appearance of ferocity to a temper not otherwise bad.
He was generous, candid, and humane; and possessed many other
good qualities, but the defects of his education had obscured them.
Lady Montreville, who beheld in her only son the last male heir of a
very ancient and illustrious house, and who hoped to see all its
glories revive in him, could never be prevailed upon to part with him.
He had therefore a tutor in the house; and his parents themselves
accompanied him abroad. And the weakness of Lady Montreville in

regard to her son, encreased rather than diminished with his
encreasing years.
Her fondness was gratified in seeing the perfections of his person,
(which was a very fine one) while to the imperfections of his temper
she was entirely blind.
His father was equally fond of him; and looked up to the
accumulated titles and united fortunes of his own and his wife's
families, as the point where all his ambitious views would attain their
consummation.
To watch over the conduct of this only son, seemed now to be the
sole business of his Lordship's life: and 'till now, he had no reason to
fear that his solicitude for his final establishment would be attended
with so little effect. Except a few youthful indiscretions, which were
overlooked or forgiven, Delamere had shewn no inclinations that
seemed inimical to his father's views; and Lord Montreville hoped
that his present passion for Emmeline would be forgotten as easily
as many other transient attachments which his youth, and warmth of
temper, had led him into.
At dinner, Delamere enquired 'whether his charming cousin was
always to remain a prisoner in her own room?'
To which Lord Montreville answered, 'that it had been her custom;
and as there was no lady with them, it was better she should
continue it.'
He then changed the discourse; and contrived to keep Delamere in
sight the whole afternoon; and by that means prevented any further
enquiries after Emmeline; who now, entirely confined to her turret,
impatiently awaited the return of the messenger who had been sent
to Swansea.
Delamere, in the mean time, had lingered frequently about the
housekeeper's room, in hopes of seeing Emmeline; but she never
appeared.

He applied to Mrs. Garnet for intelligence of her: but she had
received orders from Lord Montreville not to satisfy his enquiries. He
employed his servants therefore to discover where she was usually
to be found, and by their means was at length informed in what part
of the castle her apartment lay; and that there was a design actually
on foot to send her away, but whither he could not learn.
The answer brought from Mrs. Watkins, by the man who had been
sent to Swansea, expressed her readiness to take the boarder
offered her.
This intelligence Lord Montreville communicated himself to
Emmeline; who received it with such artless satisfaction, that his
Lordship, who had before doubted whether some degree of coquetry
was not concealed under the apparent ingenuous innocence of his
niece, now believed he had judged too hastily.
It remained to be considered how she could be conveyed from
Mowbray Castle without the knowledge of Delamere. She was
herself ignorant of every thing beyond its walls, and could therefore
be of no use in the consultation. His Lordship had, however,
entrusted Fitz-Edward with his uneasiness about Delamere; at which
the former only laughed; and said he by no means believed that any
serious consequences were to be apprehended: that it was mere
badinage; of which he was sure Delamere would think no more after
they left Mowbray Castle; and that it was not a matter which his
Lordship should allow to make him uneasy.
Lord Montreville however, who thought he could not too soon
remedy his own indiscretion in introducing Emmeline to his son,
determined to embrace the opportunity of putting an end to any
future correspondence between them: he therefore insisted on a
promise of secresy from Fitz-Edward; and had recourse to Headly,
who from a frequent residence among the great was the most
accommodating and obsequious of their servants.
As he was about to leave the castle in a few days, he offered his
services to convey Miss Mowbray from thence, in a chaise of which

he was master. This proposal was eagerly accepted by Lord
Montreville. And enjoining Mr. Headly also to secresy, it was fixed
that their journey should begin the next morning save one.
Emmeline had notice of this arrangement, which she received with
the liveliest joy. She immediately set about such preparations as
were necessary for her journey, in which she employed that and the
remaining day; which had been destined by Lord Montreville to visit
another estate that he possessed, at the distance of about twelve
miles; whither Delamere and the whole party accompanied him.
Delamere had discovered, by his servants, that to remove Emmeline
was in agitation; and he determined to see her again in spite of his
father's precaution (which in fact only served to encrease his desire
of declaring his sentiments); but he had no idea that she was to
depart so soon, and therefore was content to go with his father, at
his particular request.
It was late in the evening preceding that on which Emmeline was to
leave the castle, before they returned to it; and she was still busied
in providing for her journey; in doing which, she was obliged to open
one of the caskets left her by Mrs. Carey. It contained miniatures of
her father and her mother, which had been drawn at Paris before her
birth; and several letters written by Mrs. Mowbray, her grandmother,
to her mother, in consequence of the fatal step she had taken in
quitting the protection of that lady, who had brought her up, to
accompany Mr. Mowbray abroad.
These, Emmeline had never yet seen; nor had she now courage
entirely to peruse them. The little she read, however, filled her heart
with the most painful sensations and her eyes with tears.
While she was employed in her little arrangements, time passed
insensibly away. She heard the hollow sound of shutting the great
doors at the other end of the castle, as was usual before the
servants retired for the night: but attentive only to what was at
present her greatest concern, (making room for some favourite

books in the box she meant to take with her,) she heeded not the
hour.
A total silence had long reigned in the castle, and her almost
extinguished candle told her it was time to take some repose, when,
as she was preparing to do so, she thought she heard a rustling, and
indistinct footsteps in the passage near her room.
She started—listened—but all was again profoundly silent; and she
supposed it had been only one of those unaccountable noises which
she had been used to hear along the dreary avenues of the castle.
She began anew to unpin her hair, when a second time the same
noise in the passage alarmed her. She listened again; and while she
continued attentive, the great clock struck two.
Amazed to find it so late, her terror encreased; yet she endeavoured
to reason herself out of it, and to believe that it was the effect of
fancy: she heard it no more; and had almost determined to go out
into the passage to satisfy herself that her fears were groundless,
when just as she approached the door, the whispers were renewed;
she saw the lock move, and heard a violent push against it.
The door, however, was locked. Which was no sooner perceived by
the assailant, than a violent effort with his foot forced the rusty
decayed work to give way, and Mr. Delamere burst into the room!
Emmeline was infinitely too much terrified to speak: nor could her
trembling limbs support her. She sat down;—the colour forsook her
cheeks;—and she was not sensible that Delamere had thrown
himself at her feet, and was pouring forth the most vehement and
incoherent expressions that frantic passion could dictate.
Recovering her recollection, she beheld Delamere kneeling before
her, holding her hands in his; and Millefleur standing behind him
with a candle. She attempted to speak; but the words died away on
her lips: while Delamere, shocked at the situation into which he had
thrown her, protested that he meant her not the smallest offence;
but that having learnt, by means of his valet, that she was to go the
next morning, and that his father intended to keep him ignorant of

her future destiny, he could not bear to reflect that he might lose her
for ever; and had therefore taken the only means in his power to
speak to her, in hopes of engaging her pity, for which he would
hazard every thing.
'Leave me, Sir! leave me!' said Emmeline, in a voice scarcely
articulate. 'Leave me instantly, or I will alarm the house!'
'That is almost impossible!' replied Delamere; 'but I will not terrify
you more than I have done already. No, Emmeline, I wish not to
alarm you, and will quit you instantly if you will tell me that
wheresoever you are, you will permit me to see you; and will
remember me with pity and regard! My father shall not—cannot
controul my conduct; nor shall all the power on earth prevent my
following you, if you will yourself permit me. Tell me, Emmeline,—tell
me you will not forget me!'
'As what, Sir, should I remember you, but as my persecutor? as one
who has injured me beyond reparation by your wild and cruel
conduct; and who has now dared to insult me by a most
unparallelled outrage.—Leave me, Sir! I repeat to you that you must
instantly quit the room!'
She arose, and walked with tottering steps to the end of it.
Delamere followed her. She turned; and came towards the door,
which was still open, and then recollected, that as she knew the
passages of the castle, which she was convinced neither Delamere
or his servant did, she might possibly escape, and find Lord
Montreville's room, which she knew to be at the end of the East
gallery.
Delamere was a few steps behind her when she reached the door;
which hastily throwing quite open, she ran lightly thro' the passage,
which was very long and dark.
He pursued her, imploring her to hear him but a moment; and the
Frenchman as hastily followed his master with the candle. But at the
end of the passage, a flight of broken steps led to a brick hall, which
opened to other stair-cases and galleries.

A gust of wind blew out the candle; and Emmeline, gliding down the
steps, turned to the right, and opening a heavy nailed door, which
led by a narrow stairs to the East gallery, she let it fall after her.
Delamere, now in total darkness, tried in vain to follow the sound.
He listened—but no longer heard the footsteps of the trembling
fugitive; and cursing his fate, and the stupidity of Millefleur, he
endeavoured to find his way back to Emmeline's room, where he
thought a candle was still burning. But his attempt was vain. He
walked round the hall only to puzzle himself; for the door by which
he had entered it, he could not regain.
In the mean time Emmeline, breathless with fear, had reached the
gallery, and feeling her way 'till she came as she supposed to the
door of the room where Lord Montreville slept, she tapped lightly at
it.
A man's voice asked who it was?
'It is I, my Lord,' cried Emmeline, hardly able to make herself heard.
—'Mr. Delamere pursues me.'
Somebody opened the door.—But there was no light; and Emmeline
retiring a step from it, the person again asked who it was?
'It is Emmeline,' replied she; who now first recollected that the voice
was not that of Lord Montreville.—She flew therefore towards the
next door, with exclamations of encreased terror; but Lord
Montreville, who was now awakened, appeared at it with a lamp in
his hand; and Emmeline, in answer to his question of what is the
matter? endeavoured to say that she was pursued by Mr. Delamere;
but fear had so entirely overcome her, that she could only sigh out
his name; and gasping like a dying person, sat down on a bench
which was near the door.
Fitz-Edward, who was the person she had first spoken to, had by
this time dressed himself, and came to her with a glass of water out
of his room; while Lord Montreville, hearing his son's name so
inarticulately pronounced, and seeing the speechless affright in

which Emmeline sat before him, conceived the most alarming
apprehensions, and believed that his son was either dead or dying.
With great difficulty he summoned up courage enough, again to beg
for heaven's sake she would tell him what had occasioned her to
leave her room at such an hour?
She again exclaimed, 'it is Mr. Delamere, my Lord!'
'What of Mr. Delamere?—what of my son?' cried he, with infinite
agitation.
'Save me from him my Lord!' answered Emmeline, a little recovered
by the water she had drank.
'Where is he then?' said his Lordship.
'I know not,' replied Emmeline; 'but he came to my room with his
servant, and I flew hither to implore your protection.'
Fitz-Edward intreated Lord Montreville to be more calm, and to give
Miss Mowbray time to recollect herself. He offered to go in search of
Delamere; but his Lordship was in too much anxiety to be satisfied
with any enquiries but his own.
He therefore said he would go down himself; but Emmeline catching
his hand, entreated him not to leave her.
At this moment the voices of Delamere and his man were heard
echoing through the whole side of the castle; for wearied with their
fruitless attempts to escape, they both called for lights in no very
gentle tone.
Lord Montreville easily distinguished from whence the noise came;
and followed by Emmeline, whom Fitz-Edward supported, he
descended into the brick hall from whence Emmeline had effected
her escape, where he found Delamere trembling with passion, and
Millefleur with fear.
Lord Montreville could not conceal his anger and resentment. —

'How comes it, Sir,' cried he, addressing himself to his son, 'that you
dare thus to insult a person who is under my protection? What
excess of madness and folly has tempted you to violate the
retirement of Miss Mowbray?'
'I mean not, my Lord,' answered Delamere, 'to attempt a
concealment of my sentiments. I love Miss Mowbray; passionately
love her; and scorn to dissimulate. I know you had a design to send
her from hence; clandestinely to send her; and I determined that
she should not go 'till I had declared my attachment to her, which I
found you endeavoured assiduously to prevent. You may certainly
remove her from hence; but I protest to you, that wherever she is,
there I will endeavour to see her, in spite of the universe.'
Lord Montreville now felt all the force of the error he had committed
in that boundless indulgence to which he had accustomed his son. In
the first instance of any consequence in which their wishes differed,
he saw him ready to throw off the restraint of paternal authority, and
daring to avow his resolution to act as he pleased.
This mortifying reflection arose in his mind, while, with a look of
mingled anger and amazement, he beheld Delamere, who having
ordered Millefleur to light his candle, snatched it from him, and
hastily retired.
Emmeline, who had stood trembling the whole time behind Lord
Montreville, besought him to ring up the housekeeper, and direct her
to stay with her for the rest of the night; for she declared she would
on no account remain in her own room alone.
His Lordship recommending her to the care of Fitz-Edward, went
himself in search of the housekeeper; and Emmeline refusing to seek
a more commodious apartment, sat down in one of the windows of
the hall to wait his return.
Fitz-Edward, to whom she had yet hardly spoken, now entertained
her with a profusion of compliments, almost as warm as those she
had heard from Delamere; but her spirits, quite exhausted by the
terror which had so lately possessed them, could no longer support

her; she was unable to give an answer of common civility, and was
very glad to see Lord Montreville return with Mrs. Garnet; who,
extremely discomposed at being disturbed and obliged to appear in
her nightcap, followed her, grumbling, into her room; where, as
Emmeline refused to go to it herself, she took possession of her bed,
and soon falling into a profound sleep, left its melancholy owner to
her sad reflections.
She had not been many minutes indulging them, and wishing for the
return of light, before somebody was again at the door. Emmeline
still apprehending Delamere, stepped to it; and was astonished to
see Lord Montreville himself.
He entered the room; and told her, that as his son knew of her
journey in the morning, he would probably try some means to
prevent it, or at least to trace out her abode; that it was therefore
absolutely necessary for her to be ready by day break or before, for
which he had prepared Mr. Headly; who was up, and getting ready
to set out as soon as there was light enough to make it safe.
Emmeline, who thought she could not be gone too soon, now hastily
finished the remainder of her packing; and having dressed herself
for her journey, which notwithstanding her sleepless night she
rejoiced to find so near, she waited with impatience 'till Mr. Headly
summoned her to go.
CHAPTER VI
The sun no sooner appeared above the horizon, than her conductor
was ready with his one-horse chair: and Emmeline being seated in it,
and her little baggage adjusted, she left the door of the castle;
where Maloney, who saw his favourite hopes vanish as he feared for
ever, stood with a rueful countenance to behold her departure.

However desirous she was of quitting a residence which had long
been uneasy to her, and which was now become so extremely
improper, such is the force of early habit, that she could not bid it
adieu without being greatly affected.
There she had passed her earliest infancy, and had known, in that
period of unconscious happiness, many delightful hours which would
return no more.
It was endeared to her by the memory of that good friend who had
supplied to her the place of a parent; from whom alone she had ever
heard the soothing voice of maternal solicitude. And as she passed
by the village church, which had been formerly the chapel of the
monastery, and joined the castle walls, she turned her eyes, filled
with tears, towards the spot where the remains of Mrs. Carey were
deposited, and sighed deeply; a thousand tender and painful
recollections crouding on her heart.
As she left the village, several women and children, who had heard
she was going that day, were already waiting to bid her farewell;
considering her as the last of that family, by whom they had been
employed when in health, and relieved when in sickness; they
lamented her departure as their greatest misfortune.
The present possessor of the castle bore not the name of Mowbray,
and was not at all interested for the peasantry, among whom he was
a stranger; they therefore, in losing Emmeline, seemed to lose the
last of the race of their ancient benefactors.
Emmeline, affected by their simple expressions of regret, returned
their good wishes with tears; and as soon as the chaise drove out of
the village, again fixed her eyes on the habitation she had quitted.
Its venerable towers rising above the wood in which it was almost
embosomed, made one of the most magnificent features of a
landscape, which now appeared in sight.
The road lay along the side of what would in England be called a
mountain; at its feet rolled the rapid stream that washed the castle
walls, foaming over fragments of rock; and bounded by a wood of

oak and pine; among which the ruins of the monastery, once an
appendage to the castle, reared its broken arches; and marked by
grey and mouldering walls, and mounds covered with slight
vegetation, it was traced to its connection with the castle itself, still
frowning in gothic magnificence; and stretching over several acres of
ground: the citadel, which was totally in ruins and covered with ivy,
crowning the whole. Farther to the West, beyond a bold and rocky
shore, appeared the sea; and to the East, a chain of mountains
which seemed to meet the clouds; while on the other side, a rich
and beautiful vale, now variegated with the mellowed tints of the
declining year, spread its enclosures, 'till it was lost again among the
blue and barren hills.
Headly declaimed eloquently on the charms of the prospect, which
gradually unveiled itself as the autumnal mist disappeared. But
Emmeline, tho' ever alive to the beauties of nature, was too much
occupied by her own melancholy reflections to attend to the
animadversions of her companion.
She saw nothing but the castle, of which she believed she was now
taking an eternal adieu; and her looks were fixed on it, 'till the road
winding down the hill on the other side, concealed it from her sight.
Headly imputed her sadness to a very different cause than that of an
early and long attachment to a particular spot. He supposed that
regret at being obliged to leave Delamere, to whose passion he
could not believe her insensible, occasioned the melancholy that
overwhelmed her. He spoke to her of him, and affected to lament
the uneasiness which so violent and ungovernable a temper in an
only son, might occasion to his family. He then talked of the two
young ladies, his sisters, whom he described as the finest young
women in the country, and as highly accomplished. Emmeline sighed
at the comparison between their situation and her own.
After some hours travelling through roads which made it very
fatigueing, they arrived at a little obscure house of entertainment,
and after some refreshment, continued their journey unmolested.

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A Grammar Of Kharia A South Munda Language 1st Edition John Peterson

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A Grammar Of Kharia A South Munda Language 1st Edition John Peterson

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